Application of integration: Area, volume, arc length, surface area, and work

Area:
b
1. Area under a plane curve a f ( x) dx f ( x)  is a curve

b
2. Area of the region between two functions or curves a [ f ( x)  g ( x)] dx

Volumes:
b
1. Volumes by slicing a A( x)dx, A  area, dx  height
Solids by translation
Solids of revolution

b
a  [ f ( x)] dx, f ( x)  radius, dx  height
2
2. Volumes by disks

All the cross sections of a solid produced by rotation are disk shaped, for this reason the
method is called method of disks
b
3. Volumes by washers   [ f ( x)  g ( x)]2 dx, f ( x)  g ( x)  radius, dx  height
a
 b
4. Volumes by cylindrical shells a 2 x. f ( x) dx , 2 x  circumference of cylinder, f ( x) 
height of the cylinder, 2 x. f ( x)  surface area of a cylinder which is equal to one shell,
2 x. f ( x)dx  volume of one shell

Arc length:
b
1. Length of a plane curve: L   1  [ f ( x)]2 dx
a
 Lk  (xk ) 2  (yk ) 2  (xk ) 2  [ f ( xk )  f ( xk 1 )]2
n n
L  lim
xk 0

k 1
(xk ) 2  [ f ( xk* )]2 (xk ) 2  lim
xk 0

k 1
1  [ f ( xk* )]2 xk
b
L 1  [ f ( x)]2 dx
a

Area of a Surface of revolution:

b b
1. Surface area by revolution L   2 y 1  [ f ( x)]2 dx   2 . f ( x). 1  [ f ( x)]2 dx
a a

1  [ f ( x)]2  curve length, 2 f ( x)  circumference of disk

 Polar Coordinates

Polar coordinate: Joel Hass, Thomas:-Page-579, section 10.3

Areas and lengths in polar coordinates: Joel Hass, Thomas:-Page-579, section 10.3

Basics of polar coordinates: r  constant,   constant, Function in polar coordinate is denoted r  f ( )

1 2
usually not by   f (r ) . Area of a sector part A  r 
2

Polar coordinates are better explained in Soo Tan:-Page-863, section 9.4

Areas in polar coordinates:

To develop a formula for finding the area of a region bounded by a curve defined by a polar
1
equation, we need a formula for the area of a sector of a circle A  r 2 , where r is the
2
radius of the circle and  is the central angle measured in radians.
 A 

r 2
2
1
A  r 2
2

1
Ak  [ f ( k* )]2 
2
n n
1
A   Ak   [ f ( k* )]2 
k 1 k 1 2
n  1  1
1
A  lim  [ f ( k* )]2    [ f ( )]2 d   r 2 d
n   2  2
k 1 2

Area of the region between two polar curves:

 1 
A
2 
{[ f ( )]2  [ g ( )]2 }d

1 
A   [r12  r22 ] d
2 

Arc Length in polar coordinates:

x  r cos   f ( ) cos  , y  r sin   f ( ) sin 

dx dy
 f ( ) cos   f ( ) sin  ,  f ( ) sin   f ( ) cos 
d d

Therefore,
2 2
 dx   dy 
    [ f ( )] cos   2 f ( ) f ( ) cos  sin   [ f ( )] sin 
2 2 2 2

 d   d 
 [ f ( )]2 sin 2   2 f ( ) f ( ) cos  sin   [ f ( )]2 cos 2 
 [ f ( )]2  [ f ( )]2

 dy   dy / d 
2 2

   
 dx   dx / d 

 dy / d 
2 2
 dy 
1  [ f ( x)]2 dx  1    dx  1    dx
 dx   dx / d 
2 2
 dx   dy 
     d
 d   d 

2
   dr 
L [ f ( )]2  [ f ( )]2 d   r2    d
 
 d 

Necessity of other coordinate transformations:

The rectangular equations of a lemniscates and a cardioids are

( x 2  y 2 )2  4( x 2  y 2 ) and x 4  2 x3  2 x 2 y 2  2 xy 2  y 2  y 4  0

respectively. These equations are somewhat complicated. For example, they will not prove
very helpful if we want to calculate the area enclosed by the two loops of the lemniscates.
A question that arises naturally is: Is there a coordinate system other than the rectangular
system that we can use to give a simpler representation for curves such as the lemniscates and
cardioids? One such system is the polar coordinate system.