!ST Topic Society and Culture Chapter

Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?
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As the society starts the new millennium, everyone is filled with

excitement as well as apprehension about the prospects of a new century.
Dramatic changes brought about by social upheavals, rapid population
growth, information technology, increasing globalization, and environmental
degradation are taking place, bringing with them multifarious problems. In the
face of confusion, uncertainties or crisis, we need to understand more than
ever these various phenomena and offer solutions to the different problems.
In humanity’s quest for understanding the world and its concomitant

problems, many approaches and solutions have been tried. Some of the
speculations and attempts at understanding and solving problems are
embodied in myths, legends, folkways and traditions or in the use of common
sense. The philosophers, the moralists, the theologians, statesmen, and
journalists have provided solutions to these problems but they are somehow
insufficient and non-too reliable at times. A more precise and reliable
approach was provided with the advent of science in the sixteenth century.
SocSc 1: Society and Culture

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Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?]
What is Science?
A clarification of the meaning of science, and of social science in
particular, is fundamental to the understanding of sociology and anthropology.
Some lay persons have the impression that the scientist is a queer-looking,
unsociable genius, but this is very far from reality. They are not aware that the
scientist is dependent upon groups and has increasingly worked in teams with
other scientists. Scientists have tried to lessen or remove the difficulties of
communication that separate the varied scientific disciplines and to present
their findings in a manner that can be understood by the lay person.
Science is a way of learning about the world through disciplined inquiry

which combines systematic theory and observation that provide explanation of
how things work. A theory is a system of ideas or statements held as an
explanation of a group of facts or phenomena. It gives a description and
explanation of matters of everyday life or facts about the world. It summarizes
existing knowledge that suggests guidelines for interpreting new information.
The ordered body of knowledge is arrived at through methodically rigid
observation. As a method of inquiry, science is a way of finding out about the
world through rigorous and disciplined collection of facts and a logical
explanation of them. Science can also be viewed as a way of life when one
imbibes the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary in scientific
investigation.
Science may be classified into two:
1. Natural Sciences
✓ Study phenomena and processes as well as objects in nature
and provide systematic information of the non-human and
physical aspects of the natural world.
✓ Biology, physics, chemistry, zoology, geology, and astronomy
are some of the natural sciences.
2. Social Sciences
✓ Involved in the study of society, social relations, and human
behavior.
✓ The social scientist makes use of the methods and tools used by
the natural scientist in the study of social behavior and social
phenomena and their subjects are human beings who can and
do talk back.
✓ Hence, social scientists encounter problems such as the ethical
aspects in studying their subjects, something which is not
experienced by the natural scientist. There are ethical limits to

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the kinds of experiments that they can perform, like those which
may inflict moral or physical harm on the subjects.
✓ The social sciences include economics, political science,
psychology, sociology, anthropology, and history.
Science may also be divided into:
1. Pure Science
✓ Concerned with the pursuit of knowledge and empirical truth and
the development of theory. Its goal is to discover truth.
✓ The pure scientist derives intellectual pleasure in advancing
knowledge.
✓ The pure social sciences are economics, political science,
anthropology, and sociology.
2. Applied Science
✓ Directed toward the use of scientific knowledge and theory for
the solution of practical problems.
✓ Social work, education, public administration, ethics, and
management may be classified as applied social sciences.
Theoretically, the pure and applied sciences are distinct from each other, but
actually they are interrelated.
Sociologists and Anthropologists are generally concerned with doing

basic research, but at times they are called to use their specialized knowledge
in the evaluation of research, which seeks information on the actual effects of
some existing programs like those on nutrition, family planning, agrarian
reform, or those carried out by NGOs.
The Origins of Sociology and Anthropology
The history of Anthropology goes back to the period of discoveries and

explorations, from the 15th to 18th centuries. Sources of facts are the accounts
of early Western explorers, missionaries, soldiers, and colonial officials
regarding the strange behavior and beliefs as well as exotic appearance of
people they had come in contact with. Discoveries of flint tools and other
artifacts in France and other parts of Europe in the early 19 th century gave
evidence of the existence of human beings a million years ago. These
discoveries happened at a time when advances in physics and chemistry
were made, arousing an interest in scientific inquiry. In the 19th century
Anthropology began to take shape as a separate field of study which had its
roots in the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities. Edward Tylor
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was the first professor of Anthropology in Oxford, England. In the United

States, it was Franz Boas of Clark University, Massachusetts.
Modern Anthropology in both its physical and cultural aspects started
only around the 20th century. Among its pioneers aside from Edward Tylor
were Lewis Morgan and Herbert Spencer. An evolutionary view of humanity
and human behavior was the dominant theme of the early anthropologists
who were mostly armchair theorists. Structural-functionalism was eventually
used. The turn for a higher level of research through the use of careful and
thorough gathering of data about individual cultures was made by Franz Boas
and Alfred Kroeber, who were followed by Bronislaw Malinowski, A. R.
Radcliffe Brown, Ralph Linton, Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, and others.
On the other hand, Sociology, considered as one of the youngest of the
social sciences emerged about the middle of the 19 th century when European
observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas.
The Development of Sociology and Anthropology in the Philippines

The ideas of sociology and anthropology were diffused in Europe, in
the Americas, and Asia, and one of the receiving countries is the Philippines.
In the Philippines, there is a close tradition of close cooperation between
sociology and social anthropology.
Anthropology began as a practical activity of colonizers in the service
of religion and government. Ethnographic accounts provided by Spanish
chroniclers like Pigafetta, Loarca, Plasencia, and Chirino are now being used
for historical and comparative studies on Philippine society and culture. In the
19th century, archaeological explorations were made by a Frenchman, Alfred
Marche, who did some diggings in Marinduque. Jose Rizal and Trinidad
Pardo de Tavera later contributed to ethnolinguistics and the study of folklore.
During the American period, the American government got interested in
the various ethnic groups of the country out of curiosity and religious,
humanistic, and political reasons. The Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes was
established: it was later replaced by the Ethnological Survey of the Philippines
Office. Field studies were made on a number of hill peoples by such American
anthropologists as H. Otley Beyer, Albert Jenks, and Roy Franklin Barton.
Anthropology was elevated to an academic discipline in the University
of the Philippines in 1914 by Otley Beyer. It was offered as one of the courses
in the department of history; it was merged with sociology in 1921. Patterned
after the American model, the studies included areas in physical ang cultural
anthropology.
From its inception sociology was made part of the academe. It was
introduced by Fr. Valentin Marin as a subject in the curriculum in 1896 at the
University of Santo Tomas, and it was initiated in the University of the
Philippines in 1911 by Pres. Murray Bartlett and A. E. W. Salt. Silliman

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University was also one of the first to include it in its curriculum. At its start,
sociology had a social philosophy perspective, which continued up to the
1950’s. in 1920 Serafin Macaraig, the first Filipino to obtain a Ph.D. in
sociology from the University of Wisconsin, introduced the social problem
orientation. Not until the 1950’s did the scientific perspective seep into
sociology with the establishment of educational exchange programs and local
scholarships and the holding of seminars and conferences on social science.
A number of Filipinos studied in the United States and England and imbibed
the theoretical and research orientations of the West, such as structural-
functionalism and symbolic-interactionism.
The training in anthropology was also boosted after World War II. The
number of Filipinos enjoying foreign scholarships or studying in the U. S.
continued to increase in the 1950’s training abroad was mostly in the
University of Chicago and Cornell University. The returning scholars in both
sociology and anthropology ushered into the Philippines the climate of
research in the social sciences. With the arrival of several Fulbright
professors, further interest in social research was started.
In 1952 the Philippine Sociological Society was organized, which
marked an important milestone in the development of Philippine sociology. It
established a journal, the Philippine Sociological Review, which has as
contributors, sociologists and anthropologists.
In 1960 the Research Foundation of Philippine Anthropology and
Archaeology was established giving greater impetus to research. In 1968 the
Philippine Social Science Council (PSSC) was formed to consolidate the
Philippine social science researches. It aimed to promote the quality and
relevance of social science studies, improve teaching skills, train social
science research, and encourage social science publications.
The 1960’s and 1970’s saw the emergence of empirical researches
undertaken in the University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University,
and the University of San Carlos. The Institute of Philippine Culture at the
Ateneo, headed by Dr. Frank Lynch S.J., a social anthropologist, came out
with a number of publications in Philippine society and culture. The
Community Development Center created in 1957 supported the various social
science researches, both pure and applied. At this time, there was also an
advocacy for the indigenization of concepts and tools suited to local
conditions in order to wean social science research from Western pattern and
methodology. Gelia Castillo, a Filipino sociologist, advocated the integration of
the scattered empirical studies into the development problem areas which
policy-makers, researchers, teachers, and students can focus attention on.
The 1970’s brought in ideas of phenomenological sociology and Marxism in
Europe.

