Vincent B.

Lascano
5 BS APS-MSE
1.2 More experiments involving light behaving as particles
Photoelectric effect
Einstein recognized that Planck’s idea of quantization of electromagnetic waves must also be
valid for light. Light itself is made of discrete bits of energy called photons, each of energy
hf, f being the frequency of light. Photons
1) Move with the speed of light;
2) Have zero mass and zero rest energy;
3) Carry energy hf and momentum h/λ;
4) Can be emitted or absorbed;
5) Can have particle-like collisions with other particles, such as electrons.
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered photoelectric effect. He found that when a metal surface
is illuminated with light, electrons can be emitted from the surface. Consisting of discrete
quanta of energy hf, light is incident on a cathode C. When one of these quanta, called a
photon, penetrates the surface of the cathode, all of its energy is given completely to an
electron. Let φ be the work function of the cathode surface and is the energy required to remove
an electron from its surface. Thus, the maximum energy of electrons leaving the cathode
surface is hf – φ. This gives the Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect.
As noted in the previous description, when a metal cathode C is illuminated with light of energy
hf, the light quanta called photons penetrate the surface of the cathode. The number of electrons
ejected from the cathode reach the anode A and is measured by current I in the ammeter. The
anode can be made positive or negative with respect to the cathode to attract or repel the
electrons. Let V be the potential difference between the cathode and the anode.
1. From the said circuit description, draw the basic circuit diagram for photoelectric effect,
containing the photocell consisting of a metallic cathode C and an anode A, an ammeter,
a voltmeter, and other components that can make the anode positive or negative with
respect to the cathode to attract or repel the electrons.

In Figure 1, a circuit diagram that depicts the photoelectric

experiment setup is shown. It contains Cathode ‘C’, Anode
‘A’, a voltmeter ‘V’, an ammeter ‘Am’, a battery, and a
rheostat. In addition, the voltmeter is connected in parallel
because potential difference is the same in this type of
connection while the ammeter is connected in series since
current is uniform in this type of circuit connection. Also,
the rheostat is connected for the purposes of altering the
current which alters the voltage as well via Ohm’s law. This
enables observers to see the change in potential difference
between the anode and the cathode.
Figure 1 :Circuit Diagram for
Photoelectric Effect
The cathode should be a metallic surface wherein free electrons are located on its surface. It is
because of this property that when particles of light or photons are bombarded incident onto
the surface of cathode, electrons are given energy and are ejected from the cathode becoming
photoelectrons as a result. This release or ejection of photoelectrons is called photoemission.
In addition, the anode ‘A’ will either attract or repel these photoelectrons depending on the
charge of the anode relative to the cathode. The attraction of the photoelectrons will cause them
to flow through the circuit which results to a photocurrent.

2. From the i-V curves of varying light intensity, define the stopping potential Vo, and
relate it with the circuit diagram, with the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons and
the Einstein’s equation of the photoelectric effect.
The stopping potential is defined as the minimum potential needed to completely inhibit the
flow of electrons to the anode from the cathode. To elaborate, the stopping potential is the
value for potential at which the value of current is zero.
In Figure 2, a simple i-V curve with
varying light intensities is shown where
the y-axis represents current i, while the
x-axis represents voltage V. In the
graph, the stopping potential Vo is the
point at which the value for current i is
zero. In other words, the stopping
potential is simply an x-intercept in the
i-V graph. In addition, this i-V graph
also shows that even with varying
intensities of light, the stopping
potential remains constant. This is
because stopping potential is dependent
Figure 2: i-V Curve for photoelectric effect on the frequency of light, not its
intensity. In fact, the stopping potential Vo is proportional to frequency. Put simply, changing
the color of light or the type of light shone itself changes the stopping potential, not its
brightness.
From the circuit diagram in Figure 1, the stopping potential can be identified by adjusting the
rheostat to make the value of current in the circuit equal to zero. The value that is shown in the
voltmeter is then the stopping potential. In this circuit configuration, only the photoelectrons
with maximum kinetic energy will reach the anode where they subsequently will have their
kinetic energies reduced to zero once they reach the anode. In addition, the maximum kinetic
energy of these photoelectrons is proportional to the frequency of the incident light. In other
words, an increase in frequency of the incident radiation or light also increases the maximum
kinetic energy the photoelectron can reach. This makes sense because the stopping potential is
also proportional to the frequency of light. An increase in the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons also means an increase in the value of potential to stop these photoelectrons
from flowing through the circuit.
Mathematically, work in electromagnetics is expressed as W = qV. Where q is the charge while
V is potential. In this case, work W is the work done on the photoelectron by the electric field
created by the battery. In the context of stopping potential Vo and electrons that have a charge
q = 1.6 x 10-19 C or simply ─e, we can express the formula for work W as the charge of an
electron ─e to the potential at which the electron travels Vo :
𝑊 = −𝑒𝑉𝑜
Based on the work-energy theorem, the total work done on an object is equal to the object’s
change in kinetic energy. Hence, work W can also be expressed as:
𝑊 = −𝑒𝑉𝑜
𝑊 = 𝐾𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙

