En

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Answers to problems
6.17 Briefly describe Downloaded
labeled
the (A)steps
two From
are listed
in :the
EasyEngineering.net
theindigital-to-analog
appendix. conversion process?
6.18 What is the difference between a contact input interface and a contact output interface?
Sensors
6.19 What is a pulse counter?

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Sec. 6.2 / Actuators 129

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6.1 (A) During calibration, an iron/constantan thermocouple emits a voltage of 1.02 mV at
6.20 What is a pulse generator?
20°C and 27.39 mv at 500°C. The reference temperature is to be set to emit a zero volt-
The mechanical power delivered by the motor is the product of torque and velocity,
age at 0°C. Assume the transfer function is a linear relationship between 0°C and 500°C.

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as defined in the
Determine (a) the following equation:
transfer function of the thermocouple and (b) the temperature corre-

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PROBLEMS Bài tập tựsponding
động hóato a sản xuất
voltage output of 24.0 mV.
P = Tv (6.10)

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6.2 A digital tachometer will be used to determine the surface speed of a rotating workpiece

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Answersintosurface
whereproblems labeled
P meters
= power (A)
perinsec. are
Thelisted
N-m/sec in the appendix.
tachometer
(Watts); isTdesigned
= motor to torque,
read rotational speed
N-m; and v in= rev/sec,
angular veloc-
but
ity, in this case
rad/sec. the
The shaft of the
corresponding tachometer is
horsepower directly
is coupled
given by to a wheel whose outside rim
1. Sensor:
Sensors

t
is made of rubber. When the wheel rim is pressed against the surface of the rotating work-

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6.1 piece, the tachometer
(A) During calibration,should provide a direct
an iron/constantan reading
Tv of surface
thermocouple emits aspeed in m/sec.
voltage of 1.02What is
mV at
the
20°C diameter of the
and 27.39 mv wheel rim that
at 500°C. The will HPtemperature
provide
reference a=direct reading
is to of
besurface speeda in
set to emit
745.7 volt- (6.11)
m/sec?
zero
6.3agerotary
A at 0°C. Assume
encoder the transfer
is connected function
directly is a spindle
to the linear relationship
of a machine between
tool to 0°C and 500°C.
measure its ro-

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Determine
tational
where the (a) The
speed. the transfer
constant 745.7 function
encoder generates
is of72the
the conversion thermocouple
pulses for each
factor andW(b)
revolution
745.7 = theof temperature
1hp. the spindle. In corre-
one
sponding
reading,The toservomotor
the a voltagegenerated
encoder output of 237
is connected24.0pulses
mV. in a directly
either period ofor 0.25 sec. What
through was the
a gear rotational
reduction to a piece

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6.2 speed of the spindle
Theinmachinery
(a) be rev/min anddetermine
(b)
berad/sec?

Ea
A digital
of machinery.tachometer will used may to a fan,thepump,
surfacespindle,
speed of table
a rotating
drive,workpiece
or similar me-
in digital
6.4 A surfaceflow
chanical metersmeter
apparatus. per operates
sec.
TheThe tachometer
by
apparatus emitting is
a designed
representspulse fortheto read
each
load rotational
unit
thatvolume
is driven speed byinthe
of fluid rev/sec,
flowing
motor. The
but inrequires
this 3
through
load it. case
The the shaft offlow
particular
a certain the meter
torque tachometer
to ofoperate,is directly
interest has athe
and coupled
unittorque to aiswheel
volume ofusually
50 cm whose per outside
pulse.toIn
related rima
rotational

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is madeprocess
certain of rubber. When the wheel the rim flow
is pressed against the surface of during
the rotating work-
speed in some way. In general, the torque increases with speed. In the simplestofcase, the
control application, meter emitted 3,688 pulses a period
piece,
2.5 min.the Downloaded
tachometer
Determine From
(a) should
the total: EasyEngineering.net
provide
volumea of direct
fluidreading
that flowed of surface
through speed in m/sec.
the meter andWhat
(b) the is
relationship is proportional:
the diameter
flow rate of fluid of the
flow.wheel rim that
(c) What willpulse
is the provide a direct(Hz)
frequency reading of surface speed
corresponding to a flowin m/sec?
rate of
3
6.3 60,000
A rotary cmencoder
/min? is connected directly to the TLspindle vof a machine tooland
= KLfor Automation to measure its ro- (6.12)

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130 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components Process Control
tational
6.5 A tool-chipspeed. The encoder
thermocouple is generates
used to measure 72 pulses for each
cutting revolutioninofa the
temperature spindle.
turning In one
operation.
where
reading,
The
2. Actuatortwo T load
the=encoder
dissimilar
L torque,
generated
metals in N-m;
a 237and
tool-chip K
pulses in= athe
thermocouple
L constant
period of
are0.25
the of proportionality
sec.
tool What
materialwasand between
the the work- torque
rotational
speedangular
and
piece of the During
metal. spindle
velocity, in (a)
the rev/min
N-m/(rad/sec).
turning and (b)
operation, Therad/sec?
thefunctionality
chip from the between work metal and aTL
KLforms may be other
junction

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EXAMPLE 6.1 DC of Servomotor Operation
6.4 with
than the
A digital rake
flowface
proportional, meterthe such tool
operates toby
that create
K the depends
itself
Lemitting thermocouple
a pulse for on each at exactly
the angular thevelocity.
unit volume location
of fluidwhere
For it is
example,
flowing the
desired
torque
through to
it.
DC measure
A required
The temperature:
to drive
particular
servomotor flowa meter
has fan the
a torque interface
increases
of interest
constantbetween
approximately
has aKunit =the tool
volume
0.095 and
as the
of
N@m>A. the
50 cmchip.
3
square per
Its A ofseparate
the
pulse.
voltage In rotational
a
con-
t
2
certainstant
speed, process
that is is, KTL ∝ vapplication,
control . the flow meter emitted 3,688 pulses during a period of
v = 0.11 V> 1rad>sec2. The armature resistance is Ra = 1.6 ohms.