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The Anthropological Association of the Philippines (UGAT-Ugnayan

pang Agham-Tao) was established in 1978. The organization publishes its
own journal, Agham Tao. Despite this break-away from the Philippine
Sociological Society, the individual and inter-organizational cooperation
between sociology and anthropology is still maintained.
The theoretical and methodological trend of the 70’s continued into the
80’s. This was reflected in the theory courses in the University of the
Philippines and other schools. The period also saw the use of more applied
research. However, such problems as poverty and disparate distribution of
wealth remained in the country despite the numerous researches made for
policy makers. The traditional theory of functionalism was challenged by some
members of the academe. A shift to a new strategy in research where people
concerned were made to participate in the social research process was then
made. This shift to a new methodological framework, participatory research in
sociology was welcomed, despite its being considered by some scientists as
unscientific and subjective.
A major event for the social science community in the 1980’s was the
holding of the first Social Science Congress on November 17-19, 1983. The
theme of the Conference was “Towards Excellence in the Social Science in
the Philippines.” On May 22-23, 1998, the Philippine Social Science Council,
in cooperation with the National Academy of Science and Technology, held
the Fourth National Congress on assessing the role of the social sciences in
the life of a nation celebrating the centennial anniversary of independence.
In the 1990’s the Philippine Sociological Society and the Ungnayan
pang Agham-Tao continued to address the current issues facing the country
through the holding of conventions and seminars and conducting empirical
research on issues like the family and related problems, transnational
migration, social deviance, NGO’s and the like. As the disciplines of sociology
and anthropology start the third millennium they continue to wrestle against
the social, cultural, political, and ecological problems of the country by
providing insights and perspectives which may be useful for policy makers,
program managers, or the people concerned.

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Sociology, considered as one of the youngest of the social sciences

emerged about the middle of the 19th century when European observers
began to use scientific methods to test their ideas. Four factors combined to
lead to the development of sociology:
1. The turmoil of the Industrial Revolution

✓ By the middle of the 19th century, Europe was changing from
agriculture to factory production. This violently changed people’s
lives. Masses of people were forced off the land. Moving to the
cities in search for work, they found anonymity, crowding, filth,
and poverty. Their ties to the land, to the generations that had
lived there before them and to their way of life were abruptly
broken.
✓ They also found horrible working conditions: low pay, exhausting
hours, dangerous work, foul smoke, and much noise. To
survive, families had to permit their children to work in these
same conditions; some children were even chained to factory
machines to make certain they could not run away.
✓ Life no longer looked the same, and tradition, which had
provided the answers, no longer sufficed.

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Britain was the birthplace of industrial revolution because of the

following:
1. Increased population that became workers for
factories and mines
2. Large supply of coal in the country that fueled steam
engines used for trains and other transportation
3. The country’s geographical ability gave way for an easy,
cheap and fast transportation of goods that enabled
traders to earn more profit
4. Britain’s political climate was stable, allowing free
trade and related policies that allowed increase of
property to increase income (but at the expense of
children’s and workers’ welfare for child labor and
indiscriminate wage oppression were imposed)
5. Country’s vast colonial empire (North America, South
Africa, Egypt, India and Australia in the 1700s)
Children and minors were employed in factories because they are not entitled to benefits that are given to those of regular
working age groups. When they are harmed while working, the company reserved no financial obligation up on them, while
preserving their income and increasing their financial gains.
A steam boat that easily imports and exports

cargoes that are advanced sources of income and
wealth for the capitalists.
One of the earliest textile companies that employed mass production

and where irregular and commonly oppressive working conditions
were observed.

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2. The success of American and French Revolutions.

• The second blow to tradition was the success of the American
and French revolutions. These encouraged people to rethink
social life. New ideas arose, including the conviction that
individuals possess inalienable rights.
• As this new idea caught fire, many traditional Western
monarchies gave way to more democratic forms and to other
manifestations of political change. The ready answers of
tradition, including religion, no longer sufficed.
• When tradition reigns supreme, it provides a ready answer: “We
do this because it has always been done this way.” Such
societies discourage original thinking. Since the answers are
already provided, why search for explanations? Sweeping
change, however, does the opposite: By upsetting the existing
order, it encourages questioning and demands answers.
Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) Voltaire (real name

François-Marie Arouet) (1694 - 1778) was a
French philosopher and writer of the Age of
Enlightenment. His intelligence, wit and style made
him one of France's greatest writers and
philosophers, despite the controversy he attracted.

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3. Imperialism
✓ This factor also stimulated the
development of sociology. The
Europeans had been
successful in conquering
many parts of the world. Their
new colonial empires,
stretching from Asia through
the North America, exposed
them to radically different
cultures. Startled by these
contrasting ways of life, they began to ask why cultures differed.
4. The success of the natural sciences.

✓ The fourth impetus for the development of sociology is the
success of the natural sciences. Just as the time when people
were questioning fundamental aspects of their social worlds, the
scientific method—using objective, systematic observations to
test theories—was being tried out in chemistry and physics.
Many secrets that had been concealed in nature were
uncovered. With tradition no longer providing answers to
questions about social life, the logical step was to apply this
method to these questions. The result was the birth of sociology.

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Pioneers of Sociology

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Definition and Areas of Concern of Sociology

Sociology is the science of society and the social interaction taking
place among individuals in a social group. It focuses on all kinds of social
interaction—social acts, social relationships, social organizations and social
processes. It is concerned with the recurrent and repetitive forms of behavior,
attitudes, beliefs, values, and norms, and social institutions which make up
the social order. As Durkheim pointed out, its scope is social facts such as
facts of religion, law, moral ideas, and economics which must be seen in their
relation to each other and the collective milieu in the midst of which they
develop and whose expression they are. Sociologists seek not only the
description but also the explanation of social behavior. They are interested in
knowing the causes of social facts, the function of social institutions, and the
meaning of social action.
The various areas of concern of sociology are as follows:
✓ This involves the study of social groups, social institutions,

ethnic relations, social stratification, social mobility, and
bureaucracy.
✓ It includes the sociology of family, economy, work, agriculture,
industry, religion, law, politics, and education.

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✓ This area studies human nature and personality as the product

of group life.
✓ It also touches on the study of social attitudes and collective
behavior.
✓ This area is concerned with the change in culture and social

relations and the attendant disruption that may occur. Social
reorganization is also considered.

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✓ This analyzes population number, composition, change, and

quality as they influence and are influenced by the social,
economic, and political orders.
✓ Studies in this area deal with the human behavior of a given

population in relation to its environment and the emergence of
the spatial relations between the people and the environment.

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Survey
Focus-group Discussion
Face-to-face interview
✓ This includes theory building and testing the applicability of the

principles of group life as the bases for the prediction and
control of the individual’s social environment.
✓ This makes use of the findings of pure sociological research on

the various aspects and problems of daily life, as in criminology,
community development, family counseling, squatters’
relocation, education, agrarian reform, non-governmental
organizations, labor relations, nutrition and health.

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LITERATURE REVIEW. RESEARCH ON STUDIES RELATED TO THE

DIFFERENT AREAS OF CONCERN OF SOCIOLOGY.
How?
1. Look up to the internet for journals or books that contain research

studies on the topics about:
a. Social organization
b. Social psychology
c. Social change and disorganization
d. Population studies
e. Human ecology
f. Sociological theory and methods
g. Applied sociology
2. Provide one (1) research study for each topic.
3. Come up with a total of seven (7) hand-written or printed outputs
containing the following components for each research study
described:
a. Title of the study
b. Methodology employed in the study
c. Key findings of the study, conclusion and recommendations
d. Citation using APA format
e. Answer: How does this research study relate to the areas of
concern of sociology?

