UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

YEAR II- SE MESTER II

THEORY/PRACTICAL
Version 1: December 2008

MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY
COURSE CODE: BLD208
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

WEEK 1 BUILDING MAINTENANCE TERMINOLOGIES

1.1 Building Maintenance Terms
1.1 Types of Maintenance
1.2 Nature of Maintenance

1.2 Maintenance Needs

WEEK 2 CAUSES AND AGENTS OF DETERIORATION OF BUILDINGS
1.2 Common Factors of Deterioration
1.3 Causes and Agents of deterioration
WEEK 3 DIAGNOSIS AND INVESTIGATION
1.1 Diagnosis Terminology
1.2 Need for Building Diagnosis
1.3 Process of Investigation.
1.2 Remedial Measures Recommendation.
WEEK 4 FOUNDATIONS DEFECTS

2.1 Causes of Foundation Defects.

WEEK 5 FOUDATIONS (ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIAL MEASURES)
2.3 Assessment of Foundation Defects.
2.3 Procedure for Reporting Damage
2.3 Damage classification.
2.4 Remedial Measures.
WEEK 6 UNDERPINNING AND SHORING
2.4 Underpinning.
2.4 Underpinning Procedure.
2.4 Shoring.
WEEK 7 WALLS
3.1 Brickwall/Blockwall
3.2 Causes of Defects in Brickwall/Blockwall.
WEEK 8 WALLS (Contd.)
3.3 Remedial Actions for Wall Defects.
3.3 Repairs to Brickwall/blockwall.
3.3 Repair to Cracks.
WEEK 9 CONCRETE DEFECTS
3.1 Factors Affecting Concrete Durability
3.2 Types and Causes of Concrete Defects.
3.3 Repairs of Concrete Structures.
WEEK 10 STONE WORK.
3.1 Requirement of Building Stones.
3.2 Causes and Defects in Stonework.

3.3 Repairs of Stonework.

3.3 Clearing of Stonework.
WEEK 11 TIMBER AND TIMBER ROOF DEFECTS
4.1 Defects in Timber
4.2 Defects in Timber Roofs.
4.3 Timber Roof Remedial Measures.
WEEK12 PAINTING DEFECTS
4.0 Defects in Paintwork.
WEEK13 DAMPNESS IN BUILDINGS
4.4 Causes of Dampness.
4.4 Remedial Measures.
WEEK 14 SITE VISIT
Students’ Report.
WEEK 15 TECHNOLOGY OF MAINTENANCE
4.6 Technology of Maintenance
4.6 Terotechnology
4.6 Role of Maintenance.
WEEK 1: BUILDING MAINTENANCE TERMINOLOGIES

INTRODUCTION
Building maintenance technology essentially deals with the study of the occurrence of building
defects and the remedies which such defects would require. The maintenance of the built
environment affects everyone continually, for it is on the state of our homes, offices and factories
that we depend not only for our comfort, but for our economic survival. Maintenance starts the
day the Builder leaves the site. Design, materials, workmanship, function, use and their inter-
relationship, will determine the amount of maintenance required during the lifetime of the
building. Effective building maintenance requires the correct diagnosis of defects, and
implementation of the correct remedial measures, all based on sound technical knowledge. It is
highly desirable but hardly feasible to produce buildings that are maintenance free, although
much can be done at design stage to reduce the amount of subsequent maintenance work.
Understanding some basic terms and concepts used in maintenance is necessary in order to learn
maintenance technology.
BS3811 defines maintenance as work undertaken in order to keep or restore every facility i.e.
every part of the site, building and contents to an acceptable standard. It went further to define it
as the combination of all technical and associated administrative actions intended to retain an
item in, or restore it to, a state in which it can perform its required function.

