Chapter 1

Introduction and
Some Preliminary Considerations

Highlights
•• Embryology: It is the study of the development of an individual before birth (prenatal period).
Embryo (G): (en = within; bruein= to swell or to be full); Logos = study
Natal = birth; Prenatal = before birth; Postnatal = after birth
•• Embryo: It is the developing individual during the first 2 months or 8 weeks of intrauterine life.
•• Fetus: It is the developing individual from the 3rd month or 9th week of intrauterine life to the time of birth.
•• Development before birth is called prenatal development, and that after birth is called postnatal development.
•• There are three stages in prenatal development. They are (1) preimplantation, (2) embryonic and (3) fetal periods.
•• Gonads: They are the sex organs that produce sex cells or gametes. The testis is the male gonad and the ovary is the
female gonad. Male gametes are called spermatozoa. Female gametes are called ova.
•• Gametogenesis: It is the process of production of gametes in gonads or sex organs. In males it is known as spermatogenesis
and in females as oogenesis.
•• Fertilization: It is the process of fusion of male and female gametes. It takes place in the uterine tube of female genital tract.
•• Zygote: It is the single cell that results from fertilization.
•• Development: It is a process where something grows or changes and becomes more advanced.
•• Growth: It is a quantitative change that increases the size.
•• Ontogeny: Complete life cycle of an organism.
•• Phylogeny: Evolutionary history of a group of organisms.
•• Differentiation: It is a qualitative change in structure for an assigned function.
•• Organizer: Any part of the embryo which exerts stimulus on an adjacent part.
•• Cell potency: It is the potential to differentiate into different cell types.

BASIC QUALITIES OF LIVING 3. Propagation of species: Propagation of species by

ORGANISMS
The three basic qualities of living organism are:
1. Protection: Protection from different environmental
conditions like heat, cold, rain, famines, etc. by making
provision for food, water, clothing and shelter.
2. Growth: It includes both physical (increase in height,
weight) and mental (intelligence, social behavior)
growth by proper nutrition, customs and practices in
the society.
reproduction of new individuals to prevent extinction
of species.
Nature facilitates for nurturing these three basic qualities.
REPRODUCTION
•• Reproduction is a mechanism to produce new
generations continuously.
•• For reproduction, vertebrates require the presence of
two different sexes, i.e. male and female that differ in
external and internal sex characters.