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Theories and Perspectives in Sociology

Facts never interpret themselves. In everyday life, we interpret what we
observe by using common sense, placing any particular observation or “fact”
into a framework of more-or-less related ideas. Sociologists place their
observations into a conceptual framework called a theory. A theory is a
general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how
they work. It is an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one
another. By providing a framework in which to place observations, each
theory interprets reality in a distinct way. Sociologists use three major theories
that provide understanding of social life.
I. Symbolic Interactionism
We can trace the origins of Symbolic Interactionism to the moral
philosophers of the eighteenth century who noted that:
✓ People evaluate their own conduct by comparing themselves with
others (Strykers 1990).
✓ People use symbols to encapsulate their experiences (William James,
1842-1910; John Dewey, 1859-1952).
✓ Symbols lie at the basis of self-concept (Charles Horton Cooley, 1864-
1929; William I. Thomas, 1863-1947; George Herbert Mead, 1863-
1931).
Symbolic Interactionists stress that symbols – things to which we attach

meaning – make social life possible. What do we mean by this?
1. Without symbols our social relations would be limited to the animal
level, for we would have no mechanism for perceiving others in terms
of relationships (aunts and uncles, employers and teachers, and so
on). Strange as it may seem, only because we have symbols can we
have aunts and uncles, for it is these symbols that define for us what
such relationships entail.
2. Without symbols, we also could not coordinate our actions with others.
We would be unable to make plans for a future date, time, and place.
Unable to specify times, materials, sizes, or goals, we could not build
bridges and highways. Without symbols, there would be no books,
movies, or musical instruments. We would have no schools or
hospitals, no government, no religion.
Symbolic Interactionists point out that even the self is a symbol, for it
consists of the ideas that we have about who we are. And it is a changing
symbol, for as we interact with others, we constantly adjust our views of the
self based on how we interpret the reactions of others.
In short, Symbolic Interactionists analyze how our behaviors depend on
the ways we define ourselves and others. For example, if you think of
someone as an aunt or uncle, you behave in certain ways, but if you think of
that person as a boyfriend or girlfriend, you behave quite differently. It is as
though everyday life is a stage on which we perform; we switch roles to suit
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our changing audiences. Symbolic Interactionists primarily examine face-to-

face interaction; they look at how people work out their relationships and
make sense out of life and their place in it.
Women of the Kayan tribes identify themselves by their forms of dress.

Women of the Kayan Lahwi tribe are well known for wearing neck rings,
brass coils that are placed around the neck, appearing to lengthen it.
Girls first start to wear rings when they are around 5 years old. Over the
years, the coil is replaced by a longer one and more turns are added. The
weight of the brass pushes the collar bone down and compresses the rib
cage. The neck itself is not lengthened; the appearance of a stretched neck
is created by the deformation of the clavicle. Many ideas regarding why the
coils are worn have been suggested, often formed by
visiting anthropologists, who have hypothesized that the rings protected
women from becoming slaves by making them less attractive to other
tribes. It has also been theorised that the coils originate from the desire to
look more attractive by exaggerating sexual dimorphism, as women have
more slender necks than men. It has also been suggested that the coils give
the women resemblance to a dragon, an important figure in Kayan
folklore. The coils might be meant to protect from tiger bites, perhaps
literally, but probably symbolically.
Kayan women, when asked, acknowledge these ideas, and often say that
their purpose for wearing the rings is cultural identity (one associated with
beauty).
Surma of Southwest Ethiopia. The gradual expansion of small ear plugs and
lip plugs during childhood into large ear plates and lip plates during
adulthood is another form of body modification that is closely associated
with the beauty asthetic among the Surma. Scarred lip tissue is just part of
the expansion process (above), with lip plate designs showing the octagonal
alignment of resonant infrasound standing wave arcs. Some women have lip
plates inserted in both the upper and lower lips, which obviously require
temporary removal during eating and drinking.
Applying Symbolic Interactionism

To better understand Symbolic Interactionism, let’s see how changing
symbols (meanings) help to explain the high U.S. divorce rate. For
background, you should understand that marriage used to be seen as a
lifelong commitment, and divorce as an immoral act, evidence of a flagrant
disregard for public opinion and the abandonment of adult responsibilities.
1. Emotional satisfaction. In the early part of the last century, symbolic

interactionists observed that the basis for family solidarity was changing. As
early as 1933, sociologist William Ogburn noted that personality was
becoming more important in mate selection. Then in 1945, sociologists
Ernest Burgess and Harvey Locke found that family solidarity was coming to

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depend more and more on mutual affection, understanding, and compatibility.

What these sociologists had observed was a fundamental shift in U.S.
marriage: Husbands and wives were coming to expect – and demand –
greater emotional satisfaction from one another.
As this trend intensified, intimacy became the core of marriage. At the
same time, as society grew more complex and impersonal, Americans came
to see marriage as a solution to the tensions that society produced. This new
form, “compassionate marriage,” contributed to divorce, for it encouraged
people to expect that their spouse would satisfy “each and every need.”
Consequently, sociologists say, marriage became an “overloaded instruction.”
2. The love symbol. Our symbol of love also helps to “overload” marriage.
Unrealistic expectations that “true love” will be a constant source of emotional
satisfaction set people up for crushed hopes, for when dissatisfactions enter
marriage, as they inevitably do, spouses tend to blame one another for what
they see as the other’s failure. Their engulfment in the symbol of love at the
time of marriage blinds them to the basic unreality of their expectations.
3. The meaning of children. Ideas about childhood have undergone a deep

historical shift with far-reaching consequences for the contemporary U.S.
family. In medieval European society children were seen as miniature adults,
and there was no sharp separation between the worlds of adults and children.
Boys were apprenticed at about age 7, while girls at the same age learned the
homemaking duties associated with the wifely role. In the United States, just
three generations ago children “became adults” when they graduated from
eight grade and took employment. The contrast is amazing: From miniature
adults, children have been culturally fashioned into impressionable,
vulnerable, and innocent beings.
4. The meaning of parenthood. These changed notions of childhood have

had a corresponding impact on our ideas of good parenting. Today’s parents
are expected not only to provide unending amounts of affection, love, and
tender care but also to take responsibility for ensuring that their children
“reach their potential.” Today’s child rearing lasts longer and is more
demanding, pushing the family into even greater “emotional overload.”
5. Marital roles. In earlier generations, newlyweds knew what they could

legitimately expect from each other, for the responsibilities and privileges of
husbands and wives were clearly defined. In contrast, today’s much vaguer
guidelines leave couples to work out more aspects of their respective roles on
their own. Many find it difficult to figure out how to divide up responsibilities
for work, home, and children.
6. Perception of alternatives. While the above changes in marriage

expectations were taking place, another significant social change was under
way: More and more women began taking jobs outside the home. As they
earned paychecks of their own, many wives began for the first time to see
alternatives to remaining in unhappy marriages. Symbolic interactionists

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consider the perception of an alternative an essential first step to making

divorce possible.
7. The meaning of divorce. As these various factors coalesced – greater

expectations of emotional satisfaction and changed marital and parental roles,
accompanied by a new perception of alternatives to an unhappy marriage –
divorce steadily increased.
8. Changes in the law. The law, itself a powerful symbol, began to reflect
these changed ideas about divorce – and to encourage divorce. Where
previously divorce was granted only when the most rigorous criteria, such as
adultery, were met, legislators now made “incompatibility” legitimate grounds
for divorce. Eventually, states pioneered “no-fault” divorce, in which couples
could dissolve their marriage without accusations of wrongdoing. Some even
provide do-it-yourself divorce kits.
In sum
Symbolic Interactionists explain an increasing divorce rate in terms of
the changing symbols (meanings) associated with both marriage and divorce.
Changes in people’s ideas—about marriage, marital satisfaction, love, the
nature of changing and parenting, and the roles of husband and wife—have
put extreme pressures on today’s married couples. No single change is the
cause, but taken together, these changes provide a strong “push” toward
divorce.
Are these changes good or bad? Central to symbolic interactionism is
the position that to make a value judgment about change (or anything else)
requires a value framework from which to view the change. Symbolic
interactionism provides no such value framework. In short, symbolic
interactionists, like other sociologists, can analyze social change, but they
cannot pass judgment on that value.
II. Structural – Functional Analysis

The central idea of Structural-Functional Analysis is that society is a
whole unit made up of interrelated parts that work together. Structural-
Functional Analysis also known as functionalism or structural
functionalism, is rooted in the origins of sociology (Turner 1978). Auguste
Comte and Herbert Spencer viewed society as a kind of living organism. Just
as a biological organism has organs that function together, they wrote, so
does society. Like an organism, if society is to function smoothly, its various
parts must work together in harmony.
Emile Durkheim also saw society as composed of many parts, each
with its own function. When all the parts of society fulfill their functions, society
is in a “normal state.” If they do not fulfill their functions, society is an
“abnormal” or “pathological state.” To understand society, then,
functionalists say that we need to look at both structure (how the parts of the
society fit together to make a whole) and function (what each part does, how
it contributes to society).

