A scientific theory describing

the large-scale motion of seven

large plates and the movements of
a larger number of smaller
plates of the Earth’s
lithosphere.
Due to intense heat in the Earth’s
core
It moves in a pattern called a
convection cell
 The theory of plate tectonics
and continental drift was
proposed at the beginning of the
last century by a German
scientist, Alfred Wegener.
 The first theory to provide a
comprehensive view of the processes that
provide the earth’s major surface features
including the continents and ocean basins and
explanations of the basic causes and
distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes,
and mountain belts.
 The force that causes most of the plate
movements is called thermal convection,
where heat from the Earth’s interior causes
currents of hot rising magma and cooler
sinking magma to flow, moving the plates
of the crust along with them.
 https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fgfycat.com%2Ftediousrigidamericankestrel-
mantle&psig=AOvVaw1GuYewOqlxtpeW73ZCETWI&ust=1663850098496000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0
CAgQjRxqFwoTCOiY4OPypfoCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAc
Thermal Convection –
also called as Rayleigh-
Benard Convection which
is the transfer of heat
through a fluid motion.
Ridge Push – also called as gravitational
sliding which is a proposed driving force
for plate for plate motion in plate tectonics
that occurs at mid-ocean ridges as the
result of the rigid lithosphere sliding
down the hot, raised asthenosphere
below mid-ocean ridges.
Slab pull – the motion of tectonic
plate caused by its subduction. Of
the many forces likely to be
driving the plate motion, slab
pull was the strongest.
 1. Eurasian Plate
2. Australian Plate
3. Philippine Plate
4. Juan de Fuca Plate
5. Cocos Plate
6. Pacific Plate
7. Nazca Plate
Eurasian Plate 8. Antarctic Plate
9. Scotia Plate
10.South American Plate
11.Carribean Plate
12.North American Plate
13.Arabian Plate
14.Indian Plate
15.African Plate
 North American – Eurasian Plates

Arabian – African Plates

Cocos – Nazca Plates

Pacific – Nazca Plates

Indian – African Plates

Pacific – Antarctic Plates

Australian – Antarctic Plates
South American – African Plates
Australian – African Plates

Plates that move away from each other

Pacific – North American Plates

Eurasian – Indian Plates

Cocos – Caribbean Plates

Pacific – Australian Plates

Plates that move towards each other

 Pacific – North American Plates

Plates that move past each other

 EURASIA

NORTH AMERICA

AFRICA
SOUTH AMERICA
INDIA

ANTARCTICA
AUSTRALIA
 Earthquake
Epicenter

Q1 – Module 2
Why is there a need to study the layers
of the Earth?
The mechanism in the inner layers facilitate the
slow changes that occur on the Earth’s surface.
Studying the interior of the Earth provides us
with a better understanding of Earth, helps us
to understand earthquakes, volcanoes, plate
tectonics, how the atmosphere formed, and to
study earth's magnetic fields.
 Earth’s Interior
Crust

Mantle

Core
 What makes
the
Philippines
susceptible
to
earthquakes?
 It is a sudden and violent
shaking of the ground caused
by the movements of the
It occurs when Earth’s crust or volcanic
rocks along a eruption, sometimes leading to
certain fault line great destruction.
suddenly move.
It is the shaking Earthquake
and trembling of
It is a vibration of the the Earth’s crust
Earth produced by the caused by a
rapid release of energy sudden release
most often because of of energy.
the slippage along a fault
in the Earth’s crust.
 Seismic Waves

Mechanical vibrations that occur inside

the Earth (along fault lines) which is
caused by the breakage of rocks
They radiates in all directions from the
focus
Two Types of Seismic Waves
 Waves that can travel through
the Earth’s inner layers.

Body Have higher frequency than

waves surface waves.