Ch-01.indd 1 6/19/2017 4:22:23 PM

 2 Human Embryology
•• The internal sex organs (gonads) produce gametes that
differ in each sex.
Gonads and Gametes
•• Gonads are the paired sex glands that are responsible
for the production of gametes or sex cells that carry out
the special function of reproduction. The male sex cells
(spermatozoa) are produced in the male gonads (testes)
while the female sex cells (ova) are produced in female
gonads (ovaries).
•• The formation of spermatozoa in testis is called
spermatogenesis, while the formation of ova in the ovary
is called oogenesis. The two are collectively referred to
as gametogenesis.
•• The development of a new individual begins at
the movement when one male gamete (sperm or
spermatozoon) meets and fuses with one female gamete
(ovum or oocyte). The process of fusion of male and
female gametes is called fertilization.
•• The zygote multiplies and reorganizes to form the
miniature new individual called embryo that grows and
matures as fetus in the mother’s womb and delivered at
the end of term of pregnancy.
DEVELOPMENT OF A HUMAN BEING
Development is a process where someone or something
grows or changes and becomes more advanced. Human
development is a continuous process that does not stop at
Fig. 1.1: Ontogeny/life cycle of a human
Ch-01.indd 2
birth. It continues after birth for increase in the size of the
body, eruption of teeth, etc. Development before birth is
called prenatal development, and that after birth is called
postnatal development. Each period is further subdivided
into several stages (Fig. 1.1).
Prenatal Development
There are three stages in prenatal development. They are:
1. Preimplantation/pre-embryonic period
2. Embryonic period
3. Fetal period.
Preimplantation/Pre-embryonic Period
It extends from fusion of male and female gametes to form
single-celled zygote to formation of primitive germ layers
of developing organism. It includes 1st and 2nd weeks of
intrauterine development. The following morphogenetic
events take place during this period.
1. Fertilization: Fusion of male and female gametes
resulting in the formation of zygote.
2. Cleavage: A series of mitotic divisions of zygote resulting
in the formation of morula.
3. Transportation of cleaving zygote, i.e. morula along the
fallopian tube toward the uterus.
4. Blastocyst: Structural and functional specialization and
reorganization of cells (blastomeres) of cleaving zygote
that becomes blastocyst.
5. Implantation: Process of attachment of blastocyst to the
uterine endometrium is called implantation.
6/19/2017 4:22:24 PM
 Introduction and Some Preliminary Considerations
6. Specialization of primordial embryonic tissue: It involves
specialization of blastomeres to form embryonic
structures (embryoblast) and supportive/nutritive
structures (trophoblast).
7. Differentiation of embryoblast—to form the primitive
two layered (bilaminar) germ disc having ectoderm and
endoderm.
8. Differentiation of trophoblast into cytotrophoblast and
syncytiotrophoblast.
Embryonic Period
It extends from 3rd week of intrauterine life to 8th week of
intrauterine life. The following morphogenetic events take
place during this period.
1. Trilaminar germ disc differentiation: Formation of three
layered germ disc with the appearance of mesoderm in
between ectoderm and endoderm.
2. Early organogenesis: Formation of primordia of various
organs like lungs, heart, liver, etc.
3. Formation of extraembryonic supportive organs and
membranes: Placenta, umbilical cord, amnion, allantois.
Fetal Period
It extends from 9th week to 9th month. This period includes
the following:
1. Growth of fetus in all dimensions
2. Specialization of various body structures.
Postnatal Period of Development
It extends from birth of an individual to adulthood. The
various stages in postnatal development are as follows:
1. Neonatal period: It extends from birth to 28 days
after birth. These first 4 weeks are critical in the life of
the newborn/neonate as various systems especially
respiratory and cardiovascular have to make adjustments
with the external/extrauterine environment.
Neonatology: The branch of medicine that takes care of
neonates is called neonatology.
Perinatology: It is the branch of medicine that takes care
of the fetus and newborn from 28th week of intrauterine
life to 6th day of extrauterine life.
2. Infancy: It extends from 1 month to 1 year and the
newborn during this period is called infant.
3. Childhood: It extends from 2nd year to 12th year of age
and an individual is called a child. It is the period of
rapid growth and development. This age is also called
pediatric age.
Pediatrics and pediatrician: The medical branch that
deals with infants and children is called pediatrics. The
specialist who treats them is known as pediatrician.
Ch-01.indd 3
3
4. Puberty: It extends from 12 years to 16 years. There will
be rapid physical growth and development of secondary
sex characters and it depends on the interaction of sex
hormones and growth hormones.
5. Adolescence: It extends from 17 years to 20 years.
During this period, there will be rapid physical growth
and sexual maturation. The reproductive ability is
established.
6. Adulthood: It extends from 21 years to 40 years.
7. Middle age: It extends from 40 years to 60 years.
8. Old age: It extends from more than 60 years to death.
Ontogeny: Complete life cycle of an organism involving both
prenatal and postnatal developments is called ontogeny. It is
the expression of blue print of life hidden in genes. It includes
progressive changes followed by retrogressive changes. It
involves various processes like cell division, differentiation
and growth.
Phylogeny: Evolutionary/ancestral history of a group of
organisms is called phylogeny. It includes developmental
changes in various organs (e.g. kidney, heart) and organ
systems (e.g. respiratory, skeletal) starting from fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
Ontogeny repeats phylogeny: Life cycle of an organism repeats
its ancestral history. This is observed in the development of