𝑊 = Δ𝐾
Where work W is equal to the final kinetic energy of the object minus its initial kinetic energy
or simply delta K. As previously mentioned, the photoelectrons which initially have a
maximum kinetic energy will flow through the circuit and will eventually have a kinetic energy
of zero once they reach the anode. In short, as the photoelectrons flow through the circuit, they
lose kinetic energy as they travel. Thus, we can say that
𝐾𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 0

𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥
Based on the new expressions for the final and initial kinetic energies, we can equate work
which is equal to the product of the charge of an electron and the stopping potential to the
initial kinetic energy which is also equal to the maximum kinetic energy of the electron. Thus
giving us:
𝑊 = −𝑒𝑉𝑜
𝑊 = 𝐾𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙

−𝑒𝑉𝑜 = 0 − 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥
Rearranging the terms above, we finally get an expression that equates the maximum kinetic
energy of a photoelectron to the product of its charge and stopping potential.
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉𝑜
In Einstein’s equation for the photoelectric effect which is expressed as
𝐸 = ℎ𝑣
where E is the energy of the incident radiation hitting the cathode, h is Planck’s constant which
is equal to 6.626 x 10-34 m2 kg /s, and v is the frequency of said incident radiation. E can also
be expressed as
ℎ𝑐
𝐸=
λ
where c is the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s) and 𝜆 is the wavelength of the incident radiation.
The maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron can also be expressed differently such that:
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑣 − ϕ
Where 𝜙 is the work function or threshold of energy. This is the minimum work needed to
remove an electron from the surface of a conductor (in this case the metallic cathode). Since
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉𝑜
We can also say that
𝑒𝑉𝑜 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙
Isolating the stopping potential 𝑉𝑜 , we finally get
ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙
𝑉𝑜 =
𝑒
which relates the stopping potential, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons, and
Einstein’s that describes energy as the product of Planck’s constant and the frequency of the
incident radiation hitting the cathode. Alternatively we can express the expression for stopping
potential 𝑉𝑜 as
𝐸−𝜙
𝑉𝑜 =
𝑒
Note that the threshold of energy 𝜙 can be expressed as
ℎ𝑐
𝜙 = ℎ𝑣𝑡ℎ =
λ𝑡ℎ
Where 𝑣𝑡ℎ and λ𝑡ℎ are the threshold frequency and wavelength respectively. On one hand, the
threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of the incident light that produces a
photoelectric effect. On the other hand, the threshold wavelength is the maximum wavelength
of the incident light that produces a photoelectric effect. We can express the stopping power 𝑉𝑜
in terms of threshold frequency and wavelength. Applying E = hv and the expression for
threshold energy, we get:
𝐸−𝜙 ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣𝑡ℎ
𝑉𝑜 = =
𝑒 𝑒
Factoring out the common factor h:
ℎ(𝑣 − 𝑣𝑡ℎ )
𝑉𝑜 =
𝑒
For threshold wavelength, we apply E = hc/𝜆, and we get:
ℎ𝑐
𝑉𝑜 =
𝑒(λ − λ𝑡ℎ )
Exercise:
When ultraviolet light with a wavelength of 254 nm falls on a clean copper surface, the
stopping potential necessary to stop emission of photoelectrons is 0.181 v.
(a) What is the photoelectric threshold wavelength for this copper surface?
The threshold wavelength λ𝑡ℎ for this copper surface is the maximum or greatest wavelength
of wavelength an incident light can have in order to produce a photoelectric effect. In the
expression
ℎ𝑐
𝑉𝑜 =
𝑒(λ − λ𝑡ℎ )
We can isolate λ𝑡ℎ and substitute values for the other variables in order to get λ𝑡ℎ . Isolating
λ𝑡ℎ , we get
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝑒𝑉𝑜 = −
𝜆 𝜆𝑡ℎ
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
− 𝑒𝑉𝑜 =
𝜆 𝜆𝑡ℎ
1 𝑒𝑉𝑜 1
− =
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 𝜆𝑡ℎ
ℎ𝑐 − 𝜆𝑒𝑉𝑜 1
=
𝜆ℎ𝑐 𝜆𝑡ℎ