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Although Robert Merton dismissed the organic analogy, he continued

the essence of functionalism—the image of society as a whole composed of
interrelated parts. Merton used the term functions to refer to the beneficial
consequences of people’s actions that help keep a group (society, social
system) in equilibrium. In contrast, dysfunctions are consequences that
undermine a system’s equilibrium.
Functions can be either manifest or latent. If an action is intended to
help some part of the system, it is a manifest function. For example,
suppose that government officials become concerned about the slowing rate
of childbirth. Congress passes a new law that offers a $10,000 bonus for
every child born to a married couple. The intention, or manifest function, of the
bonus is to increase childbearing. Merton pointed out that people’s actions
also can have latent functions—unintended consequences that help a system
adjust. Let’s suppose that the bonus works, that the birth rate jumps. As a
result, the sale of diapers and baby furniture booms. Because the benefits of
these businesses were not the intended consequences, they are latent
functions of the bonus.
Of course, human actions also can hurt a system. Because such
consequences usually are unintended, Merton called them latent
dysfunctions. Let’s assume that the government has failed to specify a
“stopping point” with regard to its bonus system. To collect the bonus, some
people keep on having children. The more children they have, however, the
more they need the next bonus in order to survive. Large families become
common, and poverty increases. Welfare is reinstated, taxes jump, and the
nation erupts in protest. Because these results were not intended, and
because they harmed the social system, they represent latent dysfunctions of
the bonus program.
health family
civil governme
society nt
mass
school
media
market church

23
Applying Structural-Functional Analysis

Structural-Functionalists stress that industrialization and urbanization
determined the traditional functions of the family. Let’s see how each basic
function has changed.
1. Economic Production. Prior to industrialization, the family constituted an

economic team. Most families found it difficult to obtain the basic necessities
of life, and family members had to cooperate in producing what they needed
to survive. When industrialization moved production from home to factory, it
disrupted this family team and weakened the bonds that tied family members
together. Especially significant was the transfer of the husband/father to the
factory, for this move separated him from the family’s daily routine. In addition,
the wife/mother and children now contributed less to the family’s economic
survival.
2. Socialization of Children. As these sweeping economic changes took

place, the government, which was growing larger and more powerful, usurped
many family functions. To name just one example, local schools took away
from the family the responsibility of educating children. In so doing, they
assumed much of the responsibility for socializing children. To make certain
that families went along with this change, states passed laws requiring that
children attend school and threatened parents with jail if they did not send
their children.
3. Care of the Sick and Elderly. With new laws governing medical schools
and hospitals, institutionalized medicine grew more powerful, and care of the
sick gradually shifted from the family to outside medical specialists. As the
central government expanded and its agencies multiplied, care of the aged
changed from a family concern to a government obligation.
4. Recreation. As more disposable income became available to Americans,

business enterprises sprang up to compete for that income. This cost the
family much of its recreational function, for much entertainment and “fun”
changed from home-based, family-centered activities to attendance at paid
events.
5. Sexual control of Members. Even the control of sexuality was not left
untouched by the vast social changes that swept the country. Traditionally,
only sexual relations within marriage were considered legitimate. Although
this sexual control was always more ideal than real, for even among the
Puritans matrimony never did enjoy a monopoly over sexual relations, it is
now considerably weaker than it is used to be. The “sexual revolution” of the
past few decades has opened many alternatives to marital sex.
6. Reproduction. On the surface, the only family function that seems to have
been left untouched is reproduction. Yet even this vital and seemingly
inviolable function has not gone unchallenged. A prime example is the greater
number of single women who are having children. Even schools and private

24
agencies have taken over some of the family’s control over reproduction. A
married woman, for example, can get an abortion without informing her
husband, and some high schools distribute condoms.
In sum
From the perspective of structural-functional analysis, then, the group
is a functional whole, with each part related to the whole. Whenever we
examine a smaller part, we need to look for its functions and dysfunctions to
see how it is related to the larger unit. This basic approach can be applied to
any social group, whether an entire society, a college, or even a group as
small as a family.
III. Conflict Theory

Conflict theory provides a third perspective on social life. Karl Marx,
who developed conflict theory, witnessed the Industrial Revolution that
transformed Europe. He saw that peasants who had left the land to seek work
in cities had to work at wages that barely provided enough to eat. (The
average worker died at age 30, the average wealthy person at age 50).
Shocked by this suffering and exploitation, Marx began to analyze society and
history. As he did so, he developed Conflict Theory concluding that:
✓ The key to human history is class struggle.
In every society, some small group controls the means of production
and exploits those who are not in control. The struggle is between:
Bourgeoisie-the small group of capitalists who own the means to
produce wealth.
Proletariat-the mass of workers who are exploited by the Bourgeoisie.

25
Another conflict sociologist by the name Ralf Dahrendorf sees conflict as:
✓ Inherent in all relations that involve authority. He points out that
authority or power that people consider legitimate, permeates every
layer of the society—whether a small group, a community, or the entire
society. People in positions of authority try to enforce conformity, which
in turn creates resentment and resistance.
✓ The result is a constant struggle throughout society to determine who
has authority over what.
Applying Conflict Theory

To explain why the U.S. divorce rate is high, conflict theorists:
✓ Look at men’s and women’s relationships in terms of basic
inequalities—men dominate and exploit, while women are dominated
and exploited.
✓ Stress that women have traditionally been regarded as property and
passed by one male, the father, to another, the husband.

26
IV. Other Perspectives
Post-Modernism
✓ Designates a new condition which contemporary advanced
industrial societies alleged to have reached.
✓ This perspective argues that it offers related perspectives on the
shortcomings of positivism as well as new ways to theorize and
study contemporary societies.
Auguste Comte and Positivism

Social problems attended this social upheaval, and Auguste Comte, a
French philosopher, believed that the methods and techniques of the natural
sciences could be fruitfully applied to the society. This idea of applying the
scientific method to the social world, known as positivism, apparently was
first proposed by Auguste Comte (1987-1857). With the French Revolution
still fresh in his mind, Comte left the small, conservative town in which he had
grown up and moved to Paris. The changes he experienced, combined with
those France underwent in the revolution, led Comte to become interested in
what holds society together. What creates social order, he wondered, instead
of anarchy and chaos? And then, once society does become set on a
particular course, what causes it to change? Comte simply asked two
questions: “What is? and What should be?”
As he considered these questions, Comte concluded that the right way
to answer them was to apply the scientific method to social life. Just as this
method revealed the law of gravity, so, too, would it uncover the laws that
underlie society. Comte called this new science sociology—the “scientific
study of society” (from Greek logos, ‘study of’ and the Latin socius or
‘companion’ or ‘being with others.’). Comte stressed that this new science not

27
only would discover social principles but also would apply then to social
reform, to making society a better place to live.
Comte had some ideas that today’s sociologists find humorous. For
example, as Comte saw matters, there were only six sciences—mathematics,
chemistry, biology, astronomy, and sociology—with sociology far superior
than others (Bogardus, 1992). To Comte, applying the scientific method to
social life meant practicing what we might call “armchair philosophy”—drawing
conclusions from informal observations of social life. He did not do what
today’s sociologists would call research, and his conclusions have been
abandoned.
Nevertheless, Comte’s insistence that we cannot be dogmatic about social
life, but that we must observe and classify human activities in order to uncover
society’s fundamental laws, is well taken. Because he developed this idea and
coined the term sociology, Comte often is credited being the founder of
sociology.
C. Wright Mills and The Sociological Imagination

Sociology offers a new perspective, a view of the world. The
Sociological Imagination opens a window onto unfamiliar worlds and offers
a fresh look at familiar worlds. In your daily regular routine, you might find
yourself in the midst of other students in school, with family members at
home, or around peer groups. But you will also find yourself looking at your
own world in a different light. As you view other worlds, or your own, the
sociological imagination enables you to gain a new vision of social life.
Sociological imagination stresses the social contexts in which people
live. It examines how these contexts influence people’s lives. At the center of
the sociological imagination is the question of how groups influence people,
especially how people are influenced by their society—a group of people who
share a culture and territory.
To find out why people do what they do, sociologists look at social
location—the corners in life that people occupy because of where they are
located in a society. Sociologists look at jobs, income, education, gender, age,
and race as significant. Consider, for example, how being identified with a
group called males or with a group called females when we are growing up
affects our ideas of what we should attain in life. Growing up as a male or
female influences not only our aspirations, but also how we feel about
ourselves and how we relate to others in dating and marriage and at work.
Sociologist C. Wright Mills (1959) put it this way: “The sociological
imagination enables us to grasp the connection between history and
biography.” By history, Mills meant that each society is located in a broad
stream of events. Because of this, each society has specific characteristics—
such as its ideas of the proper roles of men and women. By biography, Mills
referred to the individual’s specific experiences in society. In short, people
don’t do what they do because of inherited internal mechanisms, such as
instincts. Rather, external influences—our experiences—become part of our
thinking and motivations. The society in which we grow up, and our particular
concerns in that society, then, lie at the center of our behavior.
28
Consider a newborn baby. If we were to take the baby from its Filipino
parents and place it with a Yanomamo Indian ethnic group in the jungles of
South America, you know that when the child begins to speak, his or her
words will not be Filipino. You also know that the child will not think like a
Filipino. He or she will not grow up wanting credit cards, for example, or levis
jeans, a new car, and the latest video game. Equally, the child will
unquestioningly take his or her place in Yanomamo society—perhaps as a
food gatherer, a hunter, or a warrior—and he or she will not even know about
the world left behind at birth. And, whether male or female, the child will grow
up assuming that it is natural to want many children, not debating whether to
have one, two, or three children.
People around the globe take their particular world for granted.
Something inside us tells us that spaghetti is delicious, and levis jeans are
desirable. Yet something inside some of the Sinai Desert Arab ethnic groups
used to tell them that warm, fresh camel’s blood makes a fine drink and that
everyone should have a large family and wear flowing robes. And that
something certainly isn’t an instinct. As sociologist Peter Berger (1963)
phrased it, that “something” is “society within us.”
Although obvious, this point frequently eludes us. We often think and
talk about people’s behavior as though it were caused by their sex, their race,
and some other factor transmitted by their genes. The sociological
imagination helps us escape from this cramped personal view by exposing the
broader social context that underlies human behavior. It helps us see the links
between what people do and the social settings that shape their behavior. It is
seeing the “general from the particular” and seeing the “strange in the
familiar.”
Weber and Verstehen

