APPENDIX.

Useful formulae and numbers

Young’s Modulus, GPa: Acrylic 3.2; Aluminium 69;
6061 Aluminium Alloy 69; Brass 102-125; Bronze 96-120; Bone, compact 18; Bone, spongy 76;
Copper 117; Diamond 1220; Glass 50-90; Gold 74; Graphene 1000; Mild steel 210 GPa; Nylon-6 2-
4; Pine wood, along grain 9; Rubber 0.01-0.1; Titanium Alloy 105-120; Tungsten 400.
Ultimate Tensile Strength, MPa: Acrylic 70; Aluminium 90; 6061 Aluminium Alloy 190; Brass
250; Bone, Carbon Fibre 400 and above; compact 170 (compression); Copper 220; Diamond 1220;
Glass 50 (compression); skin (human) 20; structural ASTM A36 steel 400-550 MPa; Chromium-
vanadium steel AISI 6150 940 MPa; Nylon-6 45-90; Pine wood, along grain 40; Titanium Alloy 900.
Yield Strength, MPa: Aluminium 10; 6061 Aluminium Alloy 110; Copper 70; Nylon-6 45;
Mild Steel 215 MPa; Titanium Alloy 730.
Poisson Ratio: Aluminium 0.33; Cast Iron 0.21-0.26; Concrete 0.1-0.2; Copper 0.33; Cork 0.0; Foam
0.1-0.5; Gold 0.42; Mild Steel 0.30; Rubber 0.5(0.4999).
Density, kg/m3: Acrylic 1200; Aluminium 2700; Brass 8700; Bronze 7500-8900; Copper 8940;
Diamond 3510; Glass 2200-7200; Gold 19320; Graphene 2270; Mild steel 7850; Nylon 1200; Pine
wood 520; Rubber 0.9-1.2; Titanium 4500; Tungsten 19600.
 cos  sin  
Coordinate rotation. Rotation matrix Q =  
 − sin  cos  
r r         xy  T
Vectors   = Q  x  ; Tensors of 2nd order (stress tensors)  xx  = Q  xx
x xy
Q
r    ry          
 y   yx yy 
yx yy

 x  y  z
Poisson ratio  x = − − , E = 2G (1 +  ) .
E E E
Tresca criterion for material failure and the diameter of Mohr’s circle

( −  y ) + 4 xy 2 =  Yield
2
 I −  II = x

  xx +  yy    xx −  yy 
2

Mohr’s circle: centre ( ⊥ , ) =  , 0  , maximum shear  max =   +  xy ,

2

 2   2 
2 xy
principal directions tan 2 = − .
 xx −  yy
Stiffness matrix for a link oriented at an angle  to the positive direction of x-axis,  = cos  ,
 = sin  .
 Fi , x   2  − 2 −   wi , x 
    
 Fi , y  AE   2 −  −  2  wi , y 
F  = L 
 j,x  −
2
−  2   w j , x 
F   −  − 2   2  w j , y 
 j, y  
d 2 d 4
Beam bending equations M = − EI , EI = q ( x)
dx 2 dx 4
  2 EI 4 2 EI
Buckling instability of a column with pinned ends: PCR = ; fixed ends: PCR = ;
L2 L2
 2 EI 2.05   2 EI
one fixed end and one free end: PCR = ; one fixed end and one pinned end: PCR = .
4L2 4 L2
a 3b ab3
Second moments of a rectangle a  b in directions x and y are I x = , Iy = . Polar moment of
12 12
 r4
the rectangle is I y =
12
( a + b ) . Second moment of a circle I x = I y =
ab 2 2
4
, polar moment

 r4
Iz = .
2

Mobility M = 3(n − 1) − 2m
dR
j t
Position R = re ; Velocity v = = re j t + j re j t
dt
dv
Acceleration: a = = re j t −  2 re j t + j 2 re j t + j re j t
dt
2  r 
Acceleration of a piston (approximate method) x  − r cos ( t ) + cos ( 2 t ) 
 l 