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2.5 min.The
A Determine
terminal (a) the total
torque voltage
developed of 24 volume
by Vthe of fluid
is motor
used that
toand flowed
the
operate through
torque
the theDetermine
required
motor. meter by and
the (b) (a)the
load must be
the
flow rate
balanced. of fluid
That flow.
is, T (c)
= What
T in is the pulse
steady-state frequency
operation (Hz) corresponding
and this torque to a
is flow
called ratetheof operat-
starting torque generated
L by the motor just as the voltage is first applied, (b)
60,000
ing cm3/min?
point. The motor torque relationship with angular velocity can be plotted as shown
the maximum speed at a torque of zero,From
Downloaded and :(c) the operating point of the
EasyEngineering.net

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6.5 A tool-chip
in Figure
motor thermocouple
6.3, called
when it the is used to measure
torque–speed
is connected loadcutting
to a curve. Alsotemperature
whose shown
torque in in a figure
the turningisoperation.
characteristic isthe loadbytorque
given
The two dissimilar
relationship. metals in a tool-chip thermocouple are the tool material and the work-
TL = KTheLv intersection
and K L = of
0.007 the
N@m>two plots is
1rad>sec2. the operating
Express the point, which
rotational is defined
speed as by
piece
the metal.of
values During the turning operation, the chip from the work metal forms a junction
rev/min.torque and angular velocity.

et
with the rake face of the tool to create the thermocouple at exactly the location where it is
desired
Solution: (a)toAt
measure
v = 0,temperature: thecurrent
the armature interfaceisbetween the tool and the chip. A separate

Ea
Torque T Ia = Vin >Ra = 24>1.6 = 15 A.

The corresponding
Downloadedtorque is torqueT = KtIa = 0.0951152 = 1.425 N@m
therefore
From : Starting
EasyEngineering.net

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Downloaded From : EasyEngineering.net
(b) The maximum speed is achieved
Motorwhen the back-emf Eb equals the terminal
Problems voltage Vin. 147
Load

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Eb = Kvv = 0.11v = 24 V
calibration procedure must be performed for each Operating point of tool material and work
combination
metal. In the combinationv =of24>0.11
interest = 218.2
here, therad>sec
calibration curve (inverse transfer func-
tion) for a particular grade of cemented carbide tool when used to turn C1040 steel is the
N = 601218.22 >2p = 2,084 rev , min

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No-load speed
following: T = 48.94Etc - 53, where T = temperature, °C; and Etc = the emf output of
the thermocouple, mV. (a) Revise the temperature equation so that it is in the form of
a(c) The load torque is given by the equation TSpeed 0.007v
L =(6.3).
w
transfer function similar to that given in Equation What is the sensitivity of this
The motor torque equation is given by Equation (6.9). Usingthetheemf
given data,of the

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tool-chip thermocouple? (b) During a straight turning operation, output
thermocouple was Figure
9.25 6.3
mV. WhatTorque–speed curve of a DC servo-
T = 0.095124 - was the corresponding
0.11v2 >1.6 = 1.425 cutting temperature?
- 0.00653v
motor (idealized), and typical load torque rela-

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Setting T = TLtionship. The for
and solving intersection ofvthe
v results in = two plots
105.3 is the
rad>sec
operating
Converting this point.
to rotation speed, N = 601105.32 >2p = 1,006 rev>min
Actuators

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6.6
(A) A DC servomotor has a torque constant of 0.075 N-m/A and a voltage constant of

Ea
is 2.5 Ω. A terminal
0.12 V/(rad/sec). The armature resistanceDownloaded voltage of 24 V is used to
From : EasyEngineering.net
operate the motor. Determine (a) the starting torque generated by the motor just as the
EXAMPLE 6.2 DC Servomotor Power
voltage is applied, (b) the maximum speed at a torque of zero, and (c) the operating point

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of
In the
themotor when
previous it is connected
example, what istothe
a load
powerwhose torque characteristic
delivered by the motorisatproportional
the oper- to
speed with a constant
ating point? Expressofthe proportionality
answer as (a) 0.0125 and
= Watts N@m>(rad>sec).
(b) horsepower.
Stepper:
6.7 In the previous problem, what is the power delivered by the motor at the operating point in
Solution: units
At vof=(a)105.3 rad>sec, and using the load torque equation,
Watts and (b) horsepower?

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6.8 0.0071105.32
A DC servomotor is usedTLto =actuate 0.737
one of the=axes N@m
of an x–y positioner. The motor has
a torque constant of 10.0 in-lb/A and a voltage constant of 12.0 V/(1,000 rev/min). The
(a) Power P = Tv = 0.7371105.32 = 776 W
armature resistance is 3.0 Ω. At a given moment, the positioning table is not moving and

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a(b)
voltage of 48 V isHP
Horsepower applied to the motor=terminals.
= 77.6>745.7 0.104 hpDetermine the torque (a) immediately
after the voltage is applied and (b) at a rotational speed of 500 rev/min. (c) What is the
maximum theoretical speed of the motor?
6.9 A DC servomotor generates 50 W of mechanical power in an application in which the
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The inside diameter of the cylinder is 3.5 in. The piston rod has a diameter of 0.5 in. The hy-
draulic power source can generate up to 500 lb/in2 of pressure at a flow rate of 1,200 in3/min

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to drive the piston. (a) Determine the maximum velocity of the piston and the maximum
Downloaded From : EasyEngineering.net
force that can be applied in the forward stroke. (b) Determine the maximum velocity of the
piston and the maximum force that can be applied in the reverse stroke.

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148 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control
Analog–Digital Conversion
6.14 The shaft of a stepper motor is directly connected to a leadscrew that drives a worktable
6.18 (A) A continuous voltage signal is to be converted into its digital counterpart using an

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in an x–y positioning system. The motor has a step angle = 5°. The pitch of the leadscrew
analog-to-digital converter. The maximum voltage range is {30 V. The ADC has a 12-bit
is 6 mm, which means that the worktable moves in the direction of the leadscrew axis by
capacity. Determine (a) number of quantization levels, (b) resolution, and (c) the quanti-
a distance of 6 mm for each complete revolution of the screw. It is desired to move the
zation error for this ADC.

et
worktable a distance of 275 mm at a top speed of 20 mm/sec. Determine (a) the number of
6.19 pulses
A voltage signal
and (b) with afrequency
the pulse range of required
0 to 115toVachieve
is to bethis converted
movement. by (c)
means
Howofmuch
an ADC.
time
Determine the minimum number of bits required to obtain a quantization
is required to move the table the desired distance at the desired speed, assuming there errorare
of
(a) 
no {5 Vdue
delays maximum, (b) {1 V maximum, (c) {0.1 V maximum.
to inertia?
6.20 AAsingle-acting
6.15 digital-to-analog converter
hydraulic cylinderuses
witha spring
reference voltage
return has an of 120 diameter
inside V DC and of 95has
mm.eight
Its
binary digit precision. In one of the sampling instants, the data contained
application is to push pallets off of a conveyor into a storage area. The hydraulic power in the
binarycan
source register = 01010101.
Downloaded
generate to 2.5If
up From a zero-order
:MPa of pressurehold
at a isflow
EasyEngineering.net used to of
rate generate
100,000 the
mmoutput
3
/sec to signal,
drive
3. ADC determine the voltage level of that signal.
the piston. Determine (a) the maximum possible velocity of the piston and (b) the maxi-
6.21 mum
A DAC forceuses
thatacan
reference voltage
be applied of apparatus.
by the 80 V and has(c) 6-bit
Is thisprecision. In four successive
a good application sam-
for a hydrau-
Sec. 7.4 / Analysis of Positioning
pling
lic Systems
periods,
cylinder, or each
would1 sec long, the binary
a pneumatic data
cylinder contained in the output register were 100000,
be better? 173

