CHAPTER 3

OPERATION

3.1. Overall Block Diagram of Automatic Pneumatic Bumper

Figure 3.1. Overall Block Diagram of Automatic Pneumatic Bumper

The ultrasonic sensor placed on the vehicle detects the obstacle and sends the
signal to the control unit. Therefore, the distance between the vehicle and the obstacle
is measured through the control unit. The control unit also operates the relay
according to the input signals provided to the control unit. The control circuit is used
to activate the solenoid valve. The operating principle of solenoid valve is already
explained in the above chapter. If the solenoid valve is activated, the compressed air
passes to the double acting pneumatic cylinder. The compressed air-activate the
pneumatic cylinder and moves the piston rod.
 If the piston moves forward, then the breaking arrangement activated. The
breaking arrangement is used to break the wheel gradually or suddenly due to the
piston movement. The breaking speed is varied by adjusting the valve is called flow
control valve.
In our project, we have to apply this arrangement in one wheel as a model.
The compressed air drawn from the compressor in our project. The compressed air
flow through the polyurethene tube to the flow control valve. The flow control valve
is connected to the solenoid valve as mentioned in the block diagram.

3.2. Double-acting Pneumatic Cylinders Working Principle

Double-acting pneumatic cylinders are the most common type since they give
the user complete control of the piston movement. When looking for a device to move
load in both directions, double acting cylinders are a useful application when your
machine requires more than one movement. Unlike single acting air cylinders, double
acting cylinders can extend and retract without the need of a spring. Instead of
applying pressurized air into one port, double acting cylinders have two ports where
air can enter in and out.
Figure 3.1. shows how the piston and piston rod move when compressed air
enters the cap-end port and the rod-end port. A negative position is when the piston
rod is retracted, and a positive position is when the piston rod is extended. When
compressed air enters the cap-end port, it pushes the piston forward (positively),
extending the piston rod (shown in Figure 3 A). Air is forced out of the rod-end port.
To retract the piston rod, compressed air enters the rod-end port, forcing air out of the
cap-end port, and forcing the piston to retract to the negative position (shown in
Figure 3 B).

Figure 3.2. Double-acting Cylinder Working Principle

 Air enters through one port moving the piston forward and then applies
pressurized air into the other port retracting the piston back into the cylinder. Double
acting cylinders are the most widely used pneumatic actuators compared to single
acting cylinders given their ability to extend and retract within a shorter time period,
thus, becoming more efficient and precise.
Double-acting pneumatic cylinders allow the user full control, longer piston
stroke length, and a constant output force through the entire stroke. They can also
operate at higher cycling rates. However, a double-acting cylinder should not be used
if the application requires a base position during fail-safe scenarios encase there is a
loss in compressed air. Since they use compressed air for both directions, they also
use more energy.

3.2.1. Advantages of Double Acting Cylinder

 More control over movement since pressurized air moves both ways.
 Faster, stronger and use less energy.
 Offer more design variation: stroke and bore sizes.
 Many double-acting pneumatic cylinders are ISO compliant as opposed to
single pneumatic cylinders.

3.2.2. Disadvantages of Double Acting Cylinder

 More costly than single pneumatic cylinders.
 Requires bigger housing - if used as a feed cylinder it needs to be coupled with
another machine system.
 In certain situations, air consumption may be calculated at different rates.

3.3. Pneumatic flow control valve working principle

The main task of the pneumatic distributor is to change the cross-section in the
pneumatic pipeline, which allows adjusting and directing the flow. As mentioned
above, this action is performed by the locking and regulating elements. There are two
types of section changes: discrete (on / off) or smoothly continuous (with adjustable
parameters).
This purpose divides the equipment into two main structural types:
  Piston Valves- are designed for discrete flow control. This type of control
provides quick isolation between the channels. It is the most suitable for small
systems with simple tasks. The valve seat moves along the flow line. Such
design usually has only 2-3 outputs.

Figure 3.3. Piston Valve

 Sliding Spool Valves- are designed to make more complex flow control
operations. That equipment can be used in cross-sections with a high flow rate
and a complicated circuit. Spool valves can work in systems with 4-5 working
lines, as well as in simpler circuits, due to their versatility. The spool moves
perpendicular to the flow axis.