They are used by scientists to

study the Earth’s interior.
Two Types
Primary Secondary
of Body (P) (S) waves
waves
Waves
 Primary (P) waves
Travel quickly through solids, liquids, and gases.
Travel faster than S-wave, considered as the first signal from an
earthquake to be felt
Compressional wave
They travel by particles vibrating parallel to the direction the wave
travel.
Force the ground to move backward and forward as they are
compressed and expanded.
Primary (P) waves
 Secondary (S) waves
Travel slower than P wave
Cannot travel through liquids, can pass through
solids only
Transverse wave, also called as shear waves
Force the ground to sway from side to side, in
rolling motion that shakes the ground back and
forth perpendicular to the direction of the waves.
Secondary (S) waves
 Waves that can only
travel through the surface
of the Earth
Surface They are confined to the
waves outer layers of the Earth
They arrive after the
main P- and S-waves
Two Types
Surface
waves
 Love wave
It is the fastest surface wave
It has a horizontal motion that is transverse to the direction
the wave is travelling
Causes the most damage to structures during an earthquake
Travel only through the lithosphere that cause ripples on the
surface
It moves the ground in a side-to-side horizontal motion like
that of a snake’s causing the ground to twist
Love wave
 Rayleigh wave
Moves in an elliptical motion, producing both vertical and
horizontal motions.
This moves the ground up and down and side to side in the
same direction that the wave is moving.
Spreads out most in time, producing a long wave duration on
seismographs.
Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to Rayleigh
wave.
Rayleigh wave
Seismic waves
 Scientists gained information
about the interior of the
Earth by studying how seismic
How do
waves travel through the
scientists gain Earth.
information
about the
Earth’s internal It involves measuring the time
structure?
it takes for both types of
waves to reach seismic wave
detecting stations from the
epicenter of an earthquake.
VOLCANOES AND
MOUNTAINS
Q1 – M3
does not is a type of
have mountain,
but it has
magma, magma,
crater, and crater, and
lava lava
They usually have can be similar to
steep, sloping sides mountains but have
and sharp or rounded a certain pressure
ridges, and a high inside a magma
point, called a peak chamber that
or summit. A slope creates an orifice
is the side of a through which lava
mountain, hill, or and hot gases erupt
valley. into the atmosphere.
Most geologists Volcanoes
classify a mountain
as a landform that may form
rises at least 1,000 part of
feet (300 meters) or
more above its mountain
surrounding area. ranges
Mountains you cannot
find any
may
traces of
contain water in a
water. volcano
Mountains always
have elevations
not all
higher than their volcanoes
surroundings. For a have higher
landform to qualify elevations
as a mountain, it than the
must rise for over 600 surrounding
meters above the
surrounding area.
area.
Mountain Very much
areas are dangerous,
aggressive and
peaceful and may erupt
safe to visit when least
and stay. expected
 A mountain has 4
main characteristics

High, rocky Pointed or Higher than a

Steep sides
land rounded top hill
 Formation Of A Mountain

A mountain results from the

movement and opposition of
tectonic plates.
 Fold These are the most common type of mountain that are
formed when two plates collide head on and their
Mountains edges crumble.

Fault-block These mountains generally have a steeper front side and

a sloping back side that are formed when materials are
Mountains forced upwards by faults or cracks in the earth’s crust.

Different Dome They are formed when a large amount of magma

types of pushes up from below the earth’s crust but never
mountains
Mountains reaches the surface. They have circular shape.

Volcanic When magma from below the earth’s crust makes its
way to the surface, it causes an eruption. After this,
Mountains volcanic vents are formed, building up a mountain.

Plateau The formation of these mountains is caused by the earth’s internal

activity and they are revealed by erosion. They are formed when
Mountains running water carves deep channels into a region. These mountains
are generally found near Fold Mountains.
A volcano results from
collection of lava after several
volcanic eruptions. Hot magma
flows through a vent and cools Formation Of
upon reaching the surface of A Volcano
the earth. A volcanic mountain
is made up of lava and piles of
rocks.
 Two
shield
categories
stratovolcanoes
volcanoes of
volcanic
mountains
 • Are characterized by steep rising cones . During
their formation, the magma has high viscosity thus
Stratovolcanoes
cools fast and does not spread far from the vent.
Stratovolcanoes erupt less frequently but once they
erupt, their eruption is more violent than that of
shield volcanoes.