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011111, 011101, and 011010. Determine the equation for the voltage as a
6.16 (A) A double-acting hydraulic cylinder has an inside diameter of 80 mm. The piston rod function of time
The
has required
between
a diameter pulse
sampling train
of 15instantsfrequency
mm. The 3 and topower
4 using
hydraulic drive the table
(a) a zero-order
source at
canhold a specified
and (b)
generate linear travel
up atofirst-order
4.0 MPa rate
ofhold.
pres-

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can
6.22be sure
obtained
In the by combining
at aprevious
flow rateproblem,Equations
suppose
of 125,000 (7.9)
mm3/sec
that and
toadrive (7.10)
second-orderand rearranging
hold
the piston. (a) were to
Whattoarebe solve
used
the maximum fp:
toforgen-
erate the
possible output
velocity signal.
of the Theandequation
piston the maximumfor the second-order
force that can be hold
appliedis in
the
thefollowing:
forward
E(t) = (b)
stroke? E0 What 2
+ at +arebtthe vt n s rE
, where
maximum fstarting
r n s rg velocity
g 0 =possible Nm ns of
voltage Nspiston
at the
the nbeginning
s rg and theof the time interval.
maximum force
fp = = = = (7.11)
(a) For
that theapplied
can be binary in
data
thegiven60p in stroke?
reverse the60pprevious problem,
60 determine
60 the values of a and b

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6.17 Athat would be used
double-acting in the equation
hydraulic cylinder for the time
is used interval
to actuate between
a linear sampling
joint instants 3robot.
of an industrial and 4.
(b) Compare the first-order and second-order holds in anticipating the voltage
The inside diameter of the cylinder is 3.5 in. The piston rod has a diameter of 0.5 in. The hy- at the 4th
instant.

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2 3
draulic power source can generate up to 500 lb/in of pressure at a flow rate of 1,200 in /min
4. NCtoaccuracy
drive the piston. (a) Determine the maximum velocity of the piston and the maximum
force that can be applied in the forward stroke. (b) Determine the maximum velocity of the
EXAMPLE 7.1 the
NC Open-Loop Positioning

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piston and maximum force that can be applied in the reverse stroke.
The worktable of a positioning system is driven by a ball screw whose
Analog–Digital
pitchConversion Downloaded
= 6.0 mm. The screw is connected to From : EasyEngineering.net
the output shaft of a stepper motor

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through a gearbox whose ratio is 5:1 (five turns of the motor to one turn of
6.18 (A) A continuous voltage signal is to be converted into its digital counterpart using an
the screw).converter.
analog-to-digital The stepper
Themotor
maximumhasvoltage
48 steprange
angles. TheV.table
is {30 The must
ADC move a dis-
has a 12-bit

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tance of 250 mm from its present position at a linear velocity = 500 mm/min.
capacity. Determine (a) number of quantization levels, (b) resolution, and (c) the quanti-
Determine
zation (a)ADC.
error for this how many pulses are required to move the table the specified
6.19 A voltage signal with athe
distance and (b) required
range motor
of 0 to 115 Vspeed
is toand pulse rateby
be converted to means
achieveofthe
an desired
ADC.

t
table velocity.
Determine the minimum number of bits required to obtain a quantization error of

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(a)  {5
Solution: (a)VRearranging
maximum, (b) {1 V maximum,
Equation {0.1screw
(c) the
(7.7) to find V maximum.
rotation angle As corresponding
6.20 A digital-to-analog
to a distance x converter
= 250 mm,uses a reference voltage of 120 V DC and has eight

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binary digit precision. In one of the sampling instants, the data contained in the
3 60x
binary register = 01010101. If a zero-order 3hold
6012502
is used to generate the output signal,
determine the voltage level ofAthat
s = signal. = = 15,000°
p 6.0

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6.21 A DAC uses a reference voltage of 80 V and has 6-bit precision. In four successive sam-
plingWith 48 each
periods, step 1angles, each
sec long, the step angle
binary data is
contained in the output register were 100000,
011111, 011101, and 011010. Determine the equation for the voltage as a function of time

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between sampling instants 3 and 4 usinga(a)
3 60
= a zero-order
= 7.5°hold and (b) a first-order hold.
6.22
48
In the previous problem, suppose that a second-order hold were to be used to gen-

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erateThus,
the output signal.ofThe
the number equation
pulses to move forthe
thetable
second-order
250 mm ishold is the following:
E(t) = E0 + at + bt 2, where E0 = starting voltage at the beginning of the time interval.
3 60xr
(a) For the binary data given Asrg
ingthe previous problem, determine the values of a and b
15,000152

t
npthe
that would be used in = equation =for the = 1 0 ,0sampling
= interval between
time 0 0 pulses
instants 3 and 4.
pa a 7.5
(b) Compare the first-order and second-order holds in anticipating the voltage at the 4th
instant.
(b) The rotational speed of the screw corresponding to a table speed of
500 mm/min is determined from Equation (7.10):
vt 500
Ns == = 8 3 .3 3 3 rev/min
p 6
Downloaded From : EasyEngineering.net
Equation (7.6) is used to find the motor speed:

Nm = rgNs = 5183 .3 3 3 2 = 4 1 6 .6 6 7 rev/min

The applied pulse rate to drive the table is given by Equation (7.11):
vt n s rg 5001482152
fp = = = 3 3 3 .3 3 3 Hz
60p 60162
 Ea
through a gearbox whose ratio is 5:1 (five turns of the motor to one turn of
PROBLEMS the screw). The stepper motor has 48 step angles. The table must move a dis-

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tance of 250 mm from its present position at a linear velocity = 500 mm/min.
Determine
Answers to problems (a)
labeled how
(A) are many pulses
listed in are required to move the table the specified
the appendix.
distance and (b) the required motor speed and pulse rate to achieve the desired
CNC Machining tableApplications
velocity.

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Solution:
7.1 (A) A(a) Rearranging
machinable gradeEquation (7.7) istoto
of aluminum find
be the screw
milled on rotation angle A
a CNC milling s corresponding
machine with a
25-mmtodiameter
a distance x = 250
four-tooth mm,
end mill. Cutting speed is 100 m/min and feed is 0.075 mm/
tooth. To program the machine tool, convert these values to (a) rev/min and (b) mm/min,

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respectively. 3 60x 3 6012502
As = = = 15,000°
7.2 p on a CNC
A cast-iron workpiece is to be face milled 6.0 machine using cemented carbide in-
serts. The cutter has 12 teeth and its diameter is 100 mm. Cutting speed is 180 m/min and

r
Downloaded From : EasyEngineering.net
feed isWith 48 step angles,
0.08 mm/tooth. each
To program step
the angle is tool, convert these values to (a) rev/min
machine

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and (b) mm/min, respectively.
3 60
7.3Positioning
An end milling operation is performed on a =a CNC = 7.5°
Sec. 7.4 / Analysis of Systems 48 machining center. The total length of175
travel is 800 mm along a straight path. Cutting speed is 1.5 m/sec and chip load is 0.09 mm.