Figure 3.4. Sliding Spool Valve

3.4. Ultrasonic Sensor Working Principle

 HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor measures distance by using inaudible ultrasonic
sound waves of 40KHz frequency. Like sound waves, ultrasonic waves travel through
the air and if there is any obstacle in front of them, they reflect according to their
angle of incidence. Moreover, if an object is placed parallel to an ultrasonic
transmitter, ultrasonic waves reflect exactly at an angle of 180 degrees. Therefore, for
distance measurement with HC-SR05 sensor, we place the object under test exactly in
a parallel position with an ultrasonic sensor as shown in the figure below.
HC-SR05 ultrasonic sensor consists of two basic modules such as ultrasonic
transmitter and ultrasonic receiver module. The transmitter circuit converts an
electrical signal into a 40KHz burst of 8 sonar wave pulses. The input electrical signal
to the transmitter circuit is 10µs pulse input to the trigger pin of the HC-SR04 sensor.
As we mentioned earlier, we apply this trigger input signal through ESP8266 Node
MCU or any microcontroller. On the other hand, the ultrasonic receiver circuit listens
to these ultrasonic waves which are produced by the transmitter circuit.

Figure 3.5. Ultrasonic Sensor Working Principle

 To start ranging with HC-SR04, first, we apply 10µs pulse to the trigger pin of
the HC-SR04 sensor from the ESP8266 NodeMCU digital output pin.
  As soon as 10µs input trigger signal becomes active low, the transmitter
circuit produces a burst of 8 ultrasonic sonar pulses. At the same time, the
Echo pin also makes a transition from a logic low level to a logic high level.
 When the Echo pin goes high, start to measure time with the ESP8266
NodeMCU duration measurement function.
 These waves travel through the air and if there is any object placed in parallel
to the sensor, these waves reflect back after a collision with the object.
 As soon as the ultrasonic waves received by the receiver circuit after striking
with an object, the echo pin goes low. ESP8266 NodeMCU detects this
transition of echo output signal from active high to an active low level and
stops the measurement.

3.5. Pin Out Function of LCD

The 16×2 LCD pinout is shown below.
 Pin One (Ground/Source Pin): This is a GND pin of display, used to connect
the GND terminal of the microcontroller unit or power source.
 Pin Two (Vcc/Source Pin): This is the voltage supply pin of the display, used
to connect the supply pin of the power source.
 Pin Three (VO/Er/Control Pin): This pin regulates the difference of the
display, used to connect a changeable POT that can supply zero to five volts.
 Pin Four (Register Select/Control Pin): This pin toggles among command or
data register, used to connect a microcontroller unit pin and obtains either zero
or one (zero = data mode, and one= command mode).
 Pin Five (Read/Write/Control Pin): This pin toggles the display among the
read or writes operation, and it is connected to a microcontroller unit pin to get
either zero or one (zero = Write Operation, and one = Read Operation).
 Pin Six (Enable/Control Pin): This pin should be held high to execute
Read/Write process, and it is connected to the microcontroller unit and
constantly held high.
 Pins Seven -Fourteen (Data Pins): These pins are used to send data to the
display.
These pins are connected in two-wire modes like four-wire mode and eight-
wire mode. In four-wire mode, only four pins are connected to the microcontroller
unit like zero to three, whereas in eight-wire mode, eight-pins are connected to
microcontroller unit like zero to seven.
 pin 15 (+Ve pin of the LED): This pin is connected to 5V.
 pin 16 (-Ve pin of the LED): This pin is connected to GND.
R/W (Read/Write):
R/W = Zero is to write commands or character the LCD
R/W = One is to read character or status information from its register.
 E (Enable): At high to low transition, data is transferred when write to the
display. At low to high transition, data is read from the display.
 DO to D7 (Data Bus): Data is transferred to and from the display, either as a
single eight-bit bytes or as two four-bit nibbles. In the latter case upper four
data. lines (D4-D7) are used.

Figure 3.6. Pin Diagram of Sixteen Characters and Two Lines LCD

3.6. Arduino Uno Working Principle

The Arduino is a board based on an ATMEL AVR microcontroller.
Microcontrollers are integrated circuits where instructions can be recorded, which
write with the programming language that you can use in the Arduino IDE
environment. These instructions allow you to create programs that interact with the
circuitry on the board. The most used microcontrollers on Arduino platforms are the
Atmega168, Atmega328, Atmega1280, ATmega8 for their simplicity, but it is being
expanded to Atmel microcontrollers with 32-bit ARM architecture and also to Intel
microcontrollers.
The Arduino microcontroller has communication ports and input / output
ports. with which we can connect different types of peripherals on the board. The
information of these peripherals that you connect will be transferred to the
microcontroller, which will be in charge of processing the data that comes through
them.
On the other hand, Arduino provides us with software consisting of a
development environment (IDE) that implements the Arduino programming language,
the tools to transfer the firmware to the microcontroller and the bootloader executed
on the board. The main feature of the software and the programming language is its
simplicity and ease of use.
Arduino promises to be a simple way to carry out interactive projects for
anyone. For someone who wants to do a project, the process is to download and
install the IDE, search the internet a bit and simply “cut and paste” the code that
interests us and upload it to our HW.

