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Binary Binary
Hexadecimal Hexadecimal
Multiply Divide
OTHER BASE TO OTHER BASE
= (10010110)2
=1x27+0x26+0x25+1x24+0x23+1x22+1x21
+0x20
= 128+0+0+16+0+4+2+0
= (150)10
= (1 2 7 4)8
= (1274)8
ANOTHER EXAMPLE
= (1101010)2
= 1x26+1x25+0x24+1x23+0x22+1x21+0x20
= 64+32+0+8+0+2+0
= (106)10
Then, convert it into hexadecimal number
= (106)10
= 16 106 Remainders
16 6 10
0 6
= (1010101101001)2
= (1 0101 0110 1001)2
= (1 5 6 9)16
= (1569)16
EXAMPLE-2
DECIMAL TO BASE N CONVERSION
27+9+6+1
43
=4x82+5x81+6x80
=4x64+5x8+6x1
=256+40+6
=(302)10
(b) Now convert decimal into its binary equivalent:-
2 302 Remainders
2 151 0
2 75 1
2 37 1
2 18 1
2 9 0
2 4 1
2 2 0
2 1 0
2 0 1
Answer will be = (100101110)2
ANOTHER METHOD (DISTRIBUTION METHOD)
=(100101110)2
=Ax161+6x160
=10x16+6x1
=160+6
=(166)10
(b) Now convert decimal into its binary equivalent:-
2 166 Remainders
2 83 0
2 41 1
2 20 1
2 10 0
2 5 0
2 2 1
2 1 0
2 0 1
Answer will be = (10100110)2
ANOTHER METHOD (DISTRIBUTION METHOD)
=(10100110)2
(1 2 3)8
(001 010 011)2
(001010011)2
= (001010011)2
Using grouping method-
=10x256+5x16+2x1
=2560+80+2
=(2642)10
(b) In second step, we convert intermediate
decimal result (2652)10 into its octal number.
8 2642 Remainders
8 330 2
8 41 2
8 5 1
8 0 5
= (10 5 2)16
=(1010 0101 0010)2
=(101001010010)2
(b) In second step, we follow the grouping
method.
As we know, octal value is made up of 3 binary
digit, so we make group of three digits from right
to left of intermediate binary value.
=(101001010010)2
=(8+0+2+1)+(0+1/4+1/8)
=(11)+(0.25+0.125)
=(11.375)10
=(4+2+0)+(1/2+1/4)
=(6)+(0.50+0.25)
=(6.75)10
= (2 x 8 + 1 x 1) + (2 x ( 1 / 8 ) + 1 x ( 1 / 64 ))
= (16 + 1) + ( 0. 2 5 ) + ( 0 . 0 1 5 6 2 5 )
= 17 + 0. 265625
= 17 . 265625
= (1x161+15x160 +0x16-1+1x16-2+11x16-3)10
= (6 3 . 5 4)8
= (63.54)8
OCTAL TO BINARY FRACTIONAL CONVERSION
1÷0 = 0
0÷1 = Meaningless
0÷0 = Meaningless
EXAMPLE-1
1's complement
The 1's complement of a number is found by
changing all 1's to 0's and all 0's to 1's.
Example of 1's Complement is as follows:-
BINARY SYSTEM COMPLIMENTS
2's complement
The 2's complement of binary number is
obtained by adding 1 to the Least Significant
Bit (LSB) of 1's complement of the number.
2's complement = 1's complement + 1
To be continued.....
DECIMAL SYSTEM COMPLIMENTS
9's Compliments
The 9's complement of a number is calculated
by subtracting each digit of the number by 9.
DECIMAL SYSTEM COMPLIMENTS
The 10's complement
The 10's compliment of a number is calculated
by subtracting each digit by 9 and then adding
1 to the result.
Simply, by adding 1 to its 9's complement we
can get its 10's complement value.
SUBTRACTION USING 9'S COMPLIMENT
1 Nibble = 4 bits
LOGIC GATES
2. Control bus
3. Address bus
1. DATA BUS
3. ADDRESS BUS
Sometimes also known as Memory Bus.
It transports memory addresses which the
processor wants to access in order to read or
write data.
It is unidirectional bus.
It stores the information about where the data is
to be transferred.
The components pass memory addresses to one
another over the address bus.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SYSTEM BUS
1. Bus Width
The size of a bus also known as its width.
2. Bus Speed
The bus speed is also defined by its frequency.
Or 2128*106/8=266*106 bytes/s
Or 266*106/1000=266*103 KB/s
Or 266*103/1000=266 MB/s
PRIMARY BUSES WITHIN A COMPUTER
a. Daisy chaining
c. Independent request
2. Distributed Arbitration
1. CENTRALIZED BUS ARBITRATION
b. Polling method
c. Independent request
(A) DAISY CHAINING
Read: DR ← M [AR]
The Read statement causes a transfer of
information into the data register (DR) from the
memory word (M) selected by the address
register (AR).
2. MEMORY WRITE (WRITE OPERATION)
3. Stack Organisation
1. SINGLE ACCUMULATOR ORGANISATION
To be continued.....
1. DATA PROCESSING UNIT
To be continued.....
(A) ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
To be continued.....
(A) DATA REGISTER (DR)
to be continued……
We assume that the items in the stack
communicate with a data register DR .
A new item is inserted with the push operation
as follows:
SP ← SP - 1
M[SP] ← DR
The stack pointer is decremented so that it
points at the address of the next word.
A memory write operation inserts the word from
DR into the top of the stack. A new item is
deleted with a pop operation as follows:
DR ← M[SP]
SP ← SP + 1
3. REVERSE POLISH NOTATION
Reverse Polish Notation is a way of expressing
arithmetic expressions that avoids the use of
brackets to define priorities for evaluation of
operators.
Arithmetic Expression:- A+B
Examples-
ADD
Example-
ADD R will increment the value stored in the
accumulator by the content of memory location
specified in register R.
AC ← AC + [[R]]
8. RELATIVE ADDRESSING MODE-
Effective Address
= Content of Program Counter + Address part
of the instruction
9. INDEXED ADDRESSING MODE-
Effective Address
= Content of Index Register + Address part of
the instruction
10. BASE REGISTER ADDRESSING MODE
Effective Address
= Content of Base Register + Address part of
the instruction