Max Weber, one of the proponents of sociology also argued that
another quality of mind must be used in understanding the society he stressed
that one cannot understand human behavior simply by looking at statistics.
Those cold numbers may represent people’s activities, he said, but they must
be interpreted. To understand people, he said that we should use Verstehen
(a German word meaning “to understand”). Perhaps the best translation of
this term is “to grasp by insight.” By emphasizing verstehen, Weber meant
that the best interpreter of human action is someone “who has been there,”
someone who understands the feelings and motivations of the people they
are studying. In short, we must pay attention to what are called subjective
meanings, the ways in which people interpret their own behavior. We can’t
understand what people do, Weber insisted, unless we look at how people
view and explain their own behavior.

29
Durkheim and Social Facts

In contrast to Weber’s use of verstehen, or subjective meanings, Emile
Durkheim stressed what he called social facts. By this term he meant the
patterns of behavior that characterize a social group. Example of social facts
in the United States include June being the most popular month of weddings,
suicide rates being higher among people 65 and older, and more births
occurring on Tuesdays than on any other day of the week.
Durkheim said that we must use social facts to interpret social facts. In
other words, each pattern reflects some underlying condition of society.
People all over the country don’t just coincidentally decide to do similar things,
whether that be to get married or to commit suicide. If that were the case, in
some years, middle-aged people would be most likely to kill themselves, in
other years, young people, and so on. Patterns that hold true year after year,
however, indicate that as thousands and even millions of people make their
individual decisions, they are responding to conditions in their society. It is the
job of the sociologist, then, to uncover the facts and then to explain them
through other social facts.

30
APPLYING VERSTEHEN. BE ABLE TO APPLY THE CONCEPT OF

VERSTEHEN (TO GRASP BY INSIGHT), BY DEVELOPING AN INSIGHT
ABOUT THE CURRENT ISSUE ON LOWERING THE AGE OF CRIMINAL
LIABILITY FROM 18 YEARS OLD TO 9 AND 13 YEARS OLD.
How?
1. Do either or all of the three (3) following tasks:

a. Read the following article containing arguments about lowering the
age of criminal liability in the Philippines.
b. Research on articles arguing about the said issue.
c. View the documentary entitled “BUNSO.” You can download the
video from youtube (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SozS1dNtXTI,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EYK4ABXttpY) or copy it from your subject
teacher.
2. Develop an insight by coming up with an essay stating your position
whether you are “FOR” or “AGAINST” the lowering of the age of
criminal liability. State your reasons why you came up with such a
position.
3. Be able to cite relevant sources to support your position.
4. Limit your output to one page ONLY.

31
HOUSE PANEL OKS BILL LOWERING AGE OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY

By Jose Cielito Reganit and Filane Mikee Cervantes January 21, 2019, 4:55 pm
MANILA -- The House Committee on Justice approved on Monday a bill lowering the age of criminal liability from 15 to
nine years old, which amends Republic Act 9344 or the Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006. The panel only took
about five minutes to approve the committee report containing the still unnumbered substitute bill after Capiz Rep.
Fredenil Castro motioned for its approval, following the opening remarks of panel chair Oriental Mindoro Rep. Salvador
“Doy” Leachon. Castro’s motion was immediately seconded despite objections from Gabriela Rep. Arlene Brosas and
Agusan del Norte Rep. Lawrence Fortun.
The committee report harmonized six bills lowering the of age criminal responsibility: House Bill Nos. 2, 505, 935,
1609, 2009 and 3973. In his opening remarks, Leachon said the bill was brought about by the alarming increase in the
number of criminal syndicates using minors to carry out criminal acts based on recent news reports. The lawmaker
noted that the original minimum age of criminal responsibility (MACR) in the Revised Penal Code was nine years old.
This was only changed after almost 70 years in 2006 upon the effectivity of RA 9344, which increased the MACR to 15.
However, Leachon said ever since the law has been implemented, syndicates have been exploiting the provisions of RA
9344 by using minors in the commission of crimes. “It is high time to pass this bill in order to protect our children
from being used by ruthless and unscrupulous criminal syndicates to evade prosecution and punishment,” he said.
The chair of the House justice panel said the children who commit criminal acts would not be thrown in jail but in
reformative institutions like Bahay Pag-asa. “Let it be understood that with the present bill, we are not putting these
children in jail but in reformative institutions to correct their ways and bring them back to the community. They are
not branded as criminals but children in conflict with law,” he said. “Reformative institutions do not punish individuals
but instead, they were established to help the children to be integrated back to the community after they have
committed criminal acts,” Leachon said.
Salient points of the bill

As provided for in the proposed measure, Bahay Pag-asa refers to the a 24-hour child-care institution established,
funded and managed by the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD)and licensed and/or accredited
non-governmental organization (NGOs) providing short-term care for children in conflict with the law, who are nine
years and above but below 18 years old - who are committed for rehabilitation or awaiting court disposition of their
cases or transfer to other agencies or disposition. Part of the features of a Bahay Pag-asa is an Intensive Juvenile
Intervention and Support Center (IJISC), which will cater to children who committed serious crimes.
A Bahay Pag-asa shall be established in all provinces and highly urbanized city in the country. A child below nine years
old at the time of the commission of the offense shall be exempt from criminal liability. Likewise, a child nine years and
above but below 18 years old shall also be exempt from criminal liability and be subjected to an intervention program
unless the child has acted with discernment.
However, exemption from criminal liability does not include exemption from civil liability. No child below nine years old
shall be committed to a youth care facility or Bahay Pag-asa. Children nine to 15 years of age who commit serious
crimes like parricide, infanticide, murder, kidnapping, rape, destructive arson and offenses under the Comprehensive
Dangerous Act punishable by more than 12 years imprisonment, among others, shall be mandatorily placed in the
IJISC. Any person who uses or exploits a child in the commission of a crime shall be punished to a maximum of
reclusion perpetua.

32
Cont…
Parents of children who commit serious crimes or are repeat offenders shall undergo mandatory intervention
programs, including parenting seminars and counseling. The failure of such parents to undergo mandatory
intervention programs, unless prevented by a lawful cause, shall be a ground for imprisonment from 30 days to six
months. The parents shall be primarily liable for civil damages arising out of the actions of children in conflict with the
law. The court shall impose the penalty two degrees lower than that prescribed by the law for crimes committed by
children who are in conflict with the law. In cases where the law prescribes a fixed period of imprisonment, the period
shall be reduced by two-thirds. For crimes punishable by life imprisonment, the penalty to be imposed shall be
imprisonment of up to 12 years.
Only 12 years old for Senate