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whereThe Thus,
∆xend
= millthe
hasnumber
distance two teethofalong
moved pulses
and toaxis,
itsthe movemm
diameter =the table
12.5 n250
mm.
(in); mm is (a) feed rate in rev/
Determine
p and ns are defined above; and
min and (b) time to complete the cut.
p = screw pitch, mm/rev (in/rev).
7.4 A turning operation 3 60xrg Asrgon a 15,000152
The velocity nisp to
= be performed
of the worktable, which = CNC
= is normally thelathe. Cutting
feed=rate speed = 2.2operation,
1 0 ,0in0 a0 machining m>sec,

t
pulses
feed = 0.25 mm>rev, and pa
depth of cut = 3.0 mm. Workpiece
7.5 diameter = 90 mm and

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a
is determined by the rotational speed of the screw, which in turn is driven by the servomotor:
length = 550 mm. Determine (a) rotational speed of the workpiece, (b) feed rate, and (c)
time to(b) The
travel rotational
from speed
one end of of tothe
the part thescrew
other.Ncorresponding
mp to a table speed of
500 mm/min is determined vt = fr = Ns p = (7.15)
7.5 A CNC drill press drills four 10.0 mmfrom Equation
diameter holesrgat(7.10):
four locations on a flat aluminum

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plate in a production work cycle. Although the plate is only 12 mm thick, the drill must
wheretravel
vt =a worktable velocity,atmm/min vt (in/min);
500 and fr = feed rate, mm/min (in/min);
full 20 mm vertically each
Ns =hole location
= to allow
= 8 3 .3 3 for clearance above the plate and
3 rev/min
screw rotational
Ns = breakthrough of thespeed,
drill onrev/min;
the underside p m =of 6motor
N the plate.rotational speed,the
Time to retract rev/min; rg =
drill from gear
each

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reduction
hole isratio.
one-half the feeding time. Cutting speed = 0.5 m>sec and feed = 0.10 mm>rev.
At theEquation
worktable
Coordinates (7.6)
of the is used
velocity
hole ortofeed
findrate
locations the given
are: motor
hole by1speed:
Equation
at x = 25(7.15), mm, y the = 25pulse
mm; frequency
hole 2
emitted
at by
x =the25 encoder
mm, y = is 150the following:
mm; hole 3 at x = 150 mm, y = 150 mm; and hole 4 at
Nm = rgNs = 5183 .3 3 3 2 = 4 1 6 .6 6 7 rev/min

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x = 150, y = 25 mm. The drill starts out at point (0, 0) and returns to the same position after

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the work cycle is completed. Travelfrate v tthe
of f r n s moving from one coordinate position
n s table
The applied pulse rate to p = the table
drive = in isdeceleration,
given by Equation (7.11): for (7.16)
to another is 600 mm/min. Owing to acceleration 60p and 60p and time required the

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control system to achieve final positioning, a time loss of 3 sec is experienced at each stop of
wherethefptable.
= frequency
All movesofare the pulsevtrain,
made t n s rg Hz; 5001482the152
andtotal constant 60 convertsand worktable
unloadingve-
fp =so as to minimize
= cycle= time.
3 3 3 .3If3 3loading
Hz
locitythe
or plate
feed take
rate20from mm/sec
sec (total (in/sec)
handling 60p to mm/min
time), 60162
determine (in/min).
the time required for the work cycle.
The pulse train generated by the encoder is compared with the coordinate posi-

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tion and feed rate specified in the part program, and the difference is used by the MCU
Analysis of Open-Loop Positioning Systems
Bài tập: a servomotor, which in turn drives the worktable. A digital-to-analog converter
to drive
(Section
7.6 (A) One6.3.2) is ofused
axis to convert
the worktable in athe digital
CNC signalssystem
positioning used isby the by
driven MCU a ballinto a continu-
screw with a

ine
ous analog
7.5-mm current
pitch. Thethat
screwpowers the by
is powered drive motor.
a stepper Closed-loop
motor which has 200 NCstep
systems of the
angles using type
a 3:1
gear reduction
described here are(three turns of thewhen
appropriate motorafor each turn of force
reactionary the ballresists
screw).the
Themovement
worktable is pro-
of the
table.grammed to movemachine
Metal cutting a distancetools
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a travel speed
cutting of 1,200 mm/
operations, such

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min. (a) How many pulses are required
as milling and turning, fall into this category. to move the table the specified distance? (b) What is
the required motor rotational speed and (c) pulse rate to achieve the desired table speed?

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7.7 One axis of an open-loop positioning system is driven by a stepper motor, which is con-
nected to a ball screw with a gear reduction of 2:1 (two turns of the motor for each turn of
NC closed loop positionning
the screw). The ball screw drives the positioning table. Step angle of the motor is 3.6°, and

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EXAMPLE 7.2 ball
pitch of the NC Closed-Loop
screw Positioning
is 6.0 mm. The table is required to move along this axis a distance
of 600 mm from its current position in exactly 25 sec. Determine (a) the number of pulses
AntoNC
required worktable
move operates
the specified by closed-loop
distance, positioning.
(b) pulse frequency, The
and (c) system speed
rotational consists
of of

t
a servomotor,
the motor to make the ball
move.screw, and optical encoder. The screw has a pitch of 6.0 mm
and is coupled to the motor shaft with a gear ratio of 5:1 (five turns of the drive
motor for each turn of the screw). The optical encoder generates 48 pulses/
rev of its output shaft. The table has been programmed to move a distance of
250 mm at a feed rate = 500 mm/min. Determine (a) how many pulses should
be received by the control system to verify
Downloaded Fromthat the table has moved exactly
: EasyEngineering.net
250 mm, (b) the pulse rate of the encoder, and (c) the drive motor speed that
corresponds to the specified feed rate.
Solution: (a) Rearranging Equation (7.14) to find np,
∆xns 2501482
np = = = 2 ,0 0 0 pulses
p 6.0
(b) The pulse rate corresponding to 500 mm/min is obtained by Equation (7.16):
fr ns 5001482
fp = = = 6 6 .6 6 7 Hz
60p 6016.02

Downloaded From : EasyEngineering.net

 table that positions
(c) Motormotor
each axis
for gear
speedfor = each
(noitsgear
the PC board
table turn velocity
reduction).
of the
Screw
uses
(feed
a stepper
screw).
rate) The
pitchhas
ratio:frequency = 400 Hz. Two components are placed on the PC board,aone
rev of output shaft. The table
divided
motor
5.0 mm.
= been
optical directly
by screw encoder
The motor step
programmed
net
linked
pitch,
to
to a ball screw for
generates
corrected48 pulses/
angle =distance
move 7.2°, andof
the pulse 250 mm at a feed rate = 500 mm/min. Determine (a) how many pulseseach shouldat
positions (25,
be received by the25) and (50, 150), where coordinates are mm. The sequence of positions is
rg frcontrol 515002 system to verify that the table has moved exactly
(0, 0), (25, 25), (50, 150), (0, 0). Time required to unload
4 16 .6 6 7 rev the completed board and load the
250 mm, (b) Nmthe = pulse= rate of the = encoder, and/min (c) the drive motor speed that
next blank onto the machine p table6.0 = 3.0 sec. Assume that 0.25 sec is lost due to accelera-
corresponds to the specified feed rate.
tion and deceleration on each move. What is the hourly production rate for this PC board?