Rearranging terms gives us an expression for the threshold wavelength:

𝜆ℎ𝑐
𝜆𝑡ℎ =
ℎ𝑐 − 𝜆𝑒𝑉𝑜

We know that we can use the expression above in order to find the numerical value of the
threshold wavelength since we are given the values for wavelength λ and stopping potential 𝑉𝑜
while both h and c are constants. Substituting in the given values into the expression for λ𝑡ℎ
kg ∙ m2 8m
(254 x 10-9 m)(6.626 x 10-34
λ𝑡ℎ = s )(3 x 10 s )
kg ∙ m2 8m
(6.626 x 10-34 -9 -19
s )(3 x 10 s ) ─ (254 x 10 m)(1.6 x 10 C)(0.181 V)

λ𝑡ℎ = 2.637604365𝑥10−7m or ≈ 2.64 m

Converting the calculated value for λ𝑡ℎ from meters to nanometers using its conversion factor
(1m = 1 x 109 nm) we get approximately 264 nm.

(b) What is the work function for this surface?

Now that we have a value for threshold wavelength, we can now calculate for the numerical
value of the work function 𝜙 using the expression:
 ℎ𝑐
𝜙=
λ𝑡ℎ
Thus, substituting values into the expression above gives us:
kg ∙ m2 8m
(6.626 x 10-34
𝜙= s )(3 x 10 s )
2.6327604365 x 10−7 m

kg ∙ m2
𝜙 = 7.550250195𝑥10−19 𝑜𝑟 ≈ 7.55 𝑥 10−19 J
s2
(c) Find the maximum speed of the emitted photoelectrons.
The maximum speed of the emitted photoelectrons can be calculated using the expression
which relates its maximum kinetic energy and stopping potential:
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉𝑜
But we also know that kinetic energy can be expressed differently in terms of one-half of an
objects mass times the square of its velocity:
1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉𝑜
2
Rearranging terms to isolate velocity v,

2
2𝑒𝑉𝑜
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑚
Squaring both sides,

2𝑒𝑉𝑜
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √
𝑚

Substituting values into the newly derived expression for velocity, we get:

(2)(1.6 x 10−19 C)(0.181 V)

𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √
9.109 x 10−31 kg

1 kg ∙ m2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √2.196 x 1030 ∙ 2.896 x 10-20
𝑘𝑔 s

m2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √6.360 x 1010
s2

m m
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2.5219004043𝑥105 ≈ 2.52x105
s s
Compton scattering
This process considers a collection of photons, each of energy hf, of X-ray radiation scattered
from loosely bound, nearly free electrons. It is considered a “collision” between a photon of
momentum p and an electron at rest and likened to a collision between billiard balls. The
interaction results in a change in wavelength ∆λ of the scattered photon, ∆λ = λ’ - λ.
Represent the collision process with a schematic diagram, where after collision the electron is
scattered with momentum pe at a positive angle φ with the +x-axis, and the photon is
scattered with momentum p’ at a negative angle θ with the +x-axis, so that ∆λ = (h/me c)(1 –
cos θ). This process provides the most conclusive confirmation for the corpuscular aspect of
light.