certain organs viz. heart, lung and kidney.
In this book, we will study prenatal development only.
EMBRYOLOGY
•• It is the science that deals with the processes and
regulations in the prenatal growth and development
of an organism/individual in the female genital tract.
It begins with the fusion of male and female gametes
(fertilization) in the fallopian tube up to the birth as a
neonate.
•• Prenatal development involves repeated division of
most of the cells in the body resulting in growth in size,
complexity, structural and functional differentiation
of body.
•• Embryology includes the study of startling integration
of various complex molecular, cellular and structural
processes that are accountable for the growth and
development of a 9-month-old neonate containing 5-7
× 1012 cells from a single-celled zygote. It is also called
developmental anatomy.
SUBDIVISIONS OF EMBRYOLOGY
General embryology: It is the study of development during
pre-embryonic and embryonic periods (first 8 weeks
after fertilization). During this period, the single-celled
zygote is converted by cell multiplication, migration and
6/19/2017 4:22:24 PM
 4 Human Embryology
reorganization into a miniature form of an individual with
various organs and organ systems of the body.
Systemic embryology: It is detailed study of formation
of primordia and their structural and early functional
organization into various organs and systems of the body.
It is further subdivided into development of cardiovascular
system, digestive system, urinary system, genital system, etc.
Comparative embryology: It is the study of embryos in
different species of animals.
Experimental embryology: It is for understanding the
effects of certain drugs, environmental changes that are
induced (exposure to radiation, stress) on the growth and
development of embryos and fetuses of lower animals. The
knowledge gained from these experiments can be used for
avoiding the harmful effects in the human development. It
is a vigorous and promising branch of embryology.
Biochemical and molecular aspects in embryology:
Chromosomes, gene sequencing, regulation.
Teratology: This is a branch of embryology that deals with
abnormal embryonic and fetal development, i.e. congenital
abnormalities or birth defects.
IMPORTANCE OF EMBRYOLOGY IN THE BASIC PROCESSES IN EMBRYOLOGY
MEDICAL PROFESSION Growth and differentiation are the two basic processes
Normal development: This subject tells us how a single cell
(the fertilized ovum, i.e. zygote) develops into a newborn,
containing numerous tissues and organs.
Normal adult anatomy: This knowledge helps us to
understand many complicated facts of adult anatomy
like the location and relations of organs to one another.
Examples—on the location of heart on left side of thoracic
cavity, liver on right side of abdominal cavity and its
closeness to stomach.
Developmental abnormalities: Embryology helps us
understand why some children are born with organs that
are abnormal. Appreciation of the factors responsible for
abnormal development assists us in preventing, or treating,
such abnormalities. Examples—exposure to radiation
during pregnancy, use of certain medications during
pregnancy or a genetic abnormality that exists in family.
Understanding postnatal and adulthood diseases: The
mechanisms (molecular and cellular) taking place
during the development of embryo play a key role in the
development of a wide range of diseases in adult life.
Examples—that can vary from absence of an ear or presence
of an extra finger to hypertension, diabetes, depression,
cardiovascular and renal diseases. This is known as fetal
programming of adult diseases.
Ch-01.indd 4
Health care strategies for better reproductive outcome:
Knowledge of embryology facilitates interpretation of
the results of various techniques like fetal ultrasound,
amniocentesis, and chorionic villous biopsy. Based
on the results, appropriate treatment can be planned.
Example—performing surgeries for correction of a defect
in the diaphragm prenatally; postnatal correction of a
cardiac defect; medical line of management of a diabetic
or hypertensive mother.
Therapeutic procedures for infertility/fertility-related
problems: If the woman is unable to conceive by natural
methods, alternate methods like cloning and in vitro
fertilization can be planned. For spacing the pregnancies,
various birth control methods (medical and surgical) are
available. A basic knowledge of embryology is required for
understanding the mechanism of action of these methods.
Stem cell therapy: Cells forming tissues in the embryo are
called stem cells. These are undifferentiated cells that can
differentiate into specialized cell types. It is an uncommitted
cell and depending on the signal it receives, it can develop
into many specialized cells. These cells are capable of
treating certain diseases in postnatal life.
involved in the conversion of a single-celled zygote into a
multicellular human newborn.
Growth
It is a quantitative change, i.e. Increase in the bulk. Growth
of cells is either by synthesizing new protoplasm in the
interphase (G1, S and G2) of cell cycle or reproduction of
individual cells of body by mitotic cell divisions. There are
four types of growth. They are as follows:
1. Multiplicative: This type of growth is the predominant
type observed during prenatal period. It is increase in
cell number by succession of mitotic divisions without
increase in cell size. Example—blastomeres. During
prenatal and postnatal development, many cells die
by apoptosis (programmed cell death) or they lose the
power to grow and divide to form definitive contours of
the organs. Examples—the neurons do not divide during
postnatal period. The cells of epidermis, intestinal
epithelium and blood cells are continuously produced
to replenish the cells lost by wear and tear. The liver cells
do not divide normally but, if there is loss of two-thirds
of liver (removal) they multiply.
2. Auxetic: This type of growth is seen in oocytes and certain
neurons. The increase in cell size is due to increase in its