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Comment: Note that motor speed has the same numerical value as in
Solution:
7.10 Two stepper (a) Rearranging motors areEquation used in an(7 .14) to find
open-loop systemn , to drive the leadscrews for x–y posi-
Example 7.1 because the table velocity and motorp gear ratio are the same.
tioning. The range of each axis is 550 mm. The shafts of the motors are connected directly

syE
to the leadscrews (no gear n reduction). ∆xnsThe 2501482
p = = leadscrew =pitch 2 ,0 0is0 5.0
pulsesmm, and the number of
step angles on each motor is 120. (a) p How closely 6.0 can the position of the table be con-
trolled, assuming Downloaded there are From no mechanical
: EasyEngineering.net errors in the positioning system? (b) What are
the in (b) Therotational
required pulse ratespeeds correspondingof each stepper to 500motor mm/min andiscorresponding
obtained by Equation pulse train(7 .16):
fre-
7.4.3 Precision Downloaded
Positioning FromSystems : EasyEngineering.net

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Downloaded From : EasyEngineering.net quencies to drive the table at 300 mm/min in a straight line from point (x = 0, y = 0) to
fr ns 5001482

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point (x = 330 mm, y = 220 fmm)? 6 6 .6Chap.
6 7 Hz8system / Industrial
234 To accurately machine or otherwise process p =a work =
60p part, an NC=positioning
6016.02 must Robotics
6 7.11 (A) The two axes of an positioning Chap.
table are 7 each
/ Computer Numerical Control
g Systems From
Downloaded possess a high degree of precision. Three measures of precision
: EasyEngineering.net x–y 177can be defined for an motors
driven by stepper NC con-

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8.6 ROBOT ACCURACY
positioning nected
system:AND to ball screws
REPEATABILITY
(1) control resolution, (2) accuracy, and (3) repeatability. These terms turn of
with a 4:1 gear reduction (four turns of the motor for each
= control resolution (c)
the
of theexplained Motor
ball screw). speed
electromechanical The =number velocity
tablecomponents,
of step angles (feedon mm rate)
each divided
stepper by
(in); motor screw pitch,
is 100. Each corrected
screw has a
are most readily by considering a single axis of the positioning system, as de-
pitch
The capacityfor gear
= 7.5
of
Chap. mm
ratio:
a robot
7 and
/ provides
to position
Computer an axis
andto
Numerical range
orient = 600.0
the end
Control mm. There
of its wrist are 16 bits
withtoaccuracy in each
andbinary
repeat-
ew pitch, mm/rev picted in(in/rev);Figure ns =Control
7.14. number of
resolution stepsrefers per revolution;
the control and
system’s ability divide the
register used by the controller to store position data for the two axes. (a) What is the con-

rin
tio between the total rangeability
motor shaft
of the isaxis
and anthe important
screw ascontrol
movement defined
into attribute
closely in Equation
spaced in nearly (7.6).
points all
that industrial
The can be applications.by
distinguished Some the assembly

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trol resolution of each axis? r(b) g fr What 515002are the required
Downloaded From rotational speeds of each stepper
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Motor
sion can speed =MCU.
be used table velocity
for Controlapplications
a closed-loop (feed
resolution rate)
require
positioning divided
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thebedistance
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two 7table
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ear
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Addressable of ppoints
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e axis coordinate worktable value.terms Forbe
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Comment: thisNote inthat
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motor beof
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thecontrol
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resolution
numerical to
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in

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repeatability.
= number of
These bits in
terms the storage
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same basic for meanings in robotics as they have in
Nm = as possible.
= Example This depends
= 7.14 16 because on
.6 6 7 rev /minlimitations imposed
the table velocity and motor by (1) the electromechanical
gear ratio are the com-
same.
n the number ponents of control points
pofnumerical
the into
6.0
positioning whichsystem
control the axis
(Section range
7.4.3).
and/or (2)can
Intherobotics,divided
benumber the of 2B. used by the
=characteristics
bits arecontroller
defined attothe end of
Analysis of Closed-Loop Positioning Systems
at the controldefine pointsthe are the separated
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absence
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A number
7.12 In Control
of
a CNC resolution
electromechanical
milling machine, refers toaxis
factors
the theaffectcapability
corresponding control of tothe therobot’s
resolution, feed rate positioning
including
uses a DC system
screwservomotor to di-
mple 7.1 because the table velocity and Ldrive motor gear ratio are the same.
pitch, gearvide ratio the
as in range
the thedrive of
CR2 = B in Positioning Systems the
unit andjoint
system, a into
and
rotary closely
the
encoder step spaced
as angle
the points,
in
feedback a
(7.18) called
stepper
sensing addressable
motor
device. for
The an points,
open-
motor is to which
geared
loop7.4.3 system thePrecision
orjoint
thea can
to 2 -
leadscrew
angle 1moved
bebetween with aby 10:1
slots the incontroller.
reduction
an encoder (10 turns Recall
diskoffor from
the amotor Section
closed-loop for each 7.4.3 that
turn
system. of the capability
the leadscrew).
For an to

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open-loop divide If the
positioning an leadscrew
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system pitch
into
driven is 6by mm,
addressable a and the
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motor, depends emitson
these 60 pulses
(1)
factors perbe
limitations
can revolution,
of
combined the determine
electrome-
= control resolution To of the computer
accurately machine controlor speed system, mm
otherwise process (in);aand = axis
L part,
in). The control intoresolution chanical
an expression (a) the
of thethat rotational
componentsdefines
positioning that
control
system
of
make the motor
up
resolution
is the eachand
maximumaswork
(b) pulse
joint-link of
rateanofNC
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the
the positioning
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achieve mustrate
the acontroller’s
feed
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Positioning Systems possess a high
of degree
300 mm/min.
bit storage capacity for that joint. of precision. Three measures of precision can be defined for an NC