Figure 3: Schematic diagram of Compton Scattering

In Figure 3, the incident radiation collides with the free electron. As a result both scatter away,
travelling at an angle relative to the centerline or their original positions. According to the
electromagnetic theory, the incident radiation should considered as an electromagnetic wave
with a frequency that corresponds to the oscillation to the electric field of the wave. The
incident radiation would then cause the free electrons (after collision) to oscillate in a frequency
equal to the incident radiation. As a result, the oscillating electrons will then emit
electromagnetic radiation with the same frequency. If both the incident radiation and the
emitted or scattered photon (from the oscillating electron) have the same frequency, this would
mean they have the same wavelength. However, the results of Compton Scattering says
otherwise. The interaction between the incident radiation and the free electrons results to a
change in wavelength of the scattered photon which is also known as the Compton Shift ∆λ =
λ’ – λ.
To mathematically arrive at an expression which represents this phenomenon, the conservation
of both energy and momentum must be considered. In addition, the incident radiation should
also be seen as a stream of photons with energies equivalent to E = hf.
Upon the collision of the free electrons and the photons, some of the energy of the photons are
transferred to the electrons. This is why the emitted or scattered radiation was found to have a
greater wavelength than the incident radiation. From the expression that relates energy 𝐸 and
wavelength λ,
ℎ𝑐
𝐸= (1)
λ

A greater value of wavelength implies a lower energy level which is evidence that the energy
of the incident radiation was indeed transferred onto the electron. Despite the fact that photons
are massless which means momentum p is zero (according to classical mechanics),
𝑝 = (mass)(velocity) = 0
According to special relativity, the relativistic energy of an object can be expressed as:
𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + (𝑚0 𝑐 2 )2 (2)

Where E is energy, p is momentum, c is the speed of light, and m is its rest mass. Isolating
momentum p, and applying m = 0:
𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + ((0)𝑐 2)2

𝐸 (3)
𝑝=
𝑐

Combining Equation (1) with Equation (3), we get a new expression for the momentum p of a
photon:
ℎ
𝑝= (4)
λ

Equation 4 will be used later on. For now, we must mathematically express the momenta of
the electrons and photons before and after the collision based on the conservation of
momentum. Based on Figure (), the momentum conservation along the x-axis can be expressed
as:
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓 cos 𝜃 𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 (5)

Where 𝑝𝑖 and 𝑝𝑓 are the photon’s momentum before and after the collision respectively. While
𝜃 is the angle the photon deviates from the x-axis and 𝜑 is the angle the scattered electron
travels away from the x-axis. And p is the electron’s momentum. Meanwhile, on the y-
direction:
𝑝𝑓 sin θ = 𝑝 sin 𝜑 (6)
Taking the square of both Equation (5), and (6) and then adding the two gives us the expression
in Equation (8) which describes the total momentum before and after the collision:
(𝑝𝑖 )2 = (𝑝𝑓 cos θ p cos φ)2 (6)
2 (7)
(𝑝𝑓 ) = (𝑝 sin φ)2
2 (8)
(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑓 cos θ) + 𝑝𝑓2 sin2 θ = 𝑝2 (sin2 φ + cos 2 φ)

Applying the trigonometric identity sin2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1 on the right hand term in Equation (8)
gives us:
2 (9)
(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑓 cos θ) + 𝑝f2 sin2 θ = 𝑝2 (1)

Expanding the leftmost term:

𝑝𝑖2 − 2𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 cos θ + 𝑝𝑓2 cos 2 θ + 𝑝𝑓2 sin2 θ = 𝑝2 (1) (10)

Factoring out the common term 𝑝𝑓2:

𝑝𝑖2 − 2𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 cos θ + 𝑝𝑓2 (cos 2 θ + sin2 θ) = 𝑝2 (11)