cytoplasmic content. This alters the nuclear-cytoplasmic
6/19/2017 4:22:24 PM
 Introduction and Some Preliminary Considerations
ratio without alterations in structural genes. If the ratio
is altered, it makes the structural genes in nuclear DNA
ineffective. This can cause degradation of cytoplasmic
proteins. To provide nutrition, there will be cells that
surround these larger cells. Example—satellite cells around
the larger neurons and follicular cells around oocyte.
3. Accretionary: Increased accumulation of intercellular
substance resulting in overall growth of structure. This
causes increase in length. Example—increase in length
of bone and cartilage.
4. Appositional: Addition of new layers on previously
formed ones. It takes place at the edges, is seen in rigid
structures and is responsible for contours. Example—
increase in width of bone by addition of lamellae.
Differentiation
It is a qualitative change in structure with an assigned
function. Different types of differentiation are as follows:
•• Chemodifferentiation: It is an invisible differentiation that
takes place at molecular level. The substances producing
this type of differentiation are called organizers.
•• Histodifferentiation: It takes place at tissue level.
•• Organodifferentiation/Organogenesis: This is at organ
level and is the basis for organ remodeling.
•• Functional differentiation: Hemodynamic changes in
blood vessels.
Organizer
Any part of the embryo which exerts a morphogenetic
stimulus on an adjacent part or parts. There are three types
of organizers:
1. Primary organizer: Example—blastopore/primitive
streak that induces differentiation of notochord and
secondary/intraembryonic mesoderm.
2. Secondary organizer: Example—notochord acts as a
secondary organizer in stimulating the development of
brain and spinal cord.
3. Tertiary organizer: Example—neural tube is the tertiary
organizer that induces segmentation of paraxial
mesoderm into somites.
Stem Cells
•• These are undifferentiated cells that are capable of
giving rise to more number of cells of same type by
replication from which some other kinds of cells arise
by differentiation (Fig. 1.2).
•• There are two types of stem cells: (1) the embryonic and (2)
adult/somatic. Embryonic stem cells are present during
embryonic development. Adult stem cells are formed
during embryonic development that are tissue-specific
and remain so throughout the life of an individual.
Ch-01.indd 5
5
•• They are the basis for the formation of a tissue and an
organ in the body.
•• They have the capacity of self-renewal and differentiation.
•• Stem cells are classified depending on their potency
(cell potency) to differentiate into different cell types.
•• Accordingly the cells are named as (Table 1.1):
–– Totipotent cells: They can form all the cell types in the
embryo in addition to extraembryonic or placental
cells. Embryonic cells within the first couple of cell
divisions after fertilization are the only cells that
are totipotent. Example—zygote, early blastomeres.
–– Pluripotent: It can give rise to all of the cell types
that make up the body. Embryonic stem cells are
considered pluripotent. Example—inner cell mass.
–– Multipotent: They can develop into more than one
cell type, but are more limited than pluripotent cells.
Example—adult stem cells (mesenchymal cells),
cord blood stem cells and hematopoietic cells.
Clinical correlation
Process of differentiation
•• For understanding the various events that lead to the formation
of an embryo or fetus knowledge of developmental processes of
growth and differentiation are important. It provides explanation
for how an entire individual is produced from a single cell the
zygote.
•• The cells resulting from the division of zygote are totipotent and
are capable of forming an embryo and a new adult. Gradually
these cells lose their totipotency and are converted into
specialized cells that form various organs like liver, heart, brain,
etc. by the process of differentiation. With continuous division,
the specialization of embryonic cells gets restricted and is called
determination.
•• The nucleus of a cell contains copies of genetic material (genes)
for the synthesis of proteins. During the process of differentiation
either the cell will form new proteins or lose its ability to form
proteins. Differentiation of cells regulates the expression of genes.
Stem cell therapy
•• Regeneration of tissues and organs: Example—use of stem cells
underneath the skin for skin grafting in burns cases.
•• Treatment of cardiovascular and neurological diseases:
Regeneration of blood vessels. Use of embryonic stem cells in
treating Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.
•• Replacement of deficient cells: Example—cardiac muscle cells in
heart diseases, insulin producing cells in type 1 diabetes.
•• Treatment of blood disorders: Treatment of leukemia, sickle
cell anemia.
–– Oligopotent: It can develop into cells of one category
only. Example—vascular stem cells that form
endothelium and smooth muscle; lymphoid or
myeloid stem cells that form blood cells.
–– Unipotent: It can develop into only one type of cell.
Example—liver cell, muscle cell.
6/19/2017 4:22:26 PM
 6 Human Embryology

Fig. 1.2: Classification of stem cells

Table 1.1: Classification of different types of stem cells

Types of stem cells Capacity to differentiate Examples
Totipotent cells Can form embryonic and extraembryonic cells Zygote, early blastomeres
Pluripotent All cell types of embryonic body but not that of placenta and Inner cell mass
umbilical cord
Multipotent More than one category of cells (limited types) Hematopoietic stem cells, cord blood stem cells
Oligopotent Only one category of cells Vascular stem cells
Unipotent Only one type of cells Liver cells

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name different types of growth with examples.
2. What is differentiation? Name the different types of differentiation.
3. Name different types of Organizers with examples.
4. What are stem cells? Name the different types with examples.

Ch-01.indd 6 6/19/2017 4:22:26 PM