(1.1)Building Maintenance Terms

In order that maintenance activities are carried out efficiently, various forms of management
have developed:-
Property management is an economic service designed to create the greatest possible net return
from a land and its buildings, taken over their remaining economic life.
Maintenance management involves the organising of resources to deal with the problems of

maintenance:
• Building maintenance technology essentially deals with the study of occurrence of building
defects and remedies which defects would require. It involves the application of the
principles of physical sciences to the process of determining the effects on building
performance.
• Building maintenance management involves describing how a system of maintenance effort
could be organised to deal with the problems of building maintenance as a whole. Aside from
 locating and rectifying defects, an effective programme to curb maintenance costs must start
with the design of the building itself. This must justify itself, not only in terms of minimising
cost of maintenance, but also in maximizing the benefit of the investment. This means that
financial consideration and techniques play a vital role.

(1.1)Types of maintenance

BS3811 subdivides maintenance into planned and unplanned.

Planned Maintenance:
Planned preventive maintenance is work directed to the prevention of failure of facility carried
out within the expected life of the facility to ensure its continued operation.
Planned corrective maintenance is work performed to restore a facility to operation or to an
acceptable standard.
Predictable maintenance is regular periodic work that may be necessary to retain the
performance characteristics of a product as well as that required to replace or repair the product
after it has achieved a useful life span.
Unplanned Maintenance:
Unpredictable maintenance is work resulting from unforeseen breakdowns or damage due to
external causes
Avoidable maintenance is work required to rectify failures caused by incorrect design, incorrect
installation or the use of faulty materials.

(1.2)Nature of Maintenance

Proper maintenance of buildings covers many aspects of work which may be divided into four
categories.

Servicing – This is essentially acleaning operation. The frequency of cleaning varies and is
sometimes called day – day maintenance e.g. floors are swept daily, windows washed monthly
and painting done every 3-5 years. As more sophisticated equipment is introduced so more
complicated service schedules become necessary.
Rectification work – Usually occurs fairly early in life of the building because of design
shortcomings, inherent fault in use of materials or faulty construction. These short comings often
affect the performance of the component. Rectification represents a point at which to reduce the
cost of maintenance, because it is avoidable. All that is necessary is to ensure that components
and materials are suitable for their purpose and are correctly installed.
Replacement – Service conditions cause materials to decay and there is need to consider
replacement. Much replacement work stems not so much from physical breakdown of the
materials or element as from deterioration of appearance. The frequency of replacement could
often be reduced by the use of better quality materials and components.
Renovation or Modernisation – This is concerned with alteration, addition and enhancement to

existing buildings, on both small and large scale. It also includes all work designed either to
expand the capacity of a facility or to enable the facility to perform some new functions.

(1.2)Maintenance Needs

Main purposes of maintenance of buildings are:-

Retaining value of investment
Maintaining the building in a condition in which it continues to fulfil its functions.
Presenting a good appearance.

Self Assess Questions

1) Discuss the persons that should be held responsible for causing avoidable maintenance in not
more than one page.
2) Identify the role the house owner or occupant plays in the maintenance of his property in not
more two paragraphs
3) State three reasons why we need maintenance?
WEEK 2: CAUSES AND AGENTS OF DETERIORATION OF BUILDINGS

INTRODUCTION
A building must meet various requirements and withstand the rigours of climate, and at the same
time it is expected to last for many years, preferable with minimal maintenance. Consideration
must be given at every stage of the building process of ways of reducing the incidence of defects
and prolong the durability of the building.Understanding the causes and agents of deterioration in
buildings, is quite necessary to reduce the incidence of defects.

(1.2)Common Factors of Deterioration

There are a number of factors that lead to maintenance growth, they include:-

a)Ageing Stock of Buildings – more expenditure is expected for maintenance because of the
ageing of the building especially in developed countries.

b)Obsolescence of Buildings – upgrading needed to buildings to prevent their obsolescence.