Applying the same trigonometric identity as we did in Equation (8) simplifies our expression
to:
𝑝𝑖2 − 2𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 cos θ + 𝑝𝑓2 (1) = 𝑝2 (12)

Thus, we get a simplified expression which relates the momenta of the photon, and the electron
before and after the collision:

𝑝𝑖2 − 2𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 cos θ + 𝑝𝑓2 = 𝑝2 (13)

Now that we have expressed how the momentum conservation works, we can now move on to
describing the principle of energy conservation which states that in a system, the total energy
before the collision must be equal to the total energy after the collision. The total energy before
the collision is expressed as the sum of the photon’s energy prior to the collision 𝐸𝑖 and the
electron’s rest mass 𝑚𝑒 times the square of the speed of light c. This is equal to the sum of the
photon’s energy after the collision 𝐸𝑓 , the electron’s rest mass 𝑚𝑒 times the square of the speed
of light c, and the kinetic energy of the electron K.
𝐸𝑖 + 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 = 𝐸𝑓 + 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 + 𝐾 (14)

Isolating kinetic energy K, we find that it is simply the difference between the energy before
and after the collision:
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 = 𝐾 (15)

Rearranging Equation (3) to arrive at an expression for energy E, and applying it to Equation
(15), we get:
 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐
𝑐(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑓 ) = 𝐾 (16)

The total energy of a freely moving electron 𝐸 according to the energy-momentum relation is
the sum of its kinetic energy K and its rest mass 𝑚𝑒 times the square of the speed of light c as
shown below:
𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 (17)

Using Equation (17) we may express the relativistic energy equation in Equation (2) as:
(𝐾 + 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 )2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + (𝑚0 𝑐 2 )2 (18)

Expanding Equation (18):

𝐾 2 + 2𝐾𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑒2 𝑐 4 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑒2 𝑐 4 (19)

Cancelling out 𝑚𝑒2 𝑐 4 and isolating momentum p by dividing 𝑐 2 on both sides of the expression:
𝐾 2 + 2𝐾𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 (19)
𝐾2 (20)
2
+ 2𝐾𝑚𝑒 = 𝑝2
𝑐

Recall that we also have an expression for the square of the momentum 𝑝2 found in Equation
(13). Combining Equation (13) and (20), we have the following expression:
𝐾2 (21)
+ 2𝐾𝑚𝑒 = 𝑝𝑖2 − 2𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 cos θ + 𝑝𝑓2
𝑐2

To eliminate K, we may use Equation (16), and express K in terms of the speed of light and
momentum. Substituting Equation (16) into Equation (21) gives:
(𝑐(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑓 ))2 (22)
+ 2(𝑐(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑓 ))𝑚𝑒 = 𝑝𝑖2 − 2𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 cos θ + 𝑝𝑓2
𝑐2

Expanding Equation (22) gives:

𝑐 2 (𝑝𝑖2 − 2𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 + 𝑝𝑓2 ) (23)
+ 2𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑝𝑖 − 2𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑝𝑓 = 𝑝𝑖2 − 2𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 cos θ + 𝑝𝑓2
𝑐2

𝑝𝑖2 − 2𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 + 𝑝𝑓2 + 2𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑝𝑖 − 2𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑝𝑓 = 𝑝𝑖2 − 2𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 cos θ + 𝑝𝑓2 (24)

−2𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 + 2𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑝𝑖 − 2𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑝𝑓 = −2𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 cos θ (25)

−𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 + 𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑝𝑖 − 𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑝𝑓 = −𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 cos θ (26)

Transposing −𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 to the right side and factoring out like terms:
 𝑚𝑒 𝑐(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑓 ) = (𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 )(1 − cos θ) (27)

Dividing 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 and (𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 ) to both sides of the equation and simplifying:

𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑓 1 (28)
= (1 − cos θ)
𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑓 𝑚𝑒 𝑐

1 1 1 (29)
− = (1 − cos θ)
𝑝𝑓 𝑝𝑖 𝑚𝑒 𝑐

Multiplying both sides of Equation (29) by Planck’s constant h:

