Quantitative Research

QUANTITATIVE METHODS AND PROCESSES
FOR APPLIED LINGUISTICS RESEARCH
UNIDAD 2
The Method with a Quantitative Approach
Autor: M.Sc. Gina Leonor Santana Cedeño

0
ÍNDICE
1. Unidad 2: The Method with a survApproach.......................................................3
Tema 1: Variable in Quantitative Research..................................................................3
Objetivo.........................................................................................................................3
Introducción:.................................................................................................................3
2. Información de los subtemas..............................................................................4
2.1 Subtema 1: Variables and measurement............................................................4
2.2 Subtema 2: Definitions, concepts and operationalization..................................7
2.3 Subtema 3: Independent and dependent variables..........................................12
2.4 Subtema 4: Causality and latent variables.......................................................15
3. Preguntas de Comprensión de la Unidad...........................................................17
4. Material Complementario.................................................................................18
5. Bibliografía........................................................................................................19
2
Generalities. Epistemological foundations of quantitative linguistic research
1. Unidad 2: The Method with a

Quantitative Approach
Tema 1: Variable in Quantitative Research
Objetivo:
Identify the main parts of quantitative research.
Introducción:
Quantitative research focuses on the collection of numerical data and its generalization
across a population, or to present a hypothesis about a particular phenomenon. Due to
Quantitative research intends to develop and employ mathematical models, theories,
and hypotheses pertaining to phenomena, it applies statistics, percentages, etc. in
order to determine the relationship between an independent variable and a
dependent variable within a population
Quantitative research is objective, it aims at classifying features, labeling them,

counting them, and constructing statistical models in order to try to explain what is
observed.
Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI
3
2. Informacio´ n de los subtemas

2.1 Subtema 1: Variables and measurement
Fig. 1: Formula
Variables are given extra prominence in Quantitative research since the main goal of
quantitative research is to analyze the relationship between two or more variables.
Researchers need to identify the key variables right after the research topic is selected,
so as to have a better idea of what variables would fit best in the study proposed.
In a classical definition, a variable represents a concept or an item whose magnitude

can be represented by a number, that is measured quantitatively. Opposite to a
constant which has a value that does not change and is unchangeable, a variable is a
characteristic, number, or quantity that increases or decreases over time or takes
different values in different situations, making it suitable for summary measures and
analysis (Armitage & Berry, 1987; Machin et al., 2007; Sundaram et al., 2014).
In summary, a variable can be considered as a quantity which assumes a variety of

values in a particular problem, for example in an equation: 3x x 5> 0, x is the variable.
Variables have two or more observable forms or values.
Fig. 2: Variable
4
In social science research, variables need to be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. In

scientific research, variables are properties or characteristics of the concept, that can
be observed and measured, such as performance at school, and they are supposed to
change from one individual to another in a population; for example, in a population of
fifteen people, we are going to get several different values for the variable ‘birth date’.
Linguistic variables also work with the same principle, let’s say that in a study, we
might be interested in the number of noun phrases (NP) used in a sentence in a test of
100 sentences, and the variable “number of NP’s” can -in theory- have an indefinite
number of values:
‘Mary was young’ contains 1 NP (‘Mary’).
‘Mary had a little lamb’ contains 2 NPs (‘Mary’ and ‘a little lamb’)
‘Mary lived in a big farm with her mother, and some animals’ contains 4
NPs: ‘Mary’, ‘a big farm’, ‘her mother’, ‘some animals’.
After understanding the concept of variable, it is important to analyze the concept of

measurement, which is the process of assigning labels to categories of variables which
carry different properties, using predefined criteria. As stated by Babbie (1989 p. 105),
“If it exists, it can be measured.”
In any case, a more common definition for measurement is to give an object or person
in a predefined category, such as size, height, weight, age, and so on, using the
appropriate values: centimeters, pounds or ounces, years, etc.
Definitely, at the moment the categories of objects are assigned they need to be well
delineated and unalterable during the process of measurement, for example if the
research refers to an object’s size in centimeters, it will remain like that during the
whole process, and the area of a centimeter cannot vary by any means.
Additionally, the design of the tools used should measure all our cases satisfactorily.
For example, when measuring humans biologically, there are only two acceptable
options under the category of ‘gender’; in spite of that, in the case of other species we
would need to adjust our measuring tool accordingly.
5
To conclude, the main ideas presented before:
 A central idea in research.
 Variable is a concept that varies.
 Anything (concept/term) that can take on differing or varying values.
 Variation can be appear in either amount or type.