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7.13 A If DCtheservomotor
joint is linear is used (typetoCR drive
L)1 =
oneorthogonal
or of the table axes (typeofO) a CNC andmilling
consists machine.
of(7.17) The motor or
a leadscrew

y t
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Max 5CR
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, CR
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screw considering
2 6repeatibility, for the the axisna rgsingle
susing axis
amethods
gear of the positioning
(7.19)
reduction system, as de-
used of for8:1an(eight turns of the motor

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achine or otherwise process
Control
ball screw work
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mechanism, NC positioning
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egree of precision. picted
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of
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screw).
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be ballrefers
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pitch
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is
NC 7.5 mm. system’s
An optical ability
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attached the
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… CRscrew be used
1, meaning
to determine
that the per the control
electromechanical resolution for
system the robot’s
is motor linear axis, CR 1 . However,
m: (1) that
factor control resolution,
determines (2)of
determining
control
theemits
accuracy, axis 120
CR
resolution.
movement
and
1 for
pulses
The (3)
a robot
bit
into closelyThese
revolution
repeatability.
manipulator
storage capacity
spaced
of the screw.
is
points
terms
confounded
of a
Thethat
mod-
canrotates
by
be distinguished
the fact
at a top speed
that there
byofthe 1,000
is a wider
MCU. Controlrev/min. Determine
resolution is (a)
definedcontrolasresolution
the distance of theseparating
system, based
Distribution two onadjacent
mechanical limits of each
addressable
erexplained
controllerby is considering to asatisfy
single axistypes of the positioning system, as
in de-

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sufficient variety axis, of(b)joint
this criterion
frequency used inpulse
except
ofAddressable
the robotics
intrain
unusual than situations.
emitted NC machine tools. And ittheis servomotor
not possible
7.14. Control points in
resolution the
refers axis
to the movement.
control system’s ability points
to divide areby the
the of
locations optical
mechanicalalong encoder the axiswhento which the
of 0.0025 mm (0.0001 in) areoperates to analyze within at the themechanical
full current
speed,directed details
Addressable
state
and (c)oftravel of
CNC all
rate of the
technology.
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eility
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7.14 a
(A) TheThismechanical
move the
worktable worktable of on on
a CNC to the the capacity
exact
machine to
location
tool is driven system
resolution is defined small as possible. depends limitations imposed by (1) by theaelectromechanical
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A number generates of 200 pulses per leadscrew
electromechanical factors revolution.
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a distance of 350 mm at a feed rate = 450 mm>min. (a) How many pulses are received by
ositioning gear ratio inAccuracy
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Repeatability a stepper motor open-
=ntrol pointsystem
control whose and/or
resolution meanof (2)
the
=
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the
the controller
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devia-
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system. points.For an This
m CR between =disk3 ! for a
loop system or the = angle slots closed-loop
oordinate
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at is, a Desired
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2
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depend
definition of control resolution, accuracy, and repeatability. technology.
on the mechanical construction of the given joint-
Control resolution = CR
ity of a positioning system to move the worktable
link combination. If the mechanical to the exact errors location
can bede- characterized by a normal distribution
enControl
addressable Resolution,
point is Accuracy,
limited byand Repeatability
mechanical errorsin that NCare due to various

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urein 7.14 A portionsystem.
the mechanical of a linear These positioning
imperfections systeminclude axis, with play between the
pose
nitionthe mechanical
of control resolution,inaccuracies accuracy, inand therepeatability.
open-loop positioning sys-
e worktable, backlash in the gears, and deflection of machine components.
of Example 7.1 are describedDownloaded by a normal From distribution
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cal errors are assumed to form an unbiased normal statistical Downloaded distribution
ation = 0.005 mm. The range of the worktable axis is 1,000 mm, and thereFrom From
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trol point whose mean m = 0. It is further assumed that the standard devia-
16 bits in the binary register used by the digital controller to store the
 mechanical
mechanical
7.15 A CNC error
error distribution
distribution
machine associated
associated
tool table with
is poweredwith the
by athe axis. This
axis. Thisball
servomotor, canscrew,
can be written
be written as encoder.
as
and optical
The ball screw has a pitch = 6.0 mmRe and=
Re {3s
=is{3s
connected to the motor shaft with a gear (7.21)
ratio
of 16:1 (16 turns of the motor for each turn of the screw). The optical encoder is connected
whereto
where Rethe=
Re repeatability,
=ball
repeatability, mm (in).
mm (in).
screw and generates 120 pulses/rev of the screw. The table must move a distance
of 250 mm at a feed rate = 300 mm>min. (a) Determine the pulse count received by the
control system to verify that the table has moved exactly 250 mm. Also, what are (b) the
pulse rate and (c) motor speed that correspond to the specified feed rate?

Ea
EXAMPLE 7.3
EXAMPLE 7.3 Control
Control Resolution,
Resolution, Accuracy,
Accuracy, and
and Repeatability
Repeatability in
in NC
NC
7.16 A DC servomotor coupled to a leadscrew with a 4:1 gear reduction is used to drive one
Suppose
of theSuppose the
table axesthe mechanical
of a mechanical
CNC inaccuracies
inaccuracies
milling machine. in the
in the has
The leadscrew open-loop
open-loop positioning
positioning
1.5 threads/cm. sys-
An optical

s
temattached
tem
encoder of Example
of Example 7.1 are
7.1 are described
to the leadscrew described by aa normal
by normal
emits 100 pulses/rev. distribution
distribution
The motor with
with
rotates at standard
a maximum

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speeddeviation
of 800 rev/min.
deviation = Determine
0.005
= 0.005 mm. The
mm. (a) range
The the control
range of the
of theresolution
worktable
worktableof the
axissystem,
axis is 1,000
is 1,000expressed
andinthere
mm, and
mm, lin-
ear travel
are distance
are 16
16 bits of
bits in the
in the table
the binary axis and
binary register(b) the
register used frequency
used byby the of the
the digital pulse train
digital controller emitted
controller toto storethe
by the
optical encoder
programmed when the
programmed position. servomotor
position. Other operates
Other relevant at maximum
relevant parameters speed.
parameters fromfrom Example
Example 7.17.1 are the
7.17 A milling operation
following:
following: pitch
pitch = =is 6.0
performed
6.0 mm,
mm, geargearonratio
a between
ratio CNC machining
between motor
motor shaftcenter.
shaft andTotal
and screw travel
screw = 5.0,

