Formulae book

1. Relations
Ordered pair: is a pair of objects whose components occur in a special
order. (a,b).
Cartesian product: × = {( , )/ ∈ , ∈ ∀ & } . Number of elements
in × is called cardinal number and it is denoted by ( × ).
Also, ( × ) = ( ) × ( ).
E.g. If = {1,2}} and = { , , } then
× = {(1, ), (1, ), (1, ), (2, ), (2, ), (2, )} and
× = {( , 1), ( , 1), ( , 1), ( , 2), ( , 1), ( , 2)}. Hence × ≠ × .
But ( × ) = ( × ).
Relation: is a set of ordered pairs. A relation is denoted by R. x is the
relation R to y is denoted by ( , ) ∈ or . ⊆ × .
Reflexive relation: R is reflexive on the set A if ( , ) ∈ ∀ ∈ .
Symmetric relation: R is symmetric on the set A if ( , ) ∈ then ( , ) ∈
where , ∈ .
Transitive relation: If ( , ) ∈ and ( , ) ∈ then ( , ) ∈ where
, , ∈ .
Equivalence relation: A relation R in A is equivalence if
(a) ( , ) ∈ ∀ ∈
(b) ( , ) ∈ ⟹ ( , ) ∈ ∀ , ∈
(c) ( , ) ∈ and ( , ) ∈ ⟹ ( , ) ∈ ∀ , , ∈ .

If R is a relation from A to B then it is denoted by : → , A is called

domain and B is called range of the relation.

2. Functions

A relation : → is called a function or mapping if

(a) Every element of A has some image in B.
(b) No element of A should have different images in B.
Here A is called domain and B is called codomain of f.

One-One function/Injection: A function : → is one-one if different elements

of A have different images in B.

How to solve questions of One-one functions

Take f(x1)=f(x2) simply and prove that x1=x2.

1
 3. Binary Operations

A binary operation on a non-empty set A takes two elements of the set A and
combines them to form an element of A’

If ∗ ∈ ∀ , ∈ then ∗ is a binary operation on the set .

A binary operation on a non-empty set is a function from × to .

i.e. ∗: × → is a function.

Number of binary operations on is where = ( ).

Commutative law: ∗ = ∗ ∀ , ∈ .

Associative law: ∗( ∗ )=( ∗ )∗ ∀ , , ∈ .

Distributive law: ∗ ( ∙ ) = ( ∗ ) ∙ ( ∗ )∀ , , ∈ where ∗ ,∙ are binary

operations defined on a set .

Identity law: ∗ = ∗ ∀ ∈ & ∈ , is called identity element w.r.to a

binary operation ∗ on a set A.

Inverse law: If ∗ = ∗ = ∀ ∈ where ′ ’ is an identity element and is

called an inverse element of w.r.to ∗ in the set .

Closure property: ∗ is closed on a set if ∗ ∈ ∀ , ∈ ’

Note: For binary composition table please verify the text book.

Trigonometry
Sin(A+B)=SinA.CosB+CosA.SinB; Sin(A-B)=SinA.CosB-CosA.SinB

Cos(A+B)=CosA.CosB-SinA.SinB; Cos(A-B)=CosA.CosB+SinA.SinB

Sin(A+B)+Sin(A-B)=2SinA.CosB; Sin(A+B)-Sin(A-B)=2CosA.SinB

Cos(A+B)+Cos(A-B)=2CosA.CosB; Cos(A-B)-Cos(A+B)=2SinA.SinB

tan + tan tan − tan

tan( + ) = ; tan( − ) =
1 − tan tan 1 + tan tan
tan + tan + tan − tan tan tan
tan( + + )=
1 − (tan tan + tan tan + tan tan )

3
 sin + cos = ∀ ∈ [−1,1]
2
tan + cot = ∀ ∈ ℝ
2
sec + csc = ∀ ∈ ℝ-(-1,1)
csc = sin ∀ ∈ ℝ-(-1,1)
sec = cos ∀ ∈ ℝ-(-1,1)
sin (− ) = − sin , cos (− ) = − cos
+
tan + tan = tan , > 0, > 0 & <1
1−
−
tan − tan = tan ∀ > 0, > 0 & > −1
1+
5. Determinants
= −

= − +

Determinant can be expanded by using any row or column.

