𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥1

Obtain the transfer functions (𝑇. 𝐹. )1 = , 𝑇. 𝐹. 2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇. 𝐹. 3 = , of the

𝑢 𝑢 𝑥2
mechanical system as shown:
𝑚1 𝑥ሷ1 = −𝑘1 𝑥1 − 𝑘2 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) − 𝑏(𝑥ሶ1 − 𝑥ሶ 2 ) + 𝑢
𝑚2 𝑥ሷ 2 = −𝑘3 𝑥2 − 𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) − 𝑏(𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑥ሶ1 )

Simplifying, we obtain
𝑚1 𝑥ሷ1 + 𝑏𝑥ሶ1 + (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝑥1 = 𝑏𝑥ሶ 2 + 𝑘2 𝑥2 + 𝑢
𝑚2 𝑥ሷ 2 + 𝑏𝑥ሶ 2 + (𝑘2 + 𝑘3 )𝑥2 = 𝑏𝑥ሶ1 + 𝑘2 𝑥1

𝑚1 𝐷2 + 𝑏𝐷 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 x1 𝐷 = 𝑏𝐷 + 𝑘2 x2 𝐷 + 𝑢(𝐷) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1)

𝑚2 𝐷2 + 𝑏𝐷 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 x2 𝐷 = 𝑏𝐷 + 𝑘2 x1 𝐷 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (2)

Solving equation (2) for X2 𝑠 and substituting it into equation (1)

𝑥1 𝑚2 𝐷 2 +𝑏𝐷+ 𝑘2 +𝑘3
= ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (3)
𝑢 𝑚1 𝐷 2+𝑏𝐷+ 𝑘1 +𝑘2 𝑚2 𝐷 2+𝑏𝐷+ 𝑘2 +𝑘3 −(𝑏𝐷+𝑘2 )2

Form equations (3) and (2)

𝑥2 𝑏𝐷 + 𝑘2
= ……………. 4
𝑢 𝑚1 𝐷 2 + 𝑏𝐷 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑚2 𝐷2 + 𝑏𝐷 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 − (𝑏𝐷 + 𝑘2 )2

From equations (3) and (4), or from equation (2):

𝑥1 𝑚2 𝐷2 + 𝑏𝐷 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3
∴ =
𝑥2 𝑏𝐷 + 𝑘2
Linearization of Nonlinear Functions
Linearization of Nonlinear Functions
Actual control systems usually contain some nonlinear elements. Such elements would in turn yield
nonlinear differential equations for the system. In the following it is shown how the equations for nonlinear
elements may be linearized. Thus, the resulting differential equation of operation for the system becomes linear.
A plot of the nonlinear relationship:

𝑌 = 𝑋2 ……………………… 1
As shown in the figure (1). In the vicinity of

the point (operating point) (𝑋𝑖, 𝑌𝑖), the function

is closely approximated by the tangent.
For example, consider the point (X, Y) on the curve of the
nonlinear function.
•The abscissa X is displaced a distance (x) from (Xi).
• This abscissa X intersects the nonlinear function a vertical distance (y+ԑ) from Yi, and it intersects the tangent a
distance (y) from (Yi). the equation for Y is;
𝑌 = 𝑌𝑖 + 𝑦 + 𝜀 ≈ 𝑌𝑖 + 𝑦 ……………. 2

Lowercase letters indicate the variation of the capital-letter

parameters from the reference point. From figure (1), it is

seen that the slope of the tangent line is;

𝑦 𝑑𝑌
= ቤ = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑋1 , 𝑌𝑖
𝑥 𝑑𝑋 𝑖

The symbol ( |𝑖) means that the derivative is to be

evaluated at the reference (operating) point. Thus,

𝑑𝑌 𝑑
𝑦= ቤ 𝑥= 𝑋 2 ቤ 𝑥 = 2𝑋𝑖 𝑥 … … … … … (3)
𝑑𝑋 𝑖 𝑑𝑋 𝑖
Substitution of (y) from eq. (3) into eq. (2) yields the following linear approximation for Y.
𝑌 ≈ 𝑌𝑖 + 2𝑋𝑖 𝑥 ………………….. 4

Example: Effect a linear approximation for the equation Y = X2 for values of X in the neighborhood of (10), and
find the error when using this approximation for (X = 11).
Solution:

The reference values are (Xi =10) and (Yi =Xi2 = 100). The variation from the reference value is (x = X - Xi = 11-
10=1). Substitution of these values into equation (4) yields;
𝑌 ≈ 𝑌𝑖 + 2𝑋𝑖𝑥 = 100 + 2(10)(1) = 120
The exact value is (Y = X2 = 121), thus, the error is (1) part in (121), or less than (1) percent.
A general procedure for obtaining a linear approximation is to use the expression derived in calculus for
approximating the variation (ΔY) for a function:
𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑌
∆𝑌 = ቤ ∆𝑋1 + ቤ ∆𝑋2 + … … . . + ቤ ∆𝑋
𝜕𝑋1 𝑖 𝜕𝑋2 𝑖 𝜕𝑋𝑛 𝑖 𝑛
Where: 𝑦 = ∆𝑌 = 𝑌 - 𝑌𝑖
𝑥1 = ∆𝑋1 = 𝑋1 - 𝑋1𝑖
𝑥2 = ∆𝑋2 = 𝑋2 - 𝑋2𝑖
.
.
.
𝑥𝑛 = ∆𝑋𝑛 = 𝑋𝑛 - 𝑋𝑛𝑖

Thus, the general expression for obtaining a linear approximation for a nonlinear function is:

𝑦 = 𝐶1𝑥1 + 𝐶2𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛𝑥𝑛 …………………….. (5)

𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑌
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐶1 = ቤ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 = ቤ … … … … 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
𝜕𝑋1 𝑖 𝜕𝑋2 𝑖
Example: Effect the linear approximation for P in the equation of state PV=WRT. The reference conditions are
(Pi =100 Ibf /ft2), (Vi =100 ft3), (Wi =10/53.3 Ibm) and (Ti =10000R). Determine the percent error in using this
approximation for P when (V=110 ft3), (T=12000R) and W remains the same. The constant R is (53.3 ft.Ibf /
Ibm/oR).

Solution: From the equation of state and the fact that W remains constant, it is seen that P as a function of the
independent variables T and V, or P = P (T, V):

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃
𝑝= ቤ 𝑡+ ቤ 𝑣
𝜕𝑇 𝑖 𝜕𝑉 𝑖

The partial derivatives are evaluated from the equation of state as follows:
𝜕𝑃 𝜕 𝑊𝑅𝑇 𝑊𝑅 10 53.3
ቤ = ቤ = ቤ = = 0.10
𝜕𝑇 𝑖 𝜕𝑇 𝑉 𝑖
𝑉 𝑖
53.3 100

𝜕𝑃 𝜕 𝑊𝑅𝑇 𝑊𝑅𝑇
ቤ = ቤ = − 2 ቤ = −1.0
𝜕𝑉 𝑖 𝜕𝑉 𝑉 𝑖
𝑉 𝑖
The linearized approximation for P is:
𝑃 ≈ 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑝 = 𝑃𝑖 + 0.1𝑡 − 𝑣

From the given information, it follows that:

𝑣 = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑖 = 110 − 100 = 10
𝑡 = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑖 = 200
𝐼𝑏𝑓
Thus: 𝑃 ≈ 100 + 0.1 200 − 10 = 110
𝑓𝑡 2

𝑊𝑅𝑇 10 53.3 1200

The exact value of P is: 𝑃 = = = 109.1
𝑉 53.3 110

Therefore, the percent error is:

110 − 109.1
∗ 100 = 0.82%
109.1
Example: For sonic flow of air through a restriction, the mass:

0.53
𝑀= 𝐴𝑃
𝑇
Where: M = mass rate of flow Ibm/s.
T = the inlet temperature 0R.
A = area of restriction ft2.
P = inlet pressure Ibf /ft2.

Determine the linearized approximation for the variation M when the inlet temperature T is constant.

Solution: Because the temperature is constant, the mass rate of flow is a function of A and P. Thus:

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑀
𝑚= ቤ 𝑎+ ቤ 𝑝
𝜕𝐴 𝑖 𝜕𝑃 𝑖
𝜕𝑀 0.53 𝑀 𝜕𝑀 0.53 𝑀
The partial derivatives are: ቚ = 𝑃ቚ = ቚ AND ቚ 𝐴ቚ = ቚ
𝜕𝐴 𝑖 𝑇 𝑖 𝐴 𝑖 𝜕𝑃 𝑖 𝑇 𝑖 𝑃 𝑖
𝑎 𝑝
Thus: 𝑚 = 𝑀𝑖 +
𝐴𝑖 𝑃𝑖