6
2.2 Subtema 2: Definitions, concepts and

operationalization
Fig. 3: Research cycle
Human behavior is frequently predictable. The challenge for researchers is to reveal

the patterns that support such behavior. Social scientists analyze human behavior by
examining the relationships between variables, in different fields, such as
physiological, psychological, linguistic, relational, social, and cultural influences or
consequences that affect behavior.
Bulmer (1984, p. 43) stated, concepts “are categories for the organization of ideas and
observations. Also, Bryman (2012, p. 163) proposes that “concepts are the building
blocks of theory and represent the points around which social research is conducted.”
Concepts as well as variables are mental images that we bring out from an
accumulation of connected observation or ideas (Neuman, 2013).
Concepts are highly subjective and cannot be measured unless they are
operationalized while variables can be measured on one of the statistical scales.
Moreover, we can assume that concepts are general or abstract ideas that express the
social and/or economic phenomena to be studied. They are the subjects of inquiry and
analysis that are of interest to users.
7
Fig. 4: Concept diagram
All variables have two components, a statistical unit and a property. In order to use a
concept in your study, it is necessary to consider its operationalization, how will it be
measured? Regularly, to operationalize a concept is best first to go through the process
of identifying indicators -a set of criteria reflected of the concept – which can after be
converted into variables. In order to construct concepts, researchers need to make
sure they make sense (Rasinger, 2013). The author also adds “A concept can only be
described by definitions and terms that are already known and measurable” (p. 20).
CONCEPT VARIABLE
Effectiveness Sex (male, female)
Satisfaction Income, belongings
Impact Age
Quality Weight
Self esteem Height

Table 1
As an example, let’s use the concept ‘wealth’ which can be simply converted to
indicators and then variables: To identify whether a person is ‘wealthy’, an observer
needs to objectively decide upon the indicators of wealth: income and assets. Income
will be the variable as it can be measured in dollars, and assets belong to the category
of concepts, we only need to assign indicators of assets, such as house, car, bank
balance, and investments.
8
Being this topic difficult to measure, as it comprises diverse aspects and issue, they
proposed three categories of variables, each one needs an independent and objective
measure Giles et al. (1977):
*The group’s social status, which measures variables such as income, economic
activity, employment patterns, as well as more complicated approaches such as
perception of the group or language of the group;
* Demographic factors, taking into consideration the absolute and relative size
of the group, and its density;
*Institutional support, which is a rather abstract concept but it can provide us

with a quantifiable result.
There are three classes of concepts that social science measures: directly observable,
indirectly observable, and constructs (which cannot be directly or indirectly observed).
Fig. 5: Operationalization
After having established the definition, in case transparent and specific operational
definitions are not considered, researchers might be in the position of measuring
irrelevant concepts or inconsistently applying methods. Operationalization will increase
the reliability of the study, reducing subjectivity.
9
According to Neuman (2013, p. 112), “Operationalization links a conceptual definition

to a specific set of measurement techniques or procedures, the construct’s operational
definition (i.e., a definition in terms of the specific operations of actions a researcher
carries out.”
The choice of operational definition can often affect the results of the study, especially
abstract concepts which can be operationalized in many different ways as they have
diverse aspects of a concept, therefore it’s essential to be specific about what you are
measuring. Let’s take a look of some examples:
CONCEPT OPERATIONALIZATION
How well people think they did on a test

Overconfidence
vs. how well they actually did
Number of uses for an object

Creativity
participants can design in 3 minutes
Participant’s reaction times after seeing

Perception of threat
threatening images
Records of products purchased by

Customer loyalty
frequent customers in a 3-month period
Table 2
There are three main steps for operationalization of concepts:

1. Identify the main concepts involved in the study: define the topic
and elaborate an initial research question;
2. Choose a variable that represents each concept that you can measure;
3. Select indicators for each variable.
10
Operationalization has both, strengths and weaknesses, as shown:
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
Empiricism: Operational definitions Underdetermination: Sometimes

break down abstract concepts into operational definitions of concepts could
recordable features. become problematic.
Objectivity: Subjectivity or bias is Reductiveness: Operational definitions try

avoided because operational definitions to reduce complex concepts to numbers,
implement a standardized approach causing to lose meaningful and subjective
perceptions of concepts.
Reliability: Operationalization can be Lack of universality: Specific contexts of

consistently used, as other researchers operational definitions help preserve real-
will get the same results life experiences, although if measures
differ greatly, it will be hard to compare
studies.
Table 3
To sum up, when we undertake a quantitative study, we need to consider the

importance of deep thought about the variables, how to measure them, and how to
operationalize the measurement chosen. We also should keep in mind that some
concepts could be extremely complicated to measure, that is why performing a
quantitative study requires a lot of thought and practice. Using qualitative findings in a
quantitative study is considered a positive alternative that will probably result in a
more successful combination than using just one approach -regardless it would require
more time and use of resources.
11
2.3 Subtema 3: Independent and dependent variables
Fig. 6: Independent and Dependent variables
There are different classifications of variables, we will analyze the independent