Minor of an element in a determinant is a determinant that is left after

removing the row and the column which intersect at the element, and is of
order one less than the given determinant.

Cofactor of an element is the value when the corresponding element’s minor is

multiplied with (−1) . i.e. Cofactor = (−1) .

Properties of Determinants:
1. If all the elements of a row/column is ‘0’ then its determinant is ‘0’.
2. If rows are exchanged into columns and columns into rows the value
of the determinant remains unaltered.
3. If any two rows/columns of a determinant are interchanged, the
resulting determinant is the negative of the original determinant.
4. If two rows/columns of a determinant are identical then the value of
the determinant is ‘0’.
5. If all the elements of any row/column are multiplied by a nonzero real
number ‘k’ then the value of the new determinant is ‘k’ times the
value of the original determinant.

5
 ∀ =
Scalar matrix: = is a scalar matrix if ={
× 0∀ ≠
7 0 0
E.g. 0 7 0 = . (7 7 7)
0 0 7
1∀ =
Unit matrix/Identity matrix: = is a unit matrix if ={ and
× 0∀ ≠
it is denoted by In or simply I.

1 0 0
E.g. = 0 1 0 = . (1 1 1)
0 0 1
Sub matrix: A matrix obtained by deleting some rows/columns or both of a
matrix is called a sub matrix.

Comparable matrices: Two matrices are comparable if they are of same order.

Equality of matrices: Two matrices are equal both are of the same order and
each element of one is equal to the corresponding element of the other.

Zero matrix/Null matrix: A matrix in which all the entries are zero.

Negative of a matrix: A matrix obtained by multiplying all the entries of a

given matrix by ‘-1’.

Properties of sum of matrices:

Closure law of addition: + ∈ × ∀ , ∈ ×

Commutative law of addition: + = + ∀ , ∈ ×

Associative law for addition: ( + ) + = + ( + )∀ , , ∈ ×

Additive identity law: + = + = ∀ ∈ × , Null matrix ‘O’ is called

additive identity matrix.

Additive inverse law: + (− ) = (− ) + = ∀ ∈ × , where ‘-A’ is called

additive inverse matrix of A.

Involutery matrix: =

Idempotent matrix: =

7
If AB=BA=I then B is called the inverse of the matrix A and = .

If A is a square matrix of order ‘n’ then | |=| | .

The system of equations AX=B is consistent if

(a) | | ≠ 0 and has a unique solution

(b) | | = 0 and ( ) = and has infinite number of solutions.

Inconsistent if | | = 0 and ( ) ≠ and has no solution.

The system AX=O has

(a) a trivial solution x=0,y=0,z=0 if | | ≠ 0

(b) infinitely many solutions if | | = 0
since, (adjA)B=O (as B=O always here)
7.Continuity and Differentiability of Functions

A function f(x) is continuity at x-a if lim → ( ) = ( ).

Left hand continuous at x=a if lim → ( ) = ( ).

Right continuous x=a if lim → ( ) = ( ).

Limit exists at x=a if if lim → ( ) = lim → ( ) = ( ).

lim → ( ) = lim → ( − ℎ) , lim → ( ) = lim → ( + ℎ).

( ) ( )
( ) = lim
( ) ( )
A function f(x) is differentiable if lim → exists and →

( )
( ) = lim
( )
Also → .

( ) ( )
And = lim → = lim → ’

( )
( ) means f(x) is left hand differentiable and ( ) = lim
( )
→

( )
( ) means f(x) is right hand differentiable and ( ) = lim
( )
→ .

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
A function f(x) is differentiable at x=a if lim → = lim → .

Every differentiable function is continuous but the converse need not be true.

i.e. A continuous function need not be differentiable.

