Earth:

- believed to have formed over a period of 100Ma (Mega annum)

Radioactive decay:
- It refers to the process wherein unstable atoms emit energetic particles and gamma rays that
heat the surrounding rock
- caused the early Earth to become so hot that is it became a hot mass of molten matter
Planetary differentiation:
- Due to gravitational force, denser substances such as Fe and Ni sink toward the center while
the less dense materials such as Na, K, Ca, and silicates moved upwards to form the mantle and
crust
Petrology:
- a branch of geology that deals with the origin, composition, structure, and classification of
rocks.
Stratigraphy:
- study of rock layers ang layering
Paleontology:
- studies the life that existed prior to, or sometimes at the start of, the Holocene epoch
- It includes the study of fossils to determine how they have evolved and interacted with the
environment.

Relative Dating:
- Places events or rocks on their chronological sequence or order of occurrence without knowing
their actual age.
Rocks:
- Are naturally-occurring, coherent aggregate of minerals or solid materials such as natural glass
or organic matter.
Principle of original horizontally:
- Sedimentary rocks are deposited as horizontal or nearly horizontal layers.
Principle of superposition:
- A vertical set of strata/layers is a chronological record of the geologic history of that strata
- Youngest layers are on top and oldest on bottom
Angular unconformity:
- The rock below the unconformity are tilted. The rocks above it is parallel
Disconformity:
- The beds above and below the surface are parallel
Nonconformity:
- Intrusive igneous or metamorphic rocks are overlain by sedimentary rocks

Methods of Absolute Dating:

- Absolute dating methods measure the time that has elapsed since a geologic event happened (rock
formation, deposition of a stratum, the age of a fossil, etc)

Biological methods:
- These are based on the analysis of biological rhythms associated with intervals of time, such as the
growth rings of trees or daily growth bands (striations) on living corals.
Sedimentological methods:
- These are based on cyclical sediment deposits, like what happens with glacial varves, which are
sediments that are deposited at the bottom of glacial lakes, depending on seasonal changes.
Radiometric methods:
- Radioactive elements such as uranium 238 (U238) or carbon-14 (14C) are used; they may be
contained in rocks, fossils or archaeological remains.
- Radioactive isotopes are unstable and emit radiation, so that after some time, they transform into other
more stable atoms.
Half Life of Radioactive Atoms:
If we know the rate of disintegration, we can date the age of a sample by measuring the ratio between
unstable radioactive atoms and stable atoms formed from them.
4 Steps of Fossilization:
1. Death
2. Burial
3. Replacement
4. Erosion

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE:

- It is the formal subdivision of Earth time
- Geologists represent the geologic time scale in a vertical manner similar to the vertical succession of
rock strata on Earth
Age = million years
Epoch = 10 million years
Period = 100 million years
Era = several hundred million
Eon = Half a billion years

Haden Era (4,500-3,800 m.y.):

- Meteorites continually collided the Earth
- Layers were formed
- Atmosphere and oceans were formed
- The Moon was formed
- Life appeared at the end of the period
- Also called the “Dark Age”

Discontinued, will be continued later

Reason: Too Long
Fossil:
- Is a remnant or trace of organisms of a past geologic age.

Museums:
National Museum of the Philippines
National Museum of the Natural History
- Inside the National Museum of Natural History you’ll find art pieces and collections
covering botany, geology, and zoology. Some of the most notable attractions in the
National Museum of Natural History include the Tree of Life, Lolong (The skeleton of the
Philippine’s largest crocodile in captivity)
National Museum of Anthropology
- The National Museum of Anthropology presents exhibits and information on the origins
of the Philippine Islands and the Filipinos. The exhibition focuses on the four periods of
Philippine prehistory: Paleolithic, Neolithic, Metal, and Ceramic Age.
National Museum of Fine Arts
- National Museum Fine Arts is among the most visited branches inside NM. This is where
you’ll find the historic and most famous National Museum paintings in the country,
Spoliarium of Juan Luna.
National Planetarium
- The National Planetarium’s main function is to spread astronomical information through
planetarium shows, lectures, demonstrations, exhibits and actual celestial observations.
Its unique feature is the true-to-life showing of astronomical bodies that captures the
interest and tickles the imagination of viewers.

Types of Fossils:
True Form Fossils:
- Are formed when the entire animal or plant are trapped and preserved in ice, tar, or
other materials that prevent decay.
Mold Fossils:
- Are hallow impressions of living thing in a rock. The mold reflects only the shape and
surface marking of the organisms.
Cast Fossils:
- Are formed when mold fossils are filled with mineral that hardens, forming a replica of
the original fossil.
Trace Fossils:
- Are impressions on rocks that shows certain animal activities.

William Smith - Discovered that each rock formation in the canal excavation on
the coal mines he worked on contains fossils. He noted that sedimentary strata
could be identified and correlated by their distinctive fossil contents.

Principle of Fossil Succession - The fossilized organism succeed one another in a

definite and determinable order; therefore, any time period can be recognized by
their fossil content.

Index Fossils - Are associated with a particular span of geologic time. They
determine the date of the layer where they are found.