Figure 3.7. Arduino Uno Working Principle

3.6.1. Programming
This chapter deals with installing Arduino IDE in windows, another operating
system may differ. It’s pretty straightforward to install Arduino IDE on a windows
machine. Firstly, Download the IDE start by visiting the Arduino’s software page.
https://www.arduino.cc/en/Main/Software) The Arduino IDE is available almost all
the operating system including Linux, Mac OS, and window, make sure to download
the right flavor of IDE that suitable to your operating system. If you are using an
earlier version like windows 7 or older operating system, do not download the
windows app version, as this needs Windows 8.1 or later.

Figure 3.8. Introduction Arduino IDE Software

Once you downloaded the Arduino IDE, go ahead and install the IDE, enable
all the options during installation, including libraries and any USB drivers and make
sure to read the EULA.

3.6.2. Arduino IDE

The Arduino IDE is a great tool provides a complete environment for all the
Arduino-based projects. The IDE looks very minimalistic, but it provides all the
necessary library and function to make any complicated Arduino projects. The top
menu bar has standard options like File, Edit, Tools, Sketch, Help.

The middle section of the Arduino IDE is like a text editor where all the
programming coding is done here. The bottom section of the IDE called as Output
console, that is used to see the status of the compilation, any errors in the program,
how much memory has been used, and various useful messages are displayed in the
console.
Projects made using Arduino IDE are called as sketches, and these sketches
are usually written in a short version of C++ (many features of C++ is not included in
the Arduino IDE). Arduino hardware like – reading a pin, writing to a pin, reading
analog values and other hardware specific functions.

Most projects in Arduino relay on these 6 buttons found below the menu bar.
 1. The Tick mark icon is used to verify your Arduino Sketch. When you are done
with your Arduino Program, you can click this once to verify the code you
have written.
2. The Right arrow transfers the code to the Arduino.
3. The dotted paper icon will create a new file.
4. The upward arrow icon is used to open an existing Arduino sketch.
5. The downward arrow icon is used to save the current Arduino Sketch.
6. The far-right button looks like a zoom glass is a serial monitor, which is very
handy for sending and receiving data from the Arduino to the PC for
debugging purposes.

3.6.3. How to Install Arduino Libraries

The Arduino IDE comes with several libraries inbuilt during the time of
installation that can be used to do many projects, but, sometimes, specialized or new
type of sensors requires special library functions that needed to be installed on the
Arduino IDE, we will learn how to install extra libraries for our project in this
chapter.
There are three different ways available in practical to install an Arduino
Library:
1. Manually installing the files
2. Installing using the library manager
3. Importing to Arduino using the zip file
The second and third option can be done using Arduino menu options. However,
for manual installation, you have to locate the library’s files and place\ them inside
the Arduino “libraries” folder.

3.6.4. Installing using Library Manager

 This method is straightforward, unlike the previous method you don’t have to

move away from your Arduino IDE to complete the task. The library manager can be
loaded by navigating to Sketch => Include Library => Manage Libraries.

Figure 3.9. Installing using Library Manager

3.7. Working Principle of Solenoid Valve

The heart of a pneumatic solenoid valve is the solenoid. A solenoid is an
electromagnetic actuator that converts electrical energy into mechanical action. It
consists of a coiled wire tightly wrapped around an iron core and a ferromagnetic plug
or plunger. As an electrical current passes through the coil, a magnetic field is
generated. The magnetic field lines can be imagined as a series of circles with the
direction of their current axis. In the case of a current flowing through a looped coil,
the circles combine, forming the magnetic field.
 Figure 3.10. Working Principle of Solenoid Valve

3.7.1. Types of Solenoid Valve Working Principles

 Direct-acting: With this type of solenoid valve, the static pressure forces
increase as the orifice size increases. The increase in static pressure requires a
stronger solenoid action; thus, a stronger magnetic field. This means for a
given fluid pressure, larger flow rates require larger solenoids. The fluid
pressure and flow rate then becomes directly proportional to the required size
of the solenoid. This type of solenoid valve is usually used for applications
with small flow rates and operating pressures.