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distance
and = 430
and number mm
number of in a
of step direction
step angles
angles in parallel
in the to one
the stepper of
stepper motor the
motor = axes
= 48. of the worktable.
48. Determine
Determine thetheCutting
(a) con-
speedtrol
= 1.25
trol m>sec and
resolution,
resolution, (b)chip
(b) load = and
accuracy,
accuracy, 0.05 (c)
and mm. The end milling
(c) repeatability
repeatability of cutter
of the has four teeth
the positioning
positioning and
system.
its diameter = 20.0 mm. The axis uses a DC servomotor whose output shaft is coupled to a
Solution:
Solution: (a)
(a) Control
leadscrew with a 5:1resolution
Control resolution
gear reductionis
is the
the greater
greater
(five of CR
ofthe
turns of 11 and CR
and for
CRmotor 22 as
CReach as defined
defined
turn by Equations
byleadscrew).
of the Equations

ng eer
(7.17)
(7.17) and
The leadscrew (7.18).
andpitch
(7.18).
is 6.0 mm. An optical encoder which emits 80 pulses per revolution is
attached to the leadscrew. Determine (a) feed rate and time to complete the cut, (b) rota-

ine ing
tional speed of the motor, and (c) pulse pp rate 6.0 of
6.0the encoder at the feed rate indicated.
CR
CR =
= =
= = 0.025
= 0.025 mm
mm
7.18 A DC servomotor drives the11 x-axis nnssrrggof a 4815.02
CNC
4815.02milling machine table. The motor is cou-
pled to a ball screw, whose pitch = 7.5 mm, using a gear reduction of 8:1 (eight turns

eri .ne
of the motor to one turn of the ball 1,000
1,000 screw). An 1,000
1,000
optical encoder is connected to the ball
CR
CR22 == 16 =
= = 0.01526
= 0.01526 mmmm
screw. The optical encoder emits 22 75--pulses
16 11 65,535
per revolution. To execute a certain pro-
65,535
grammed instruction, the table must move from point (x = 202.5 mm, y = 35.0 mm) to

ng t
point (x = 25.0 mm, y = CR CR =
250.0 Max50.025,
Max50.025,
=mm) in a straight0.015266
0.015266 =at0.025
line path= a feedmm
0.025 mm
rate = 300 mm>min.
For the x-axis, determine (a) the control resolution of the system, (b) rotational speed
of the(b)
(b) Accuracy
Accuracy
motor, is
and (c) given
given by
by Equation
is frequency Equation
of the pulse (7 .20):
(7.20):
train emitted by the optical encoder at the

.ne
desired feed rate. (d) How many pulses are emitted by the x-axis encoder during the move?
Ac
Ac = 0.510.0252 ++ 310.0052
= 0.510.0252 = 0.0275
310.0052 = 0.0275 mm
mm
(c)
(c) Repeatability
Repeatability Re = {310.0052
Re = = {0.015
{310.0052 = {0.015 mm
mm

t
Precision
Bài tập: of Positioning Systems
7.19 (A) A two-axis positioning system uses a bit storage capacity of 16 bits in its control mem-
7.5
7.5 NC
NC PART
PART PROGRAMMING
ory for each axis. To position the worktable, a stepper motor with step angle = 3.6° is
PROGRAMMING
connected to a leadscrew with a 6:1 gear reduction (six turns of the motor for each turn
NC
NC partof the
part leadscrew). consists
programming
programming The leadscrew
consists of pitch is and
of planning
planning 7.5 mm.
and The range the
documenting
documenting of the
the x-axis is of
sequence
sequence 600processing
of mm and
processing
steps the
to be range of the by
performed y-axis
an is 500
NC mm. Mechanical
machine. The part accuracy
programmerof the worktable
must have a can be repre-of
knowledge
steps to be performed by an NC machine. The part programmer must have a knowledge
sented by
machining a normal distribution with standard deviation = 0.002 mm for both axes. For
machining (or(or other
other processing
processing technology
technology for
for which
which thethe NC
NC machine
machine is is designed),
designed), as well as
each axis of the positioning system, determine (a) the control resolution, (b) accuracy, and
geometry
geometry and
and trigonometry.
trigonometry. The The documentation
documentation portion
portion ofof part
part programming
programming involves
involves the
(c) repeatability.
input
input medium used to transmit the program of instructions to the NC machine control unit.
medium used to transmit the program of instructions to the NC machine control
7.20 Stepper motors
The are used todating
drive the two axes first
of a component placement machine 1-in
usedwide
for
The traditional
traditional input
input medium
medium dating back back to
to the
the first NCNC machines
machines in in the
the 1950s
1950s isis
electronic assembly. A printed circuit board is mounted on the table and must be positioned
punched
punched tape.
tape. More
More recently,
recently, magnetic
magnetic tape,
tape, floppy
floppy disks,
disks, and portable
andRange
portable solid-state
solid-state memory
accurately for reliable insertion of components into the board. of each axis = 700 mm.
5. BàiThe
tậpleadscrew
giải bàiused
toántođộng
drive học
each ngược robot
of the two axeshai
hasbậc tự do
a pitch of 3.0 mm. The inherent
mechanical errors in table positioning can be characterized by a normal distribution with
6. Bàistandard deviation = 0.005 mm. If the required accuracy for the table is 0.04 mm, determine
tập giải thích các câu lệnh lập trình robot
(a) the number of step angles that the stepper motor must have, and (b) how many bits are
required in the control memory for each Downloaded
axis
Downloaded From
to uniquely :: EasyEngineering.net
identify
From each control position.
EasyEngineering.net
7. Tính toán số xe cần thiết giữa các vị trí làm việc