variable, which identifies the step you might decide to change in an experiment; and
the dependent variable, which identifies what you observe or measure. The main
difference between the independent variable -the cause of changes in a phenomenon
or situation- and the dependent variable -the outcome of the changes brought about
by the independent variable- is that the first cannot be affected by the second one, but
not the other way around.
Fig. 7: Independent and Dependent variables differences
12
We will analyze a different example; a car going down different surfaces. The
Independent variable would be: the surface of the slope rug, bubble wrap and wood,
and the Dependent variable would be; the time it takes for the car to go down the
slope.
Fig. 8: Independent and Dependent systems
Bryman (2012) pointed out that concepts used in quantitative research have to be
measured. The independent variable is usually applied at different levels to compare
how the outcome varies.
Fig. 9: Variables levels

The independent variable is usually applied at different levels to compare how the
outcome varies. (e.g. the new medication and the placebo) so as to find out if the
independent variable effectively has an effect.
Charts or graphs are often used by researchers.
13
Fig. 10: Blood pressure averages
Fig. 11: Variable in languages

In sociolinguistics, language is a common dependent variable. In linguistic

research, a typical independent variable is age. For example, a linguistic
variable x would be a variable whose values are words or sentences in a natural
or artificial language: if age is interpreted a s a linguistic variable, then its term-
set
(T) could be A40.
14
2.4 Subtema 4: Causality and latent variables
Fig. 12: Cause and effect
Causality is the main focus of Quantitative research. Typically, quantitative researchers

aim at finding and quantifying causal relationships, so as to take advantage of these
relationships in order to improve and control the processes of the study. Quite often,
identifying which variable causes which outcome is not absolutely obvious.
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES IN CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Smoking Cancer
(Assumed cause) (Assumed effect)
Table 4
Rasinger (2013) claims: “The term causality arises from the causal relationship
between A and B, that is, changes in A cause some changes in B or vice-versa (p. 23).”
Causal relationship proposes the idea that one event will have another subsequent
event.
Although we can use a few statistical methods to measure the connection between
two
variables, they do not explain if the two variables are causally linked. Apart from this,
there might be the case when different people experienced the same event under
exactly the same conditions, and they come up with two totally different versions
about
15
what caused what. We can claim that there is no singular truth that is true for
everyone, but many truths created and shared by people.
Fig. 13: Question mark
Latent variables, opposed to observable variables, are not directly observed but rather
inferred -using a mathematical model- from other variables that are observed -directly
measured. Latent value is value that is available but not yet found, in other words: the
gap between reality and what is possible. Researchers infer a latent variable using
models from observed data.
The nature of the latent variable relates basically to the nature of the indicator
variables used to define them. Usually, the model is structured in a way to show that
the indicators are effects of the latent variable. Besides, the measurement model of a
latent variable with effect indicators is the set of relationship in which the latent
variable becomes the predictor of the indicators.
It is important to keep in mind that the calculation of the correlation does not stand
for the mathematical relation between two sets of objects compared, just two sets of
measurements (Spearman, 1904).
Conclusions
To sum up, in Quantitative research as long as the relationships between variables in a given hypothesis
is clearly defined from the start of the study, and the application of statistics, percentages, etc. is
effective, our findings will be valid and reliable as long as the instrumentation process is also duly
followed.
16
3. Preguntas de Comprensio´ n de
la Unidad
1. What is a classical definition of a variable?
A variable represents a concept of an item whose magnitude can be represented by a

number that is measured quantitatively.
2. What is the concept of measurement?
It’s the process of assigning labels to categories of variables which carry different
properties, using predefined criteria.
3. What is “concepts” for Neuman?
As well as variables, concepts are mental images that we bring out from an accumulation
of connected observation or ideas.
4. Why is operationalization important?
It increases the reliability of the research, reducing subjectivity.
5. What is the main difference between dependent and independent variable?
The dependent variable is affected by the independent variable.

