UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI

THE MALAWI POLYTECHNIC

MINERALOGY (CIV-MRG-2-2)
Moses Kansiya Line

BEng.(Hons.) Geological Engineering

Course Lecturer:

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY & MINERALOGY

(MEC-CRM-2-2)
BEng. (Hons.) Metallurgy & Mineral Processing
Engineering
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 Minerals + Rocks
 Are natural inorganic solid
substances possessing definite
chemical compositions &
atomic structures
 Solid mineral material forming
part of the surface of the earth
& exposed on the surface or
underlying the soil or oceans.
 An accumulation of mineral in
sufficient quantity so as to make
extraction profitable
Line 2017 MIPR-321
(commercially viable) 5
The term “mineral” is used in much more
extended sense to include anything of
economic value which is extracted from the
earth
Coal, chalk, clay & granite are not
homogeneous in chemical & physical
compositions, thus do not fall within the
definition of a mineral although they are
included in national figures for mineral
production 6
Yes because it is
 A solid
 Inorganic
 Naturally occuring (not the
man-made one)
 Crystalline

No because it is
 A liquid, not solid
 Has no crystalline structure
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Mineraloids are mineral-like materials that
lack a long-range crystalline structure
They include armorphous solids & glasses
Opal which consists of silica gel often
arranged in small spherical masses is
probably the best example
Volcanic glass is another common example

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In response to intense shearing, frictional melts
called pseudotachylite may be produced
Impact Melts may be produced if meteorites impact
& melts a rock.
Small masses of glass called tektites are taken as
samples of the impact melt ejected from an impact
crater
A fulgurite may be produced if a lightning strike &
melt soil or rock
Burning coal beds may generate enough heat to fuse
the surrounding rock, forming slag-like glasses
referred to as ash glass or clinker 9
Mineralogy is the study of minerals,
their formation, occurrence, properties,
composition & classification.

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The Commission of New Minerals,
Nomenclature & Classification of the
International Mineralogy Association
provide criteria by which new minerals are
recognised

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 The criteria to be satisfied before a new mineral species
is approved include the following
 It must be a mineral as defined
 It must not previously have been described & named
 Crystallography, composition & crystal structure
must be described
 Geologic & geographic setting in which the mineral
was found must be described
 The type of sample of mineral must be preserved in
an appropriate repository, such as museum or
research institute
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Is two or more minerals among which
there is a range of chemical composition
• For example, the two end members of the
common plagioclase mineral species
series are mineral albite (NaAlSi3O8) &
anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8)

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Is a set of minerals with same basic structure
but different compositions
Generally named for one of the constituent
minerals
Eg the calcite group has a chemical formula
XCO3 where X is a metal cation
 Calcite, CaCO3  Siderite, FeCO3
 Magnetise, MgCO3  Smithsonite, ZnCO3
 Rhodochrosite, MnCO3
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Minerals & consequently mineralogy are extremely
important to economics, aesthetics & science
Economically, minerals are important by their
utilisation & their inherent economic value
Aesthetically, minerals shine as gems, enriching our
lives with their inherent beauty, especially as we
view them in museum displays
Scientifically, minerals comprise the data bank from
which we can learn about our physical earth & its
constituent materials
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All minerals are composed of chemical
elements in various combinations.
Crystal Chemistry refers to the study of the
atomic structure, physical properties, &
chemical composition of crystalline material
To understand better the structure of minerals
& its correlation to property, we have to start
from the basic element of matter - The Atom
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 ATOM

NUCLEUS
 The centre of mass (A), but does not
significantly contribute to vol.
ELECTRONS
 Made up of  Electron cloud determines the
PROTONS – Mass=1amu, charge = +1 size or vol.
NEUTRONS – Mass=1amu, charge = 0  Mass=0.0005 amu, charge = -1

 Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons

 Neutron number (N) = number of electrons.
 Atomic mass number (A) =Z+N
 The Atomic Mass is the mass of atom divided by mass of a 12C atom
 Atomic Weight of an element is the weighted average of the atomic masses of the
isotopes.
 Isotopes are the same element having different atomic masses. Number of protons in
isotopes remains same while number of neutrons varies. 18
Bohr’s Model Schrodinger’s Model

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Using wave mechanics, every electron in an atom is
characterized by four parameters called quantum
numbers; n, l, ml & ms .
The size, shape, & spatial orientation of an
electron’s probability density are specified by three
of these quantum numbers.
The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two
electrons in an atom can have same 4 quantum
numbers
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Can have any positive integer value (not zero)
Indicates energy level; higher n means higher energy
Correlate with with shells that are identified with
letters K, L, M, N, …

n 1 2 3 4 …
shell K L M N …

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Has values between 0 & n-1
Distinguishes subshells with different shapes
The subshells are conventionally identified with
letters s, p, d & f.
l 0 1 2 3 …
subshell s p d f …
For Example for K-shell, n = 1; l = n-1 = 1-1= 0
The subshells are identified with n & the subshell
i.e. 2p 22
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 f d
f d p
s
f d p
Relative Energy

p s
d
s

d p
s
p Note that the energy
s does not necessarily
p
increase K  L 
s
M  N etc.
s 4s < 3d

n= 1K 2L 3M 4N 5O 6P 7Q

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Shells & Subshells
innermost K (n = 1) 2e s
(lowest E) L (n = 2) 8e s, p
M (n = 3) 18e s, p, d
outer N (n = 4) 32e s, p, d, f
(generally higher E)
higher levels not filled

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 May have integer values between –l & +l
 Distinguishes among different orbitals with different
orientations within a subshell
 The number of orbitals within a shell is 2l+1
 For s-subshell, l=0; ml =0; number of orbitals =
2(0)+1=1
 For p-subshell, l=1; ml =-1,0,1(associated with 3
bilobate)
 For d-subshell, l=2; ml =-2,-1,0,1,2 (5 different orbitals).
4 orbitals are quadralobate while the fifth is a bilobate
with a torus in the plane at right angles
 The f orbitals have more complex geometries
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Possible values are +1/2 & -1/2 indicating
right or left spinning

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Atomic Symbol Electron Atomic Symbol Electron Atomic Symbol Electron

No. configuration No. configuration No. configuration

1 H 1s1 21 Sc [Ar] 4s23d1 41 Nb [Kr] 5 s Hd4

2 He 1s2 22 Ti [Ar] 4s23d2 42 Mo [Kr] 5 s Hd5
3 Li [He] 2s1 23 V [Ar] 4s23d3 43 Tc [Kr] 5s24d5
4 Be [He] 2s2 24 Cr [Ar] 4s13d5 44 Ru [Kr] 5 s Hd7
5 B [He] 2s22p! 25 Mn [Ar] 4s23d5 45 Rh [Kr] 5s4d8

6 C [He] 2s22p2 26 Fe [Ar] 4s23d6 46 Pd [Kr] 4d10

7 N [He] 2s22p3 27 Co [Ar] 4s23d7 47 Ag [Kr] 5s14d10
O [He] 2s22p4 Ni [Ar] 4s23d8 48 Cd [Kr] 5s24d10
8 28
9 F [He] 2s22p5 29 Cu [Ar] 4s:3d10 49 In [Kr] 5s24d105p1
Ne [He] 2s22p6 30 Zn [Ar] 4s23d10 50 Sn [Kr] 5s24d105p2
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Na [Ne] 3s1 31 Ga [Ar] 4s23d104p1 51 Sb [Kr] 5s24d105p3
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Mg [Ne] 3s2 32 Ge [Ar] 4s23d104p2 52 Te [Kr] 5s24d105p4
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13 Al [Ne] 3s23p! 33 As [Ar] 4s23d104p3 53 I [Kr] 5s24d105p5
14 Si [Ne] 3s23p2 34 Se [Ar] 4s23d104p4 54 Xe [Kr] 5s24d105p6
15 P [Ne] 3s23p3 35 Br [Ar] 4s23d104p5 55 Cs [Xe] 6s1
S [Ne] 3s23p4 36 Kr [Ar] 4s23d104p6 56 Ba [Xe] 6s2
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17 Cl [Ne] 3s23p5 37 Rb [Kr] 5s1 57 La [Xe] 6s25d1
Ar [Ne] 3s23p6 38 Sr [Kr] 5s2 58 Ce [Xe] 6s24f15d1
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19 K [Ar] 4s1 39 Y [Kr] 5s24d* 59 Pr [Xe] 6s24f3