9
 Function Derivative Function Derivative
sinx cosx Cosec-1x −1
| |√ −1
cosx -sinx Sec-1x 1
| |√ −1
9. Indeterminate forms of limits

At x=a if f(x) takes any of the forms , , 0 × ∞, ∞ − ∞, 0 , 1 , ∞ then f(x) is said

to be indeterminate at x=a.

1 = 1, = 0, = ∞ are determinate forms having a meaning.

( ) ( ) ( )
L’Hospital’s rule: If lim → = or form then lim → = lim → . This
( ) ( ) ( )
can be repeated till it is a repeated form.

0 × ∞ and ∞ − ∞ can be simplified into or form and then L’Hospital’s rule

can be applied.
( ) ( )
If lim → = 0 or ∞ or 1 then let = lim → and bring it into or by
( ) ( )
( )
applying log on both sides i.e. log = lim → log .
( )

10. Mean Value Theorems

Rolle’s Theorem: If f(x) is a function of x such that

(i) f(x) is continuous function in the closed interval [a,b],

(ii) f(x) is derivable in the open interval (a,b) and
(iii) f(a)=f(b) then there exists at least one real number x=c in the interval
(a,b) such that f1(c)=0.

Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem: If a function f(x) defined in the interval [a,b]
is such that

(i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,b]

(ii) f(x) is derivable in the open interval (a,b) then there exists one value of
( )
( )=
( )
‘c’ in the open interval (a,b) such that .

11
Sphere: Volume of a Sphere is =

Surface area of a sphere is =4 .

Sector: Area of a sector is = where =

Perimeter of a sector is =2 +

Monotonicity of functions:

Increasing or decreasing functions are called monotonic functions and the

property of increasing or decreasing of a function is called monotonicity of the
function.

A function f(x) is increasing on [a,b] if ( ) > 0 and decreasing if ( ) < 0, f(x)

is a constant function on [a,b] if ( ) = 0.

12. Maxima and Minima

A function f(x) is said to have attained its maximum value at x=a if the function
ceases to increase and begins to decrease at x=a and it attains minimum if it
ceases to decrease and begins to increase at x=a.

The maximum/minimum points are called the turning/stationary points.

For Maxima/Minima of a function = ( ), = 0 or ( ) = 0.

For Turning points/Stationary points of = ( ), = 0 or ( ) = 0.

For a Maximum point =0& <0

For a Minimum point =0& >0

For a point of inflexion of = ( ), = 0, = 0 and ≠ 0.

For a Maximum point: = 0 and changes from positive to negative.

For a Minimum point: = 0 and changes from negative to positive.

For a point of inflexion: = 0 and does not change its sign.

13
 sin( + ) = ( sin − cos )+
+

cos( + ) = ( cos + sin )+

+

( ( )+ ( )) = ( )+

= tan + , = log + , = log +

To find the integrals of the form or or or

where ‘k’ is a constant, divide the Numerator and the Denominator

by and put + = or − = whichever on differentiation gives the
Numerator of the given integral. Express the Denominator in the form of
± ± and proceed further.

Partial fractions: Convert the given fraction into proper fraction and find the
partial fractions to evaluate the integral.

To find convert + + into {( ± ) ± } and proceed.

( )
To find or , take = + .

= sin +
√ −

= log + + + , = log + − + ,
√ + √ −

To find √
or , convert + + into {( ± ) ± }
and proceed.
( .)
To find √
or , Substitute .= + and proceed.

+ = + + log + + +
2 2

− = − + sin +
2 2

15
 16. Definite Integrals
( ( ))
If = ( ) then ( ) = ( ) − ( ).