6. What does causal relationship propose?
That one event will have another subsequent event.
17
4. Material Complementario
Los siguientes recursos complementarios son sugerencias para que se pueda ampliar la
información sobre el tema trabajado, como parte de su proceso de aprendizaje
autónomo:
Videos de apoyo:
VARIABLE MEASUREMENT SCALES (2.42)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aDc5NQONriM&ab_channel=statslectures
KINDS OF VARIABLES IN QR
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hIfLQF7og6I&ab_channel=VonAris
DEVELOPING A QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PLAN: VARIABLES (17.07)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NbFpzMkXTHw&ab_channel=TheDoctoralJourney
DIFFERENT VARIABLES IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH -GM LECTURES (17.39)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eaDNVt-WrKA&ab_channel=GMLectures
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH (4.58)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BgThelG7b6s&ab_channel=SarahA
CONCEPTS, OPERATIONALIZATIONS & MEASUREMENT (22.03)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3y4mKAGtmo&ab_channel=DrL8301
STUDY VARIABLES AND OPERATIONALIZATION (40.19)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5iumfz54JvI&ab_channel=ShadyAttia
Links de apoyo:
http://en.bookfi.net/book/2266020
https://cleavermonkey.files.wordpress.com/2015/10/w-lawrenceneuman-social-
research-methods_-qualitative-and-quantitativeapproaches-pearson-education-
limited-2013.pdf
18
5. Bibliografí´a
Armitage P., Berry G. (1987). Statistical Methods in Medical Research. 2nd ed. London:
Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Babbie, E. R. (2010). The practice of Social Research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage.
Bryman, A. (2012). Social Research Methods. 3rd. ed. Oxford University Press.
Bulmer, M. (1984). Facts, Concepts, Theories and Problems. Bulmer M. (eds.) Socio
Sociological Research Methods. Palgrave, London.
Machin D., Campbell M.J., Walters S.J. (2007) Medical Statistics: A textbook for the
Health Sciences. 4th ed. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Neuman, W. L. (2013). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative

Approaches. Pearson Education Ltd.
Rasinger, S. (2013). Quantitative Research on Linguistics An Introduction. Bloomsbury

Publishing. London.
Spearman, C. (1904). “General Intelligence”, objectively determined and measured.

The American Journal of Psychology, 15 (2), 201-292, doi:10.2307/1412107.
Sundaram R., Dwivedi S. N., Sreenivas V., (2014) Medical Statistics: Principles and
Methods. 2nd. Ed. India: Wolters Kluwer.
19

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QUANTITATIVE METHODS AND PROCESSES

FOR APPLIED LINGUISTICS RESEARCH

Autor: M.Sc. Gina Leonor Santana Cedeño

1. Unidad 2: The Method with a survApproach.......................................................3

Tema 1: Variable in Quantitative Research..................................................................3

2. Información de los subtemas..............................................................................4

2.1 Subtema 1: Variables and measurement............................................................4

2.2 Subtema 2: Definitions, concepts and operationalization..................................7

2.3 Subtema 3: Independent and dependent variables..........................................12

2.4 Subtema 4: Causality and latent variables.......................................................15

3. Preguntas de Comprensión de la Unidad...........................................................17

1. Unidad 2: The Method with a

Quantitative research is objective, it aims at classifying features, labeling them,

2. Informacio´ n de los subtemas

In a classical definition, a variable represents a concept or an item whose magnitude

In summary, a variable can be considered as a quantity which assumes a variety of

Variables have two or more observable forms or values.

In social science research, variables need to be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. In

‘Mary was young’ contains 1 NP (‘Mary’).

NPs: ‘Mary’, ‘a big farm’, ‘her mother’, ‘some animals’.

After understanding the concept of variable, it is important to analyze the concept of

To conclude, the main ideas presented before:

 A central idea in research.

 Variable is a concept that varies.

 Anything (concept/term) that can take on differing or varying values.

 Variation can be appear in either amount or type.

2.2 Subtema 2: Definitions, concepts and

Fig. 3: Research cycle

Human behavior is frequently predictable. The challenge for researchers is to reveal

Fig. 4: Concept diagram

Effectiveness Sex (male, female)

Satisfaction Income, belongings

Self esteem Height

*Institutional support, which is a rather abstract concept but it can provide us

According to Neuman (2013, p. 112), “Operationalization links a conceptual definition

How well people think they did on a test

Number of uses for an object

Participant’s reaction times after seeing

Records of products purchased by

There are three main steps for operationalization of concepts:

and elaborate an initial research question;

3. Select indicators for each variable.

Operationalization has both, strengths and weaknesses, as shown:

Empiricism: Operational definitions Underdetermination: Sometimes

Objectivity: Subjectivity or bias is Reductiveness: Operational definitions try

Reliability: Operationalization can be Lack of universality: Specific contexts of

To sum up, when we undertake a quantitative study, we need to consider the

2.3 Subtema 3: Independent and dependent variables

Fig. 6: Independent and Dependent variables

There are different classifications of variables, we will analyze the independent

Fig. 7: Independent and Dependent variables differences

Fig. 8: Independent and Dependent systems

Fig. 9: Variables levels

Charts or graphs are often used by researchers.

Fig. 10: Blood pressure averages

Fig. 11: Variable in languages

In sociolinguistics, language is a common dependent variable. In linguistic

2.4 Subtema 4: Causality and latent variables

Fig. 12: Cause and effect

Causality is the main focus of Quantitative research. Typically, quantitative researchers

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES IN CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

(Assumed cause) (Assumed effect)