ch-3 - 2-Material, Metals and Alloys

Chapter three Selection of Materials and processes Dr.
May George Amin

Fourth class - 2013-2014 Dep. of Production Eng. And Metallurgy industrial Engineering
Chapter Three
Materials, Metals and Alloys
3-1 - Metals and Alloys

Metals are polycrystalline bodies consisting of a great number of fine crystals. Pure
metals possess low strength and do not have the required properties. So, alloys are
produced by melting or sintering two or more metals or metals and a non-metal,
together. Alloys may consist of two more components. Metals and alloys are
further classified into two major kind namely ferrous metals and non-ferrous
metals.
(a) Ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as
pig iron, cast iron, wrought iron and steels.
(b) Non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main
constituent, such as copper, aluminum, brass, bronze, tin, silver zinc, invar etc.
3-2- Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
Steels can be classified by a variety of different systems depending on:

1. The composition, such as carbon, low-alloy or stainless steel.
2. The manufacturing methods, such as open hearth, basic oxygen process, or
electric furnace methods.
3. The finishing method, such as hot rolling or cold rolling.
4. The product form, such as bar plate, sheet, strip, tubing or structural shape
5. The de-oxidation practice, such as killed, semi-killed, capped or rimmed
steel.
6. The microstructure, such as ferritic, pearlitic and martensitic.
7. The required strength level, as specified in ASTM standards.
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Chapter three Selection of Materials and processes Dr.May George Amin
8. The heat treatment, such as annealing, quenching and tempering, and thermo
mechanical processing.
9. Quality descriptors, such as forging quality and commercial quality.
3- 3- Classification by carbon content wt %
1. Dead soft (0.05 – 0.15)
Wires, rivets, chain, sheet, strip, welded pipe
2. Mild (0.10 – 0.30)
Rolled plate, structural shapes, gears, forgings
3. Medium Carbon (0.30 – 0.60)
Connecting rods, crane hooks, shafts, axles, gears, rotors, rails
4. High Carbon (0.6 – 1.0) , hardness of 450 to 600 BHN
Screw drivers, saws, drills, dies, hammers, punches, chisels.
5. Ultrahigh Carbon (1.0 – 1.4)
Special applications such as making railway, springs, mandrels, taps, balls,
pins, tools, and thread metal dies.
3-4- Classification by alloy content
 Manganese steels
 Silicon‐manganese steels
 Chromium steels
 Chromium‐nickel (stainless) steels
 Tungsten‐chromium‐vanadium (tool) steels
 etc.
2
Fig.3-1 Effect of carbon on properties of steel
Fig.3-2 Properties of steels as influenced by carbon content
3-5-- Classification of cast irons

Found in 5 common varieties depending on the form of carbon in the
microstructure.
3-5-1-Grey iron (carbon presents as free flaky graphite). Grey cast iron is grey in
color which is due to the carbon being principally in the form of graphite (C in free
form in iron). It contains:
C Si Mn P S Fe
2.5 - 3.8%. 1.1 - 2.8 % 0.4 - 1.0% less than less than Remaining
0.15% 0.1%
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Properties and characteristics:

1. It possesses lowest melting of ferrous alloys.
2. It possesses high vibration damping capacity.
3. It has high resistance to wear.
4. It possesses high fluidity and can be easily cast into complex shapes and thin
sections .
Application
 Gas or water pipes for underground purposes.
 Manhole cover, machine bed.
3-5-2- White iron (carbon present as iron carbide compound) For low-silicon cast
irons (containing less than 1.0 wt% Si) and rapid cooling rates, most of the carbon
exists as cementite instead of graphite. A fracture surface of this alloy has a white
appearance, and thus it is termed white cast iron.
An optical photomicrograph showing the microstructure of white iron is presented.
Thick sections may have only a surface layer of white iron that was ‘‘chilled’’
during the casting process; gray iron forms at interior regions, which cool more
slowly. As a consequence of large amounts of the cementite phase, white iron is
extremely hard but also very brittle, to the point of being virtually unmachinable.
Its use is limited to applications that necessitate a very hard and wear-resistant
surface and without a high degree of ductility—for example, as rollers in rolling
mills, rolls crushing jaw, crusher plates. Generally, white iron is used as an
intermediary in the production of yet another cast iron, malleable iron. The
chemical composition of white cast iron is given as:
C Si Mn P S Fe
3.2 - 3.6% 0.4 - 1.1 % 0.1 - 0.4% less than less than Remaining
0.3% 0.2%
Properties and characteristics
 Extremely hard, have very little commercial uses.
4
 It has a high tensile strength and a low compressive strength .