On the other hand, Senate President Vicente Sotto III said the Senate will prioritize the passage of a measure seeking
to lower the minimum age of criminal responsibility from 15 years old to 12 years old before the end of the 17th
Congress. "Dapat priority. Ang usapan namin ni Senator (Richard) Gordon, ipa-priority na at pagdedebatihan namin (It
should be prioritized. Senator Gordon and I have discussed that it should be prioritized and be put up for debates),"
Sotto said when asked about the bill's fate in the upper chamber.
Two measures proposing to lower the age of criminal liability are still pending with the Senate justice committee.
Sotto is expecting its third reading approval by the last week of May or until the first week of June. The sine die
adjournment of the 17th Congress is on June 7. Sotto said "majority of the senators" have agreed to lower the age of
criminal responsibility but there might be a debate over the certain age. He, however, noted that nine years old would
be too young to be held criminally responsible. "Nine years old? Baka sumobra. Baka siguro, worst-comes-to
worst, baka pumayag ako sa 11 (Nine years old? That's too much. Probably, worst-comes-to worst, I might agree with
11," Sotto said. "But the important thing is that we all agree that it should be lowered and they have to be held
accountable, that is the most important thing," Sotto added.
Senator Richard Gordon, chair of the Senate justice panel, said he will "support the prioritization" of the measure.
Senate President Pro Tempore Ralph Recto, on the other hand, said the proposal to lower the minimum age of criminal
responsibility must be grounded on facts and supported by studies, not on "whims and unproven theories." "We need
to read the scholarship behind the proposed policy. In the absence of any, we may be legislating based on
superstition... Where is the science in pegging the age threshold at 9?" Recto said.
Sotto has filed Senate Bill No. 2026 seeking to lower the minimum age to "above 12 years old". Citing a study
conducted by the Child Rights International Network, Sotto pointed out that the average minimum age of criminal
responsibility in Asia and Africa is 11. In the United States and Europe, it is 13. Meanwhile, Philippine National Police
chief Director General Oscar Albayalde said he is supportive of the passage of the bill lowering the age of criminal
liability to nine years old. Albayalde said there have been several incidents that children and teenagers are being used
by adults as drug runners.
(With reports from Christopher Lloyd Caliwan/PNA)
Retrieved from https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1059559

33
THEORIZING. BE ABLE TO DEVELOP A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

SHOWING CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF A PARTICULAR ISSUE OR ISSUES
DISCUSSED IN THE STORY BY USING THE THREE (3) MAJOR
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES.
How?
1. Read and analyze the following story entitled “KWENTO NI

ROSARIO.”
2. Answer the question, “Bakit namatay si Rosario?”
3. Your answer to the question should be reflected in a conceptual
framework/diagram showing the reasons for the death of Rosario. You
can have many random reasons. However, include only reasons that
are stated in the story or that you can prove by citing a fact from the
story.
4. Be able to organize these reasons by categories, clusters, or groups.
5. Identify one (1), two (2), or three (3) of the major sociological theories
that can explain the issues discussed in the story.
6. Your output should contain the following:
a. A conceptual framework/diagram
b. A written explanation of the framework/diagram
c. An inclusion of a sociological theory that explains the issue
discussed in the story.
7. Criteria for scoring your output:
a. Creativity of the diagram (30pts)
b. Concise but substantial written explanation of the reasons for
Rosario’s death with relevant sources (35pts)
c. Use of a theory in discussing the issues (35pts)

34
KUWENTO NI ROSARIO
Ang barrio Tanyong ay nasa tabi ng estero ng ilog Malabon. Ito ay may laking 5 ektarya kung saan may
nakatirang 1,850 pamilya o may 12,400 katao. Para marating ang mga bahay-bahay, ang mga tao ay
lumalakad sa mga tulay na hindi naman matitibay. Kaya maraming tao ang na-a-aksidente at maraming mga
bata ang nahuhulog sa marumi at napakaitim na tubig. Ang tubig sa ilalim ng bahay ay tapunan ng basura at
palikuran na rin.
Sa survey na isinagawa, 10% lamang ang may sariling palikuran at ang 90% ay gumagamit ng “balot
system” o diretso na sa istero. May 10% ang may sariling tubig at 90% ay umiigib sa poso. May dalawang
pampublikong poso at ang tubig ay binibili. Ang isang container na may lamang 5 galon ay may halagang
PhP15.00 – PhP30.00 depende sa layo ng bahay.
Ang mga nakatira rito ay walang titulo sa lupang tinitirikan. Ang upa sa kuwartong parang tirahan ng baboy
ay PhP500 – Php1,000 bawat buwan. Ang mabuti-buti naman ay Php1,500 – PhP2,000 bawat buwan. Dito sa
barrio Tanyong nakatira si Jaime, 24 taong gulang. Ang kanyang asawa ay si Lucy, 27 taong gulang. Ang mga
anak nila ay sina Jocelyn, 5 taon; Marites, 4 na taon; Antonio, 2 ½ taon; at si Rosario, 1 taon & 4 na buwan.
Isa si Jaime sa 70% na galling sa probinsiya at lumuwas patungong Maynila upang magkaroon ng mahusay-
husay na buhay. Ang pamilya niya ay galing sa Pangasinan. Ang kanyang ama ay isang maliit na magsasaka.
Ngunit ang kanilang ani ay hindi sapat sa kanilang pamilya kayat lumuwas silang patungong Maynila.
Ngayon, si Jaime ay isang laborer sa isang construction site sa Quezon City. Ang kita niya ay Php165.00
isang araw. Hindi ito sapat para sa kanilang pamilya. Tinitipid nila ang lahat ng gastos, ngunit baon sila palagi
sa utang. Kung namamalengke si Lucy, ang Php50.00 na ulam ay pinagkakasiya niya sa tatlong kainan. Kung
minsan ay hindi na siya nakakatikim ng ulam.
Minsan, nung buntis si Lucy kay Rosario at gustong-gusto niyang kumain ng masusustansiya at masasarap
na pagkain ay hindi niya ito magawa, mapakain lamang niya ang kanilang tatlong anak noong mga panahong
iyon. Nagtitiis na lamang siya at iniisip niyang Diyos na lamang ang bahala sa kanya. Sabi nga ng bishop sa
sermon … “pinagpapala ang mahihirap, dahil mapapasakanila ang kaharian ng Diyos!”.
Si Lucy ay tubong Bisaya at siya ay high school graduate, hindi tulad ni Jaime na hanggang Grade 3 lamang,.
Kulang ang mga pangangalaga niya sa kanyang mga anak. Noong sanggol pa ang mga ito, sinabihan siya ng
doctor na bawal sa kanya ang magpasuso dahil may sakit siya sa puso. Ang sabi sa kanya ay bumili na
lamang siya ng infant formula sa katabing botika na ang doctor mismo ang mag-me-may-ari. Subalit
malusog naman si Lucy. Dahil nga sa pinagbawalan siya ng doctor na magpasuso, ang apat niyang anak ay
lumaki sa condensada. Kaya lamang, ang pagtimpla niya ng condensada ay 1 guhit na gatas sa 7 guhit na
tubig. Kung may pera sila ay bumibili siya ng Bear Brand, ngunit hindi naman siya tinuruan kung papaano ang
wastong pagtitimpla ng gatas kayat para sa kanya ay sapat na ang magkulay puti ang tubig. Hindi niya
pinapakuluan ang mga tubig, tsupon & bote ng mga bata.
Ang mga tsupon & bote ay hinuhugasan niya ng basta na lamang ng tubig & sabon. Hindi rin siya tinuruan ng
wastong pagpapakain sa mga bata at may paniniwala siya na ang kalamansi ay masama para sa mga bata.
Kape at kanin ang pang-almusal ng mga bata.