ℎ ℎ ℎ (30)
− = (1 − cos θ)
𝑝𝑓 𝑝𝑖 𝑚𝑒 𝑐

We can now use Equation (4) which describes the relationship between momentum and
wavelength and apply it to Equation (30). Rearranging Equation (4) to isolate wavelength λ,
and substituting it into Equation (30):
ℎ (31)
𝜆=
𝑝
ℎ (32)
𝜆𝑓 − 𝜆𝑖 = (1 − cos θ)
𝑚𝑒 𝑐

Thus we arrive at the expression that relates the difference of the final and wavelength of the
photons to the scattering angle 𝜃

ℎ (33)
Δ𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑚𝑒 𝑐

Exercise:
If a photon of wavelength of 0.04250 nm strikes a free electron and is scattered at an angle 35
degrees from its original direction, find
a) The change in the wavelength of this photon;
We may use Equation (33) since we are only dealing with one unknown, the change in
wavelength Δ𝜆. Thus, substituting values gives us:

kg ∙ m2
6.626 x 10−34 s
Δ𝜆 =
−31 m (1 − cos 35°)
(9.1093837015 𝑥 10 𝑘𝑔)(3 x 108 s )

Δ𝜆 = (2.424606032 𝑥 10−12𝑚)(0.1808479557)

Δ𝜆 = 4.384850442 𝑥 10−13 𝑚
 b) The wavelength of the scattered light;
The wavelength of the scattered light or 𝜆𝑓 can be found by taking the sum of Δ𝜆 and 𝜆𝑖 :

𝜆𝑓 = Δ𝜆 + 𝜆𝑖

𝜆𝑓 = 4.384850442 𝑥 10−13 𝑚 + 4.25 𝑥 10−11 𝑚

𝜆𝑓 = 4.294 𝑥 10−11 𝑚

c) The change in energy of the photon;

The change in energy of the photon can be found by taking the difference between the energy
of the photon prior to the collision and its energy after the collision. This can be expressed as:
Δ𝐸 = 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑖

We also know that

ℎ𝑐
𝐸=
𝜆
Thus, the change in energy can be expressed as:
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 1 1
Δ𝐸 = − = ℎ𝑐 ( − )
𝜆𝑓 𝜆𝑖 𝜆𝑓 𝜆𝑖

Substituting values:
1 1
Δ𝐸 = ℎ𝑐 ( − )
𝜆𝑓 𝜆𝑖

kg ∙ m2 m 1 1
Δ𝐸 = (6.626 x 10−34 ) (3 x 108 ) ( − )
s s 4.25 𝑥 10 𝑚 4.29 𝑥 10−11 𝑚
−11

Therefore, the photon’s change in energy Δ𝐸 is

kg ∙ m2
Δ𝐸 = −4.79 x 10−17 or − 4.79 x 10−17 J
s2
Meaning the collision caused the photon to lose energy by an amount of what is written
above.
d) The energy gained by the electron.
The conservation of energy principle states that the total energy in a system will always be
equal in initial and final conditions. During the collision, it was found that the photon lost
−4.79 𝑥 10−17 J worth of energy. The same amount of energy was then transferred to the
electron. Hence, the energy gained by the electron is also 4.79 𝑥 10−17 J. But because the
electron gained energy, its change in energy is +4.79 𝑥 10−17 J.
There are 5 underlined exercises included in this section to be answered by the student.
Please submit your answers onsite as Assignment 1.2. Your answers will be graded as a quiz.
Please use the following format for Assignments 1.1 – 1.5:

1) Copy the entire text of this section from start to finish in black font color.
2) Set font color of questions in the text to blue.
3) Insert the answers after each question in the text with font color green.

References: University Physics with Modern Physics, 13th ed., Young and Freedman
Modern Physics, Paul Tipler
Quantum Physics, Stephen Gasiorowicz
Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach with Modern Physics, Randall D.
Knight
Photoelectric Effect, Byjus, https://byjus.com/jee/photoelectric-effect/