 Possesses excellent abrasive wear resistance.
 Since it is extremely hard, therefore it is very difficult to machine.
Application
 Grinding media ball.
 Raw material for malleable iron.
3-5-3- Ductile cast iron
When small quantities of magnesium or cerium is added to cast iron, then graphite
content is converted into nodular or spherical form and it is well dispersed
throughout the material. Compositions of ductile cast iron are as follows:
C Si Mg Ni Mn Fe
3.2 – 4.2 % 1.0 - 4.0 % 0.1 - 0.8% 0.0 - 3.5% 0.5 - 0.1% Remaining
3-5-4 - Malleable cast iron

Heating white iron at temperatures between 800 and 900 c˚for a prolonged time
period and in a neutral atmosphere (to prevent oxidation) causes a decomposition
of the cementite, forming graphite, which exists in the form of clusters or rosettes
surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix, depending on cooling rate.
The ordinary cast iron is very hard and brittle. Malleable cast iron is unsuitable for
articles which are thin, light and subjected to shock. It can be flattened under
pressure by forging and rolling. It is an alloy in which all combined carbon
changed to free form by suitable heat treatment. Graphite originally present in iron
in the form of flakes which is the source of weakness and brittleness.
The tensile strength of this cast iron is usually higher than that of grey cast iron. It
has excellent machining quality and is used for making machine parts for which the
steel forging and in which the metal should have a fair degree of machining
accuracy.
5
Properties
1. Malleable cast iron is like steel than cast iron.
2. It is costly than grey cast iron and cheaper than softer steel.
Applications
Malleable cast iron is generally used to form automobile parts.
Table (3-1 ) a comparison between grey, white, and steroidal cast iron
IC = internal combustion engine
3-6- Stainless Steels