35
Cont…
Dahil dito, ang lahat ng anak niya ay 2nd degree malnourished. Pare-pareho ang kanilang mga sakit – palagi
silang inuubo, nilalagnat at nagtatae. Ang kanilang tiyan ay malalaking parang tambol. May bulateng
lumalabas kapag sila ay dumudumi na pinaniniwalaan naman ni Lucy na normal lamang dahil sa pagkakaalam
na tumutulong ang mga bulate sa pagtunaw ng pagkain sa tiyan.
Wala ring bakuna sina Antonio & Rosario dahil natakot si Lucy noong nilalagnat ng bahagya sina Jocelyn &
Marites nung ang mga ito ay pinabakunahan niya. Kinagagalitan din diya ni Jaime kung lagnatin ang bata
pagkatapos ng bakuna. Isa pang dahilan ay ang walang katiyakang pagkakaroon ng libreng bakuna sa
kanilang barangay health center sanhi ng kakulangan sa bakuna & kakulangan ng midwife & health workers
sa center.
Ang pinakasakitin sa kanilang lahat ay ang bunsong si Rosario. Siya ang pinakapayat, maputla at palaging
nagtatae. Isang araw, si Rosario ay nagkasakit ng tigdas. Dinala siya ni Lucy sa pinakamalapit na health
center na siya rin namang kanilang barangay health center. Libre ang konsulta subalit walang naibibigay na
libreng gamot ang barangay.health center. Ang sabi ng nurse ay ubos na raw ang budget para sa taong iyon
para sa mga gamot sa center. Hindi rin daw na-approve ng Sangguniang Bayan ang request ng Municipal
Health Officer na dagdag na budget para sa mga gamot sa taong ito. Dahil daw ito sa naghihinala ang mga
konsehal ng bayan na mapupunta lamang sa Mayor & Municipal Health Officer ang idadagdag na pondo.
Binili na lamang ni Lucy ang tatlong gamot na inireseta para kay Rosario – Loviscol syrup (para sa ubo) /
60ml PhP109.00, Ercefuryl suspension (para sa pagtatae) 220mg per 5ml / 60ml Php243.00 & Ceporex
(isang antibiotic) 250mg per 5ml / 30ml PhP150.00. Sinabihan siyang yung mga mismong brands na
inireseta ang dapat bibilhin dahil ito ang para sa karamdaman mismo ni Rosario. Nang maubos na ang tig-
isang bote ng tatlong gamot ay hindi na sila makabili dahil wala na silang pera. Hindi tuluyang gumaling si
Rosario. Patuloy ang pagtatae niya hanggang sa matuyuan.
Dinala muli ni Lucy si Rosario sa health center subalit ipinalipat na sila sa pribadong ospital ng hindi
malinaw kay Lucy kung bakit hindi puwedeng sa barangay health center tingnan si Rosario. Humingi ang
ospital ng deposito na PhP1,200.00. Mabuti na lang at naka-utang sila ng PhP 1,500 sa kanilang Barangay
Captain na nagpapa-“5 - 6”. Dahil maputlang-maputla si Rosario ay isang yunit ng dugo ang kinailangang
isalin sa kanya. Si Jaime ang kinunan ng isang yunit ng dugo para rito.
Sa pagtigil nila ng isang gabi sa ospital, ang kanilang gastos ay umabot sa PhP4,150 at ipinasya nilang ilabas
na lang si Rosario kahit ayaw nilang ilabas ito ng hindi pa magaling dahil parang patak ng metro ng taxi ang
gastos nila sa ospital. Lahat ay sinisingil sa kanila – bulak, alcohol, gasa, tape at iba pa. Pagkatapos ng
kataku-takot na pakiusapan ay pinayagan din ang pasyente na lumabas. Pinapirma sila na silang mag-anak
ay nagpipilit lumabas ng ospital kahit labag sa utos ng doctor. Pinayuhan silang bumalik na lamang kung may
pera na o kaya ay sa government ospital pumunta.
Pagkaraan ng isang linggong patuloy na pagtatae & lagnat, si Rosario ay nanghina, natuyuan at tuluyan ng
namatay.

36
SHORT QUIZ. Encircle the letter of your answer to the following items.
1. Which of the following best describes Sociology as a subject?

A. The study of individual behavior
B. The study of cultures
C. The study of society and social interactions
D. The study of economics
2. C. Wright Mills once said that Sociologists need to develop a sociological

________________ to study how society affects individuals.
A. Culture
B. Imagination
C. Method
D. Tool
3. A Sociologist defines society as a group of people who reside in a defined

area, share culture, and who:
A. Interact
B. Work in the same industry
C. Speak different languages
D. Practice a recognized religion
4. Seeing patterns means that a Sociologist needs to be able to:

A. Compare the behavior of individuals from different societies
B. Compare one society to another
C. Identify similarities in how social groups respond to social pressures
D. Compare individuals to groups
5. Which founder of Sociology believed that societies changed due to class

struggle?
A. Emile Comte
B. Karl Marx
C. Plato
D. Herbert Spencer
6. Weber believed humans could not be studied purely objectively because

they were influenced by:

37
A. Drugs
B. Their culture
C. Their genetic make up
D. The researcher
7. Which of the theories is more likely to look at the social world on a micro
level?
A. Structural-functionalism
B. Conflict theory
C. Positivism
D. Symbolic-interactionism
8. Who coined the term “Symbolic-interactionism”?

A. Herbert Blumer
B. Max Weber
C. Lester F. Ward
D. W.I. Thomas
9. A symbolic-interactionist may compare social interactions to:

A. Behaviors
B. Conflicts
C. Human organs
D. Theatrical roles
Nos. 10-15 Short answer. Write your answer inside the box provided below.
Describe a situation in which a choice you made was influenced by social
pressures.

38
********************
Anthropology is also a science of humanity and its society. It is a

scientific study of humanity, the similarities and diversity of cultures, and
attempts to present an integrated picture of humankind. Anthropology studies
the biological, social, and cultural development of humankind and seeks
answers to why people are different and how are they similar. It has
subdivisions marked by unifying themes:
Universalism
✓ All people are fully and equally human whether they belong to
indigenous groups such as the Aetas, Mangyans or Subanons or are
modernized such as those in Metro Manila.
Common notions say that bizarre cultures, or those that

are exotic and rare are of low value, that they are worth
only describing but not respecting.

39
Integration
✓ Anthropologists view the
various aspects of life, like
kinship, family, economy, arts,
politics, as interwoven to form a
social whole. It looks at all
societies as an integrated part
of a large world system. It views
societies within the context of
the larger world or global
perspective so that the
influence of global markets on
small island societies as well as
the strategic concerns of
foreign powers, is also studied.
Adaptation
✓ Anthropology studies how
humans are affected by the
environment and what
adjustments they make. It holds
that humans and their
environment are interrelated,
and that the product of
adaptation may be a behavior,
social system, and physical
structure.
Holism
✓ This means getting the whole picture of a phenomenon and application
of knowledge from different fields to understand human behavior.
Anthropology use the holistic
approach in studying people’s
way of life, covering many
aspects of social life including
history of the area, physical
environment, organization of
family life, language, settlement
patterns, political, economic,
and religious organizations,
both present and past, in all
levels of complexity.

40
Subfields of Anthropology
One can glean on the vastness of the subject matter of anthropology

into its various fields such as:
1. Biological and Physical Anthropology

✓ This engages in two categories of studies: Evolutionary—seeks to
understand how and why humans evolve, and biological variation
within the species. Physical anthropologists concentrate on the history
of man’s physical characteristics, the factors and processes by which
the biological changes occur, and the resultant human variation.
✓ It likewise studies the mechanics of growth and development.
Knowledge of human diversity is important in understanding human
adaptation.
2. Socio-cultural Anthropology
✓ This area focuses on the origin and history of human societies and
their culture. The evolution and development of culture per se and of
different societies and culture are explored.
✓ Uses two techniques such as ethnography (provides a particular
account of a particular society, community, or culture based on field
work) and ethnology (examines, interprets, analyzes, and compares
the results of ethnography—the data gathered in different societies).
3. Archaeology
✓ Socio-cultural anthropology and archaeology are both concerned with
culture and the history of societies, but while the former dwells directly
with existing societies, the latter is concerned with extinct societies.
Archaeology reconstructs the cultural events of the past since the
development of culture through the material remains left by people. It
involves the study of ancient people and past phases of present-day
civilization.

41
4. Linguistics
✓ This is the study of human language, its complex system of symbols,
and its development.
5. Applied Anthropology
✓ This is focused on the application of ideas and information gathered for
the solution of specific problems to achieve particular ends. The ideas
gathered are used for policy recommendations, development planning,
and advocacy.
Pioneers of Anthropology
Primatologists observe primates both in their natural habitats

and in the laboratory. Pioneering work in observing primates in
the field was done by Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, and Biruté
Galdikas. All were encouraged by paleoanthropologist Louis
Leakey in the 1960s and 1970s. He reasoned that “if we found
behavior patterns similar or the same in our closest living
relatives, the great apes, and humans today, then maybe those
behaviors were present in the ape-like, human-like ancestor
some seven million years ago. And therefore, perhaps we had
brought those characteristics with us from that ancient,
ancient past” (Goodall, 2007). Goodall went to Tanzania to
observe chimpanzees, Fossey to Rwanda to observe gorillas,
and Galdikas to Borneo to observe orangutans. They all lived in
damp, solitary, and difficult conditions and had to wait patiently
for months before they could get close enough to the animals
to understand their social behaviour. Each primatologist had to
learn to imitate the animals’ calls and gestures and eat their
Dian Fossey interacting with a gorilla named Puck food before the primates trusted her as one of their own.
In 1974, paleoanthropologist Donald Johanson

found a skeleton in Ethiopia that was 40 percent
complete. Johanson nicknamed the skeleton
“Lucy,” because the Beatles’ song “Lucy in the
Sky with Diamonds” was playing on the radio
when his team made the discovery. Lucy is part
of the new species Australopithecus afarensis, a
member of the human family, or hominin, that
walked the earth 3.2 million years ago. Lucy has
provided anthropologists with a huge wealth of
knowledge.
Donald Johanson and Lucy