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 c
ability, (2) traffic congestion, and (3) efficiency of manual drivers in the case of manually
operated Figure
trucks. 10.13 Network
Availability A isdiagram showing
a reliability factormaterial
(Sectiondeliveries between
3.1.1) defined as the pro-
load/unload stations. Nodes represent the load/unload
portion of total shift time that the vehicle is operational and not broken down stations, andor being
repaired. arrows are labeled with flow rates, loads/hr, and distances m.
To deal with the time losses due to traffic congestion, the traffic factor Ft is defined
as a parameter
Mathematicalfor estimating
equations thecan
effect
be of these losses
developed on systemthe
to describe performance.
operation of Sources of
vehicle-
inefficiency accounted for by the traffic factor include waiting at
based material transport systems. It is assumed that the vehicle moves at a constant ve- intersections, blocking
of vehicles
locity (as in anitsAGVS),
throughout operation andandwaiting
that in a queue
effects at load/unload
of acceleration, stations. If these
deceleration, situ-
and other
ations do not occur, then
speed differences are ignored. Ft = 1.0. As blocking increases, the value
The time for a typical delivery cycle in the of F t decreases.
operation is
Ft of
affected by the number of vehicles in the system relative to the size
a vehicle-based transport system consists of (1) loading at the pickup station, (2) travel of the layout. If there
istime
onlytoone
thevehicle
drop-off in station,
the system, no blocking
(3) unloading at should occur, station,
the drop-off and theand traffic
(4)factor
emptywill be
travel
1.0. For systems with many vehicles, there will be more instances
time of the vehicle between deliveries. The total cycle time per delivery per vehicle is of blocking and conges-
tion,
givenandby the traffic factor will take a lower value. Typical values of traffic factor for an
AGVS range between 0.85 and 1.0 [4].
For systems based on industrial trucks, Ld includingLboth e hand trucks and powered
trucks that are operated by human TL + traffic
Tc =workers, + TU congestion
+ is probably not the (10.1) main
vc vc
cause of low operating performance. Instead, performance depends primarily on the
whereefficiency
work Tc = delivery cycle time,
of the operators whomin/del; L = time
drive theTtrucks. Workerto load at load
efficiency station,asmin;
is defined the
distance
Ld = work
actual ratethe vehicle
of the human travels between
operator loadtoand
relative the unload
work rate station, m (ft);
expected vc =
under carrier
standard
velocity,
or normalm/min (ft/min);Let
performance. TU E =w time to unload
symbolize worker at unload station, min; and Le = distance
efficiency.
the vehicle travels
With these emptydefined,
factors until thethestart of the next
available timedelivery
per hourcycle, m (ft). can now be ex-
per vehicle
pressed The Tc calculated
as 60 min adjusted by byEquation
A, Ft, and (10.1) mustis,
Ew . That be considered an ideal value, because
it ignores any time losses due to reliability problems, traffic congestion, and other fac-
294
tors that may slow down a delivery. AT 60AFtEChap.
In=addition,
10 / Material Transport
wnot all delivery cycles are the (10.2)
Systems
same.
whereThe ATtotal number time,
= available of vehicles
min/hr(trucks, AGVs,
per vehicle; A trolleys, carts, etc.)
= availability; Ft =needed to satisfy
traffic factor, anda
specified
Ew = worker totalefficiency.
delivery schedule Rf in theA,
The parameters system canEwbedo
Ft, and estimated
not takeby first
into calculating
account poor the
ve-
total workloadpoor
hicle routing, required and then
guide-path dividing
layout, or poorby management
the availableoftime
the per vehicle.
vehicles Workload
in the system.
is defined
These as the
factors totalbe
should amount of work,
minimized, expressed
but if in terms
present they of time, that
are accounted for must
in thebevalues
accom-of
plished
L d, L e, Tby
L , the
and material
T u . transport system in 1 hr. This can be expressed as
Equations for the two performance parameters of interest can now be written. The
WL = Rf Tc (10.4)
rate of deliveries per vehicle is given by
where WL = workload, min/hr; Rf = specified flow rate of total deliveries per hour for
the system, deliveries/hr; and Tc = delivery cycle AT time, min/del. Now the number of ve-
R dv = (10.3)
hicles required to accomplish this workload canTcbe written as

where R dv = hourly delivery rate per vehicle,WLdeliveries/hr per vehicle; Tc = delivery

n = (10.5)
cycle time computed by Equation (10.1), cmin/del;
AT and AT = the available time in 1 hour,
adjusted for time losses, min/hr.
where nc = number of carriers (vehicles) required, WL = workload, min/hr; and
AT = available time per vehicle, min/hr per vehicle. Substituting Equations (10.3) and
(10.4) into Equation (10.5) provides an alternative way to determine nc:

Rf
nc = (10.6)
Rdv

where nc = number of carriers required, Rf = total delivery requirements in the system,

deliveries/hr; and Rdv = delivery rate per vehicle, deliveries/hr per vehicle. Although the
traffic factor accounts for delays experienced by the vehicles, it does not include delays
Víencountered
dụ: by a load/unload station that must wait for the arrival of a vehicle. Because
of the random nature of the load/unload demands, workstations are likely to experience
waiting time while vehicles are busy with other deliveries. The preceding equations do
not consider this idle time or its impact on operating cost. If station idle time is to be mini-
mized, then more vehicles may be needed than the number indicated by Equations (10.5)
or (10.6). Mathematical models based on queueing theory are appropriate to analyze this
more complex stochastic situation.

EXAMPLE 10.1 Determining Number of Vehicles in an AGVS

Consider the AGVS layout in Figure 10.14. Vehicles travel counterclock-
wise around the loop to deliver loads from the load station to the unload sta-
tion. Loading time at the load station = 0.7 5 min, and unloading time at the
unload station = 0.50 min. The following performance parameters are given:
vehicle speed = 50 m>min, availability = 0.9 5, and traffic factor = 0.9 0.
Operator efficiency does not apply, so Ew = 1.0. Determine (a) travel dis-
tances loaded and empty, (b) ideal delivery cycle time, and (c) number of
vehicles required to satisfy the delivery demand if a total of 40 deliveries per
hour must be completed by the AGVS.
 mized, then more vehicles may be needed than the number indicated by Equations (10.5)
or (10.6). Mathematical models based on queueing theory are appropriate to analyze this
more complex stochastic situation.

EXAMPLE 10.1 Determining Number of Vehicles in an AGVS

Consider the AGVS layout in Figure 10.14. Vehicles travel counterclock-
wise around the loop to deliver loads from the load station to the unload sta-
tion. Loading time at the load station = 0.7 5 min, and unloading time at the
unload station = 0.50 min. The following performance parameters are given:
vehicle speed = 50 m>min, availability = 0.9 5, and traffic factor = 0.9 0.
Operator efficiency does not apply, so Ew = 1.0. Determine (a) travel dis-
tances loaded and empty, (b) ideal delivery cycle time, and (c) number of
vehicles required to satisfy the delivery demand if a total of 40 deliveries per
hour must be completed by the AGVS.
Solution: (a) Ignoring effects of slightly shorter distances around the curves at corners
of the loop, the values of Ld and Le are readily determined from the layout to
be 110 m and 80 m, respectively.
Sec. 10.3 / Analysis of Material Transport Systems 295

AGV Unld
Man
AGV guide path

20

55 40

20

Direction of
Load
vehicle movement
Man

Figure 10.14 AGVS loop layout for Example 10.1.

Key: Unld = unload, Man = manual operation,
dimensions in meters (m).

(b) Ideal cycle time per delivery per vehicle is given by Equation (10.1):

110 80
Tc = 0.7 5 + + 0.5 0 + = 5.05 min
50 50

(c) To determine the number of vehicles required to make 40 deliveries/hr,

compute the workload of the AGVS and the available time per hour per
vehicle:

WL = 4015 .05 2 = 2 02 min>hr

AT = 6 010.9 5 210.9 0211.02 = 5 1.3 min>hr per vehicle

Therefore, the number of vehicles required is

2 02
nc = = 3.94 vehicles
5 1.3

This value should be rounded up to 4 vehicles, since the number of vehicles

must be an integer.

Determining the average travel distances, Ld and Le, requires analysis of

the particular AGVS layout and how the vehicles are managed. For a simple loop
layout such as Figure 10.14, determining these values is straightforward. For a com-
plex AGVS layout, the problem is more difficult. The following example illustrates