The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of
environments, especially the ambient atmosphere. Their predominant (major)
alloying element is chromium; a concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is required.
Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions.
The five types of stainless steel are:
1-Ferritic, 2-Martensitic, 3-Austenitic, 4-Duplex 5-Precipitation Hardening.
6
3-6-1- Martensitic stainless steels are similar to low alloy or carbon steels, having
a structure similar to the ferritic steels. However, due the addition of carbon, they
can be hardened and strengthened by heat treatment, in a similar way to carbon
steels. The main alloying element is chromium, typically 12 - 15%, molybdenum
(0.2-1%), no nickel, except for two grades, and their structures are "body-centered
tetragonal" (bct). They are classed as a “hard" ferro-magnetic group .In the
annealed condition, they have tensile yield strengths of about 275 Mpa and so
they are usually machined, cold formed, or cold worked in this condition. The
strength obtained by heat treatment depends on the carbon content of the alloy.
Increasing the carbon content increases the strength and hardness potential but
decreases ductility and toughness. Corrosion resistance is lower than the common
austenitic grades. Cold Working not recommended - Suitable only for minor
deformation. Severe deformation will result in cracking. Some applications
include: Valve Parts, Pump Shafts, Automatic Screw Machined Parts, Motor Shafts
, Washing Machine Components, Bolts and Nuts, Studs, and Gears.
3-6-2-Ferritic stainless steels has properties similar to mild steel but with the better
corrosion resistance. The most common of these steels are 12% and 17%
chromium containing steels, with 12% used mostly in structural applications and
17% in house wares, boilers, washing machines and indoor architecture.
Currently such steels are rated in the lower range of corrosion resistance for
reinforcement. It is composed of the α ferrite (BCC) phase.
3-6-3-The austenitic stainless steels are the most widely used type of stainless
steel make up over 70 % of total stainless steel production. It has FCC structure,
and it is the most corrosion resistant because of the high chromium contents and
also the nickel additions at least 7%, which makes the steel structure fully
austenitic and gives it ductility.
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The most widely used austenite steel is the 304, also known as 18/8 for its
composition of 18% chromium and 8 % nickel. The range of applications of
austenitic stainless steel includes house wares, containers, industrial piping and
vessels, architectural facades and constructional structures. its application has a
large scale of service temperature, non-magnetic properties and good weldability.
Notes: Austenitic and ferritic stainless steels are hardened and strengthened by
cold work because they are not heat treatable.
Both martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic; the austenitic stainless
is not.
3-6-4 -Austenitic-Ferritic (Duplex) have a mixed microstructure of austenite and
ferrite, the aim usually being to produce a 50/50 mix, although in commercial
alloys the ratio may be 40/60. Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice the
strength compared to austenitic stainless steels and also improved resistance to
localized corrosion, particularly pitting, crevice corrosion and stress corrosion
cracking. Duplex stainless steels are characterized by high chromium (19–32%)
and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless
steels. The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with overall lower
alloy content than similar-performing super-austenitic grades, making their use
cost-effective for many applications. Duplex grades are characterized into groups
based on their alloy content and corrosion resistance. Duplex steels are mostly used
in petrochemical-, paper - pulp machinery, and shipbuilding industries.
3- 6-5- Precipitation-hardenable (PH) stainless steels are hardenable by "ageing
treatments" and so have some similarities to the martensitic types, although the
metallurgical mechanism for hardening is different and are capable of strengths of
up to 1700 Mpa. They generally have a martensitic structure and so are usually
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ferro-magnetic. It has corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties.The

most common alloy is uses about 17% chromium and 4% nickel.
The "PH" types have good ductility and toughness, depending on the heat-treated
condition. Their corrosion resistance is comparable to the (304) austenitic. They
can be welded more readily than "conventional" martensitic types and have been
developed and used more widely in the US than in the UK for example in
aerospace applications.
Fig 3- 3- factors affects on stainless steel selection.

3-7 - Non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main
constituent, such as copper, aluminum, brass, bronze, tin, silver zinc, invar etc.
3-7-1- Aluminum and its alloys
Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by a relatively low density (2.7 g/cm 3 as
compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for steel), high electrical and thermal conductivities, and
a resistance to corrosion in some common environments, including the ambient
atmosphere. Many of these alloys are easily formed by virtue of high ductility; this
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is evidenced by the thin aluminum foil sheet into which the relatively pure material
may be rolled. Since aluminum has an FCC crystal structure, its ductility is
retained even at very low temperatures. The chief limitation of aluminum is its low
melting temperature 660°C , which restricts the maximum temperature at which it
can be used.
The mechanical strength of aluminum may be enhanced by cold work and by
alloying; however, both processes tend to diminish res istance to corrosion.
Principal alloying elements include copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, and
zinc.
Non heat- treatable alloys consist of a single phase, for which an increase in
strength is achieved by solid solution strengthening.
Others are rendered heat treatable (capable of being precipitation hardened) as a
result of alloying. In several of these alloys precipitation hardening is due to the
precipitation of two elements other than aluminum, to form an intermetallic
compound such as MgZn2 .
Principal advantages
 Light weight (D=2.7 g/cc, compared to 7.9 g/cc for steel.)
 High electrical and thermal conductivity
 Corrosion resistant.
 Easy to form due to high ductility (FCC structure)
 Mechanical properties improved by cold working, alloying, and heat
treatment
 Easy to recycle
Principal disadvantage – Low melting point (660 °C).
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3-7-2- Copper and its alloys