Properties of Definite integrals;

(1) ( ) = ( )
(2) ( ) =− ( )
(3) ( ) = ( ) + ( ) where < <
(4) ( ) = ( + − )
(5) ( ) = ( − )
2 ( ) (2 − ) = ( )
(6) Also ( ) ={
0 (2 − ) = ( )

( ) ( − )= ( )
(7) ) = {2
0 ( − =− ( )

2 ( ) (− ) = ( )
(8) ( ) ={
0 (− ) = − ( )

(9) log(sin ) = log(cos ) = − log 2

Integral as the limit of a sum:

If f(x) is a continuous function in the closed interval [a,b] where > and if the
interval [a,b] is divided into ‘n’ equal parts each of width ‘h’ so that ℎ = then

−
( ) = lim [ ( ) + ( + ℎ) + ( + 2ℎ) + ⋯ . + ( + ( − 1)ℎ]
→

= lim [ ( ) + ( + ℎ) + ( + 2ℎ) + ⋯ . + ( + ( − 1)ℎ]

→
=
As → ∞, ℎ → 0, − = ℎ. It is also called finding integration from
definition/integration from the first principles/integration from “ab initio”.

17
General solution: A solution of a differential equation with arbitrary constants
equal in number to the order of the differential equation is called general
solution.

Other solutions obtained by giving particular value to the arbitrary in the

general equation are called particular solutions.

Solving a differential equation:

(1) Variables separable: Separate the variables and integrate on both sides.
(2) Homogeneous differential equation: Put x=kx and y=ky in the given
differential equation and verify that the exponent of ‘k’ in each term is
same then it is a homogeneous differential equation.
( , )
To find the solution first write = then put = so that
( , )

= + , separate the variables and integrate on both sides, finally

put = .
Sometimes it is desirable to substitute x=vy as well.
(3) Linear Differential Equation: If the differential equation is + =
where P,Q are functions of ‘x’ then Integrating Factor(I.F.)= and the
solution is
× . .= × . . +
OR
If the differential equation is + = then . . = and the
solution is × . . = × . . + .
Note: Practice the last exercise word problems thoroughly from your text
book.
18. Probability
If A and B are mutually exclusive events then ∩ = ∅ and ( ∩ = 0.
Union axiom/Addition law of probability:
( ∪ ) = ( ) + ( ) − ( ∩ ), ( ) = 1 − ( ), 0 ≤ ( ) ≤ 1
( ∩ ) = ( ) − ( ∩ ), ( ∩ ) = ( )− ( ∩ )
( ∩ ) = (( ∪ ) ) = 1 − ( ∪ )
( ∪ ) = (( ∩ ) ) = 1 − ( ∩ )
If A and B are mutually exclusive events then ( ∪ ) = ( ) + ( )

( ∪ ∪ ) = ( )+ ( )+ ( )− ( ∩ )− ( ∩ )− ( ∩ )+ ( ∩ ∩ )

If A,B,C are pairwise mutually exclusive then ( ∪ ∪ ) = ( )+ ( )+ ( )

19
 19. Baye’s Theorem

Theorem of Total Probability: Let S be a sample space and E 1,E2,E3,...,En be

‘n’ mutually exclusive and exhaustive events associated with a random
experiment. Let A be any event associated with S, i.e. which occurs with E 1 or
E2 or E3,…or En, then ( ) = ( ) + ( ) + ⋯+ ( ) .

Baye’s Theorem: Let E1,E2,E3,...,En be ‘n’ mutually exclusive and exhaustive

events whose union is the random sample space S of an experiment. If A is any
arbitrary event of the sample space of the above experiment with ( ) ≠ 0 then
the probability of the event , when the event A has actually occurred is given
( ) ( )
by = . Here,
∑ ( ) ( )

P(Ei), i=1 to n are such that P(E1)+P(E2)+…+P(En)=1 are called priori

probabilities, are known before conducting the experiment.

P(A/Ei) tell us how likes the event A under consideration occurs, given E I.

P(Ei/A) are called posterior probabilities.

20. Theoretical Probability Distribution

Random variable: is a variable whose values depend on chance and are the
result of a random observation or experiment.

If the set of values which a random variable takes can be counted and a list of
all its possible numerical values made then the variable is called discrete
random variable.

If the set of these values is continuous then the variable is called a continuous
random variable.

Probability distribution: of a random variable X is defined only when

( = )≥0 ∀ and ∑ ( = )=1

Mean of a probability distribution:

=∑ ( = ) where ∑ ( = )=1

Variance: =∑ ( = )−

21
23