•They have gently sloping cones. During their

eruption, low-viscosity materials and basalt are
Shield
volcanoes emitted and these spread far from the vent.
Therefore, shield volcanoes are not as steep
as the stratovolcanoes.
 A boundary in which two plates
move toward each other, causing one
of the slabs of the lithosphere to
subduct beneath an overriding plate.

mountains
trenches

volcanoes

https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/Blog/2020/Understanding-Plate-Tectonic-Theory
Types of
Convergent
Boundary
Continental-Continental
Convergence

Oceanic-Oceanic
Convergence

Oceanic-Continental
Convergence
Collision of oceanic crust and
continental crust.
Oceanic crust subducts beneath the
continental crust.

Volcanoes are formed in the

continental crust (continental volcanic
arc) as part of the igneous activity
associated with subduction of oceanic
lithosphere beneath a continent.

Trenches are formed in the oceanic

crust. Trench is a depression in the
seafloor produced by subduction
process.
Collision of two oceanic crusts
Denser (old) oceanic crust subducts
Volcanoes are formed on the
overlying oceanic crust (volcanic
island arc) parallel to the trench that
are positioned in an arc shape.
A trench is formed. Philippine
Trench is one of the deepest.
Many parts of the Philippines originated from oceanic-oceanic
convergence.

Majority of the islands in the Philippine archipelago are considered

as part of the Philippine Mobile Belt. These islands were formed at
the southern edge of the Philippine Sea Plate and are considered as
part of island arcs.
Other parts of the Philippines, such as Palawan, Mindoro, and the
Zamboanga Peninsula are all highland sections of the Sundaland
block of the Eurasian plate.
The Philippine Mobile Belt eventually collided with the Sundaland
block which explains the presence of trenches, such as the Manila-
Negros-Cotabato Trench System, and the Sulu Trench.

The Philippine Trench and East Luzon Trough are both products
of subducting Philippine Sea Plate beneath the archipelago.

The downward movement of oceanic lithospheres underneath the

Philippine Archipelago creates active volcanic chains. Some known
active volcanoes in this chain are Pinatubo in Central Luzon and
Taal in Batangas.
Collision of two continental crusts.

Subduction ceases for this type of

convergence.

No trench, no volcano, no island arc are

created during the process.

A large group of tall mountains called

mountain range is created.

Two large land masses, India and Eurasia,

collided to form Himalayas

Associated with shallow earthquakes

 Convergent boundary
is present when two
plates collide

Types of Convergent boundary: No subduction

a. Oceanic-Continental happens in
b. Oceanic-Oceanic Continental-
c. Continental-Continental Continental
Convergence
Q1 - M5

Divergent
Plate
Boundary
 Divergent
Boundary

A region where
crustal plates are
moving away from
each other.
 It happens at mid-ocean
ridges (the so-called
seafloor spreading) or at
rifted continental
margins.
Divergent Along these boundaries,
Boundary earthquakes are common,
and magma (molten rock)
rises from the Earth’s
mantle to the surface,
solidifying to create new
oceanic crust.
 Rift Valley
a lowland region
that forms where
Earth’s tectonic plates
Indications move apart or rift.

that crust is
spreading
apart:

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/rift-valley/
 Oceanic Ridges
a seafloor mountain
system where seafloor
spreading takes place
along a divergent plate
Indications boundary.
that crust is https://www.marineinsight.com/wp-
content/uploads/2019/05/Mid-Ocean-Ridge.png

spreading
apart:
Transform
Fault
Boundary
Q1 – M6
Transform fault or transform boundary is a fault along a
plate boundary where the motion is predominantly
horizontal, two plates are sliding past each other.
Transform Fault
Boundary
Rocks that line the
boundary are pulverized as
the plates grind along,
creating linear fault valley
or undersea canyon.

Most associated with

divergent margins.
 Types of
Transform Fault
Boundary

RIDGE-RIDGE
BOUNDARIES

TRENCH-TRENCH
BOUNDARIES
RIDGE-TRENCH
BOUNDARIES
Ridge - Ridge Boundary is a transform fault
that connects two divergent plates.
A transform fault that Trench –
occurs between two Trench
subduction zones. Boundary
Ridge - Trench Boundary is a transform
fault that occurs between a spreading
center and a subduction zone.
 JACOB PA U L I N E
L O Y E TA KO R TA C
Founder and CEO Creative Officer