Copper and copper-based alloys, possessing a desirable combination of physical
properties, have been utilized in quite a variety of applications since antiquity.
Unalloyed copper is so soft and ductile that it is difficult to machine; also, it has an
almost unlimited capacity to be cold worked. Furthermore, it is highly resistant to
corrosion in diverse environments including the ambient atmosphere, seawater, and
some industrial chemicals. The mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties of
copper may be improved by alloying.
Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or strengthened by heat-treating
procedures; consequently, cold working and/or solid-solution alloying must be
utilized to improve these mechanical properties.
The most common copper alloys are the brasses ( copper with zinc) alloys. Brasses
alloys are of two types one of brass which is relatively soft, ductile, and easily cold
worked. The other type having higher zinc content alloys are generally hot worked.
Some of the common uses for brass alloys include costume jewelry, gilding metal,
cartridge casings, automotive radiators, musical instruments, electronic packaging,
and coins.
The bronzes are alloys of copper and several other elements, including tin,
aluminum, silicon, and nickel. These alloys are somewhat stronger than the
brasses, and have a high degree of corrosion resistance.
Characteristics
 High electrical and thermal conductivity
 Very good corrosion resistant
 Pure copper has poor strength and very high ductility (FCC structure),
giving unlimited workability but poor machinability.
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 Mechanical properties improved by cold working and alloying (most Cu

alloys are non heat treatable).
Applications : electric wire, rivets, screening, gaskets, nails, Bearings, bushings,
piston rings, pipe fittings, and gears
3-7-3- Magnesium and its alloys
Perhaps the most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density, 1.7 g/cm 3,
which is the lowest of all the structural metals; therefore, its alloys are used where
light weight is an important consideration (e.g., in aircraft components).
Magnesium has an HCP crystal structure, is relatively soft, and has a low elastic
modulus: 45 GPa. At room temperature magnesium and its alloys are difficult to
deform; in fact, only small degrees of cold work may be imposed without
annealing. Consequently, most fabrication is by casting or hot working at
temperatures between 200 and 350°C. Magnesium, like aluminum, has a
moderately low melting temperature 651°C. Chemically, magnesium alloys are
relatively unstable and especially susceptible to corrosion in marine environments.
On the other hand, corrosion or oxidation resistance is reasonably good in the
normal atmosphere; it is believed that this behavior is due to impurities. Fine
magnesium powder ignites easily when heated in air; consequently, care should be
exercised when handling it in this state.
For many applications, magnesium alloys have replaced engineering plastics that
have comparable densities in as much as the magnesium materials are stiffer, more
recyclable, and less costly to produce. For example, magnesium is now employed
in a variety of hand-held devices (e.g., chain saws, power tools, hedge clippers), in
automobiles (e.g., steering wheels and columns, seat frames, transmission cases),
and in audio-video-computer-communications equipment (e.g., laptop computers,
camcorders, TV sets, cellular telephones).
 Extremely light weight (D 1. 7 g/cc).
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 Pure Mg is soft, but having a HCP structure, cold workability is limited.

 Most fabrication is done by casting or hot working.
Principal disadvantages
 Low melting temperature 651°C)
 Poor corrosion resistant in marine environment, relatively good in normal
atmosphere.
 Relatively unstable, fine powder ignites easily.
3-7-4- Titanium and its alloys