Figure 3.11. Direct-acting Solenoid Valve Working Principle

 Internally Piloted: For high flow rate and high-pressure applications, internally
piloted solenoid valves are used. In this type of valve, pressure across the
valve opens or closes the valve. To achieve this, an orifice or an equalizing
hole is installed. The usual design involves the core blocking flow on the
orifice. When the valve is closed, the fluid passes through the orifice and
pressure builds up on both sides of the diaphragm. As long as fluid flow is
 blocked, a shut-off force is created due to the larger effective area on top of
the diaphragm. When the valve is opened, the core opens the orifice and
pressure is relieved from the top of the diaphragm. The line pressure then
opens the valve.

Figure 3.12. Internally Piloted Solenoid Valve Working Principle

 Externally Piloted: This type of valve applies the same concept from internally
piloted valves, but the pressure used to actuate the valve comes from a fluid
from an external source. A separate fluid circuit is integrated to the valve
through an extra port. Both the internal and external piloted solenoid valves
are called indirect or servo-assisted valves where the main actuating force
comes for the differential pressure between upstream and downstream of the
valve.
Semi-direct Acting: Semi-direct acting combines the principles of direct and
indirect acting valves. Aside from the magnetic force from the solenoid, pressure
differential across the valve assists in opening or closing the valve. When the
plunger is actuated, the diaphragm is lifted to open the valve. At the same time, an
orifice is opened causing pressure to be relieved on top of the diaphragm. Closing
this orifice by the plunger creates a larger pressure on top of the diaphragm
closing the valve.
3.8. Dual-Channel Relay Module Working Principle
The relay has two outputs-normally open and normally closed (NO and NC).
When the IN1 or IN2 pin is connected to ground, NO will be open and NC will be
closed, and when IN1 or IN2 is not connected to ground the opposite occurs.
Connecting a circuit or device between one of these two pins, the common pin on the
relay output, and a power source will allow you to toggle power to a circuit or device.
 Connect an LED and 220ohm resistor in series between the NO pin (the right
pin) on the terminal block on one of the relays and ground, then connect a 5V
power source to the common pin (the left pin) on one of the relays. Nothing
will happen (yet).
 Next connect a toggle switch or button between ground and one of the middle
two pins on the header strip on the relay module. The middle-left one
corresponds to the left relay, and the middle-right one corresponds to the right
relay. Connect the rightmost pin to 5V and the leftmost pin to ground.
 When the switch is flipped or the button is pressed, either IN1 or IN2 will
become connected to ground. The relay should make a loud click and the LED
should turn on. A microcontroller can also be used to control IN1 and/or IN2
and cause the relay to trip.

Figure 3.13. Dual-Channel Relay Module Working Principle

3.9. Power Supply

 A 12VDC power supply is a device that supplies electrical energy to a load. In
other words, a power supply's primary purpose is converting electric current from the
source into the required voltage, frequency, and current, which powers the load. The
12V DC power supplies fall into two categories, there are 12V regulated power
supplies and 12V unregulated power supplies.
In addition, the 12V regulated power supply has three subgroups:
 Switching regulator AC to DC
 Linear regulator AC to DC
 Switching regulator DC to DC

Figure 3.14. 12V DC Power Supply

3.10. Air Tank Working Principle

Air compressors work by forcing atmospheric air under pressure to create
potential energy that can be stored in a tank for later use. Just like an open balloon,
the pressure builds up when the compressed air is deliberately released, converting the
potential energy into usable kinetic energy. From there, this energy transfer can be
harnessed to power various pneumatic tools.

Industrial air compressors work similarly to combustion engines. Generally,

air compressor operation requires a pump cylinder, piston and crankshaft to transfer
energy for a wide variety of tasks. These basic components can help supply air for
filling up objects like tires or inflatable pool toys, or they can supply power for
operating tools such as drills, nail guns, grinders, sanders and spray guns.
 Figure 3.15. Air Tank

From impact wrenches to AC units, many versatile air-powered tools and

machines are responsible for the comfort, shelter, automation and efficiency of
everyday life. The compressors themselves are more compact and lightweight than
other centralized power sources. They are also long-lasting, require less maintenance
and are easier to move than other old-fashioned machinery.

3.9. Summary
In this chapter, the operation of components and overall working principle are
described. And, about Arduino program are explained. The tests and results of this
system will be described in the next chapter.