20 Ca [Ar] 4s2 40 Zr [Kr] 5s24d2 60 Nd [Xe] 6s24f4

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Valence electrons occupy subshells within
shells that are not entirely filled
If the core is identical to the electron
configuration of a noble gas, it is called noble-
gas-core i.e. Na has a Ne noble-gas-core
A Pseudo-noble-gas-core consists of a noble-
gas-core plus an entirely filled d &/or f
subshell i.e. Arsenic, Ar has filled 1s, 2s, 2p,
3s, 3p, 4s & 3d subshells plus 4p valence
electrons
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Ions are atoms whose number of electrons do not
balance with the number of protons
Anions - +vely charged ions
Cations - -vely charged ions
The charge of an ion is known as its valence or
oxidation state
Ionisation potential is measure of the energy
necessary to strip an element of its outermost
electron
A measure of the prosperity of an element to gain or
lose electrons is known as its electronegativity
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Linus Pauling (1932) used an arbitrary scale
so that Li had electronegativity of 1.0, C of 2.5
& F of 4.0
Electronegativity values are also used to
estimate the nature of chemical bonds

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Estimates of the composition of the earth are
obtained by
 Considering the earth’s mass & density
distribution using geophysical means
 Studying composition of the basaltic magmas
derived from the mantle & samples of the mantle
that sometimes arrive with the magma
 Analysing composition of meteorites presumed to
represent material from the earth accreted
 Applying appropriate cosmological, geochemical,
& petro-physical models to evaluate data
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Bonding forces are electrical in nature & controls
most of the physical & chemical properties of
minerals
The stronger the bond, the harder the crystal, the
higher the melting point, & the lower the coefficient
of thermal expansion)
The 5 general types of chemical bonding are:-
 Ionic  van der Waals
 Covalent  Hydrogen
 Metallic
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IONIC BONDING
-Elements transfer electrons
to the other
Covalent bonding Metallic Bonding
-Strength relates to bond
length & charge of ions -Elements share outermost -Elements exchange
electrons valence electrons as they
-Minerals have moderate
-Strongest bonds – are free in an electron sea
degrees of hardness &
strength is a function of -Minerals are soft,
specific gravity, have
degree of atom overlap ductile/malleable, highly
moderately high melting T,
-Minerals are insoluble, conductive,
are poor conductors of heat
hard, nonconductive & -Non-directional bonding
& have high degrees of have high melting T. produces high
symmetry
-Low symmetry due to symmetry
-failure commonly occurs directional bonding
along cleavage planes 47
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Depend on relatively weak electrostatic forces
that can develop because of asymmetric
charge distribution
S/times referred to as molecular or
intermolecular bonding
The two mechanisms known are
 Hydrogen Bonding
 Van der Waal bonding
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Composed of molecules of water bonding
together to from snow, hail, glaciers or ice
cubes
Bonding occurs because the molecule is polar
2H atoms covalently bond to each oxygen
atom by sharing electrons with two of the
oxygen’s 2p orbitals
Oxygen is highly electronegative, this creates
an electrical polarity, +ve near 2H & -ve at 2
nodes of the O. 51
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Also depend on asymmetrical charge
distribution but produced in a different way to
hydrogen bonding
A better example is bonding in graphite, talc

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