Titanium and its alloys are relatively new engineering materials that possess an
extraordinary combination of properties. The pure metal has a relatively low
density (4.5 g/cm3), a high melting point 1668°C and an elastic modulus of 107
GPa. Titanium alloys are extremely strong; room temperature tensile strengths as
high as 1400 MPa are attainable, yielding remarkable specific strengths.
Furthermore, the alloys are highly ductile and easily forged and machined. The
major limitation of titanium is its chemical reactivity with other materials at
elevated temperatures. This property has necessitated the development of
nonconventional refining, melting, and casting techniques; consequently, titanium
alloys are quite expensive. In spite of this high temperature reactivity, the corrosion
resistance of titanium alloys at normal temperatures is unusually high; they are
virtually immune to air, marine, and a variety of industrial environments.
They are commonly utilized in airplane structures, space vehicles, surgical
implants, and in the petroleum and chemical industries.
 Relatively low density ( D=4.3 g/ cc), high melting point ( 1668°C, high
elastic modulus (E=107 GPa)
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 Titanium alloys are extremely strong (~1400 MPa), and have remarkable
specific strength
 Highly ductile and easily forged and machined.
 Very good corrosion resistant
Principal disadvantages
 Chemical reactivity at high temperatures, causing costly non‐conventional
production technique to be developed.
3-8 - Polymers
Polymers, derived from the Greek terms for “many parts,” are large molecules comprised
of many repeat units that have been chemically bonded into long chains.
The Structure of Polymers (plastics)
Polymers are created by the chemical bonding of many identical units . These polymers
are specifically made of small units bonded into long chains. Carbon makes up the
backbone of the molecule and hydrogen atoms are bonded along the carbon backbone.
Polymers that contain primarily carbon and hydrogen are classified as organic polymers.
Polypropylene and polystyrene are examples of these.
Even though the basic makeup of many polymers is carbon and hydrogen, other elements
can also be involved. Oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, nitrogen, silicon, phosphorous and
sulfur are other elements that are found in the molecular makeup of polymers. Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) contains chlorine. Nylon contains nitrogen. Teflon contains fluorine.
Polyester and polycarbonates contain oxygen. There are also some polymers that, instead
of having a carbon backbone, have a silicon or phosphorous backbone and these are
considered inorganic polymers. Silk, cotton, and wool are examples of natural polymers.
Polymer classification:
 Elastomer
 Thermoset/ thermosetting
 Thermoplastic : crystalline , and amorphous.
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There are three basic type of polymer packing: chain, branch, and network as
shown in Figure below:
Fig (3-5 (a) Chains in polymers like polypropylene form spaghetti-like tangles with no regular repeating
pattern—that structure is amorphous or ‘glassy’. (b) Some polymers have the ability to form regions in which
the chains line up and register, giving crystalline patches. The sketch shows a partly crystalline polymer
structure. (c) Elastomers have occasional cross-links between chains, but these are far apart, allowing the chains
between them to stretch. (d) Heavily cross-linked polymers like epoxy inhibit chain sliding.
As the name implies, thermosetting plastics or thermosets are set, cured, or