42
In Argentina, forensic investigations have been

ongoing since 1984, trying to locate the thousands
of people murdered by the ruthless military
regime that operated from 1976 to 1983. During
the regime, people would disappear suddenly and
never return. Families had no idea where their
missing loved ones were. A young Argentinean
woman, Ivana Wolff, now training to be a forensic
anthropologist states her motivation simply: “I
help to identify the dead to get them back to their
families. I work from the worst thing that can
happen—people that are already dead—to bring
joy to the living” (Myers, 2010).
A forensic anthropologist examining human remains
Archaeological Services Inc. (ASI) is a Canadian-owned archaeological

consulting firm that works with the public and private sectors. The ASI
team excavates archaeological sites and assesses their heritage
value, reviews heritage planning studies, and documents
archaeological features of development sites. Ontario’s cultural
history dates back about 11 000 years. Archaeological sites can be
found throughout the province. Some sites we know about, like the
First Parliament site in downtown Toronto. Others are found
accidently, sometimes when buildings are being built or torn down.
In one project, ASI excavated along the shoreline of the Niagara River
in Fort Erie. Fort Erie was upgrading the town’s infrastructure and
redeveloping land. The municipality brought in ASI to minimize impact
of their work on the archaeological sites throughout the town. ASI
drilled through roads and sidewalks to study the soil and found
evidence of a large settlement that existed 4000 years before
Europeans arrived in North America. The archaeologists from ASI also
found the Snake Hill Cemetery, a previously unknown American
military cemetery from 1814. They were able to identify and exhume
28 bodies, which were then repatriated to the United States.

43
Napoleon Chagnon and the Yanomamö
For example, by counting the hours of work over a month

of one community of hunter-gatherers in Southern Africa,
the Ju/’hoansi, anthropologist Richard Lee discovered
that most of the people spent an average of 20 hours a
week gathering food. Women brought in 55 percent of the
total calories, in addition to doing other kinds of work,
including making clothing, processing food, and childcare.
Lee found out that the Ju/’hoansi worked no more than 40
hours a week in all tasks, which helped him to draw
conclusions about the equality of labor within their society.
Richard Lee interviewing Ju/’hoansi hunter about cooking

debris.
Best known for her study of Samoan adolescent girls, Mead

was interested in examining whether stresses during
adolescence were caused by adolescence itself or by
society. Mead studied Samoan adolescent girls using
participant observation, living among a small group and
conducting interviews over nine months between 1925 and
1926. Mead observed that, in contrast to American
adolescent girls, adolescence was a stress-free time for
Samoan girls. Mead believed that this easy transition to
adulthood was due to the sexual freedom Samoan girls
experienced and concluded that sex roles were determined
by culture, not biology. This conclusion fit with the
anthropological and societal ideas of the 1920s. Women were
re-evaluating their roles in North American society, and her
findings were popular among women and men who wanted
social change. Margaret Mead was a popular speaker and
went on to publicize her work and the study of anthropology.
Margaret Mead and two Samoan girls

44
Perspectives in Anthropology
Cultural Relativism
✓ Everyone sees other cultures through the lens of their own.
✓ Cultural relativism was a response to cultural evolutionism (the theory
that all cultures evolved from “savage” to “barbarian,” to “civilized,”)
which assumed an ethnocentric view that nineteenth-century European
culture was superior to all others.
Functional Theory
✓ In Anthropology, functional theory is the idea that every belief, action,
or relationship in a culture functions to meet the needs of individuals.
✓ This theory stresses the importance of interdependence among all
things within a social system to ensure its long-term survival. Meeting
the needs of individuals makes the culture as a whole successful.
Cultural Materialism
✓ Cultural materialism was
pioneered by Arvin Harris in
1960s.
✓ Influenced by economists such
as Karl Marx and Thomas
Malthus, the theory states that
materials or conditions within
the environment (for example,
climate, food supply,
geography) influence how a
culture develops, creating the
ideas and ideology of a culture.
Feminist Anthropology
✓ By the 1970s, feminist anthropologists were re-examining anthropology
to ensure that female voices were heard and included in research.
✓ They also compared cultures to see how many were dominated by
men, how many were dominated by women, and how many were
egalitarian.
Postmodernism
✓ It is the belief that it is impossible to have any “true” knowledge about
the world.
✓ Postmodernism rejects the idea of objective truth. What we “know”
about the world is our own construction, created by society.
✓ Postmodernists try to deconstruct, or break down, what a society
believes to be true.

45
SHORT QUIZ. Encircle the letter of your answer to the following items.
1. Which two major aspects of culture is Anthropology concerned about?

A. Organization and change
B. Similarity and diversity
C. Cohesion and disorganization
D. Beauty and dullness
2. This theme in Anthropology looks at all people as fully and equally human.
A. Universalism
B. Integration
C. Adaptation
D. Holism
3. The belief that all cultures are exotic has been the fundamental principle of
universalism.
A. Partly true
B. Partly false
C. True
D. False
4. This subfield of Anthropology reconstructs past events in the culture of a

people by way of investigating artifacts and material remains.
A. Paleontology
B. Ethnography
C. Archaeology
D. Linguistics
5. Anthropology studies how humans are affected by the environment and

what adjustments they make. What theme is being illustrated?
A. Universalism
B. Integration
C. Adaptation
D. Holism
6. In many aspects of cultural experiences, innovation is the expression of

adaptation.
A. Partly true
B. Partly false
C. True
D. False

46
7. Anthropology view the various aspects of life like kinship, family, economy,
arts, and politics as interwoven to form a social whole. What theme is being
illustrated?
A. Universalism
B. Integration
C. Adaptation
D. Holism
8. All cultures are unique and must be considered as they are. This is the
contention of which Anthropological perspective?
A. Postmodernism
B. Cultural relativism
C. Feminism
D. Cultural materialism
9. This technique in Cultural Anthropology includes observing the culture of

the community while participating with their practices.
A. Ethnography
B. Survey
C. Cross cultural comparison
D. Census
10. This theory states that materials or conditions within the environment (for
example, climate, food supply, geography) influence how a culture develops,
creating the ideas and ideology of a culture.
A. Postmodernism
B. Cultural relativism
C. Feminism
D. Cultural materialism
Nos.11-15. View the video from Ted Talks entitled “Morality without Religion”
by Frans de Waal (Kindly look up to this link for a copy of the video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=le-74R9C6Bc or get a copy of the video from your
subject teacher). Based on the video, identify five (5) similarities between
humans and primates in terms of moral behavior. Write your answers on the
space provided below.

47

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Part 1 [HOW TO STUDY SOCIETY AND CULTURE?

As the society starts the new millennium, everyone is filled with

In humanity’s quest for understanding the world and its concomitant

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

Science is a way of learning about the world through disciplined inquiry

Science may be classified into two:

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

Science may also be divided into:

Sociologists and Anthropologists are generally concerned with doing

The Origins of Sociology and Anthropology

The history of Anthropology goes back to the period of discoveries and

was the first professor of Anthropology in Oxford, England. In the United

The Development of Sociology and Anthropology in the Philippines

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

The Anthropological Association of the Philippines (UGAT-Ugnayan

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

Sociology, considered as one of the youngest of the social sciences

1. The turmoil of the Industrial Revolution

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

Britain was the birthplace of industrial revolution because of the

A steam boat that easily imports and exports

One of the earliest textile companies that employed mass production

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

2. The success of American and French Revolutions.

Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) Voltaire (real name

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

4. The success of the natural sciences.

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

Definition and Areas of Concern of Sociology

✓ This involves the study of social groups, social institutions,

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

✓ This area studies human nature and personality as the product

✓ This area is concerned with the change in culture and social

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

✓ This analyzes population number, composition, change, and

✓ Studies in this area deal with the human behavior of a given

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

✓ This includes theory building and testing the applicability of the

✓ This makes use of the findings of pure sociological research on

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

LITERATURE REVIEW. RESEARCH ON STUDIES RELATED TO THE

1. Look up to the internet for journals or books that contain research

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

Theories and Perspectives in Sociology

Symbolic Interactionists stress that symbols – things to which we attach

our changing audiences. Symbolic Interactionists primarily examine face-to-

Women of the Kayan tribes identify themselves by their forms of dress.

Applying Symbolic Interactionism

1. Emotional satisfaction. In the early part of the last century, symbolic

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

depend more and more on mutual affection, understanding, and compatibility.

3. The meaning of children. Ideas about childhood have undergone a deep

4. The meaning of parenthood. These changed notions of childhood have

5. Marital roles. In earlier generations, newlyweds knew what they could

6. Perception of alternatives. While the above changes in marriage

SocSc 1: Society and Culture

consider the perception of an alternative an essential first step to making

7. The meaning of divorce. As these various factors coalesced – greater

II. Structural – Functional Analysis

SocSc 1: Society and Culture