hardened into a permanent shape. The curing, which usually occurs rapidly under
heat or ultraviolet (UV) light leads to an irreversible cross-linking of the polymer.
Thermoplastics differ from thermosetting materials in that they do not set or cure
under heat. When heated, thermoplastics merely soften to a mobile, flowable state
where they can be shaped into useful objects. Upon cooling, thermoplastics harden
and hold their shape. Thermoplastics can be repeatedly softened by heat and
shaped.
1- Thermoplastics :
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Thermoplastics soften and melt when heated and harden when cooled. Because of
this behavior, these resins can be injection molded, extruded or formed via other
molding techniques. This behavior also allows production scrap - runners and
trimmings, for instance - to be reground and reused, but some degradation or loss
of mechanical properties can occur during subsequent re-melting. Thermoplastics
are further classified by their crystallinity, or the degree of order within the
polymer’s overall structure. As a crystalline resin cools from the melt, polymer
chains fold or align into highly ordered crystalline structures.
Thermoplastics can be classified as amorphous or semi crystalline plastics.
Most polymers are either completely amorphous or have an amorphous component
even if they are crystalline. Amorphous polymers are hard, rigid glasses below a
sharply defined temperature, which is known as the glass transition temperature.
Above the glass transition temperature the amorphous polymer becomes soft and
flexible and can be shaped. Mechanical properties show profound changes near the
glass transition temperature. Many polymers are not completely amorphous but are
semi- crystalline. Crystalline polymers have melting points that are above their
glass transition temperature.
The degree of crystallinity and the morphology of the crystalline phase have an
important effect on mechanical properties and depend upon both the polymer and
the processing technique. Crystalline plastics will become less rigid above their
glass transition temperature but will not flow until the temperature is above the
crystalline melting point. At ambient temperatures crystalline / semi- crystalline
plastics have greater rigidity, hardness, density, lubricity, creep resistance, and
solvent resistance than amorphous plastics.
Generally, the higher a polymer’s glass transition temperature, the better it will
perform at elevated temperatures. As a rule, transparent plastics — those used in
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headlight lenses and lighting fixtures, for example — are amorphous rather than
crystalline. The most common transparent thermoplastics include polycarbonate,
polystyrene, and (poly methyl) methacrylate.
2- Thermosets / thermosetting:
Unlike thermoplastics, thermosets form cross links, inter-connections between
neighboring polymer molecules that limit chain movement. This network of
polymer chains tends to degrade, rather than soften, when exposed to excessive
heat. Until recently, thermosets could not be remelted and reused after initial
curing. Today’s most-recent advances in recycling have provided new methods for
remelting and reusing thermoset materials.
3- Elastomer
Elastomer plastics are usually the chain, branch, or even network type. The
polymer chains are very loosely intertwined. As a result, the elastomers are pliable
and stretchy. Another name for elastomer is rubber. An example of this type of
polymer would be silicon rubber.
The properties of polymers/ plastics:
Plastics do not usually conduct electricity due to its importance in preventing
electric hazards in electrical and electronics equipment.
1- Plastics may be transparent is practical in package foods because we can see

the food condition.
2- Plastics are safe and hygienic, for example hospital and food industry use
many different kind of plastics.
3- Plastics are lightweight and this is important, for example in car
manufacturing because the cars spent less fuel and this is good for the owner
and environment. (If we burn less petrol we produce less CO2)
4- Plastics are tough and durable.
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5- Plastics are good insulators; we use plastic to insulate our houses, for food
and drinks containers, to protect fragile objects, etc.
6- Plastic is a flexible material, it is very important to the manufacturing
industry, we can make practically whatever form we want.
7- Plastic is very resistant to chemicals.
8- Plastic is cost-effective and convenient (useful).
Polymer Forming Techniques
 Compression & Transfer molding

 Injection molding
 Extrusion
 Blow molding
 Casting
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Chapter three Selection of Materials and processes Dr.

May George Amin

Materials, Metals and Alloys

3-1 - Metals and Alloys

Steels can be classified by a variety of different systems depending on:

Fig.3-1 Effect of carbon on properties of steel

Fig.3-2 Properties of steels as influenced by carbon content

3-5-- Classification of cast irons

Properties and characteristics:

 It has a high tensile strength and a low compressive strength .

3-5-4 - Malleable cast iron

IC = internal combustion engine

3-6- Stainless Steels

1-Ferritic, 2-Martensitic, 3-Austenitic, 4-Duplex 5-Precipitation Hardening.

ferro-magnetic. It has corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties.The

Fig 3- 3- factors affects on stainless steel selection.

3-7-2- Copper and its alloys

 Mechanical properties improved by cold working and alloying (most Cu

 Pure Mg is soft, but having a HCP structure, cold workability is limited.

3-7-4- Titanium and its alloys

As the name implies, thermosetting plastics or thermosets are set, cured, or

1- Plastics may be transparent is practical in package foods because we can see

Polymer Forming Techniques

 Compression & Transfer molding

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