This is because developments face keen competitions to attract new tenants or to retain existing
ones.

c)Advent of New Technologies – Changes and modification to existing buildings are required to
meet new demands. Such changes are likely to be carried out by renovation or retrofitting of
existing buildings.

d)Rising Social Expectation and Aspiration - The natural increase in aspirations and
purchasing power will expand the market for higher standards of both maintenance and
retrofitting work, already particularly evident in residential premises.

e)New Legal Developments – This imposes an increased burden on building owners to maintain
and keep their premises safe. These developments will push for higher standards and a greater
degree of professionalism and thoroughness in the execution of maintenance work.

f)Environmental Issues – protective measures against pollution, erosion, etc.

In order to understand the causes and agents of deterioration and defects in buildings,
consideration must be given to every stage of building process.

(1.2)Causes and Agents of Deterioration

Design Deficiencies

Many of the subsequent maintenance problems are directly attributed to decisionsmade at the
design stage of the building. These decisions can be broadly classified into several categories:-

a)Approach to Design
Many maintenance problems arise where design is sound in principle but has a low probability of
satisfactory achievement in practice. Some designers fail to realise that their design can be too
complex for site condition and can present problems of buildability. The designer must be fully
aware of the clients needs. Defects often occur because of a lack of understanding of how a
building is to be used. Inadequacies and faults also result from the owners’ and designer’s
attempt to provide too much with insufficient money

b)Selection or Choice of Materials

Many materials are satisfactory in some conditions but not in others. The choice of design details
in relation to the materials to be used and in relation to the proposed use of the building and its
environment is the factor most affecting the risk of defect or failures. The designer must either
design to suit the materials available or for a required design, choose materials which may be
expected to perform satisfactorily with that design in the given environment. It is also necessary
to consider the likely behaviour of combinations of different material in use, for there are many
examples of such combinations which give rise to problems that arise from chemical interaction

or differential involvement.

c)Environmental Factors.
The factors arising from above ground condition will usually include climate, atmospheric
condition, and atmospheric pollution and exposure conditions. Below ground factors will include
nature of soil, drainage and site stability. Hence sunlight, wind, rainfall, temperatures and
atmospheric humidity have profound effects upon the durability of materials and their behaviour.

d)Building Shape and Form.

Building maintenance consumes a large proportion of material resources. Attention should be
paid to designing buildings which will cut down maintenance expenditure in the future. The
influence of building shape and form on maintenance expenditure in profound.

e)Orientation of Building
The orientation or arrangement of the axis of a building is a way of controlling the effects of the
sun, wind and rain. The building may be orientated to capture the heat of the sun or conversely it
may be turned to evade the solar heat in the tropics. Orientation may also be used to control air
flow circulation and reduce the disadvantages of wind, rain and snow when prevailing currents
are predictable.

f)Design and Maintainability

Designers often give too much emphasis to aesthetics at the expense of maintainability. There
must be continuous interaction between consultants and maintenance managers in the initial
planning as well as in the final design of the building.

Construction Faults
Inadequate supervision and the substitution of poor materials, components or fixing could lead to
deterioration of buildings. In view of this there is need for stringent control of the work on the
site as well as the materials used for the construction.

a)Control of Works on Site

Careful supervision of building work at all stages is necessary to complement good designs,
specification and detailing by the designers.
b)Control of Materials
Materials used in buildings must normally be purchased according to the specification or to be
similar to an agreed sample. Materials which do not comply with the specification should be
rejected.

c)Lack of Maintenance
The clients brief for a new building often determines the long-term maintenance needs of the
building. The brief should indicate performance requirements and possible changes in use, as
well as future policy for operating, cleaning and maintaining the building. Designers should
provide advice to the client on maintenance matters. Users of the building should also show
serious commitment toward maintenance.

d)Change of Use of Building

Buildings are normally designed for a specific use. During design stage the designers will make
provision for that use only. Problems arise when alteration of change of use by the owners or
users occur without the designers being consulted before hand.

e)Vandalism
Vandalism is caused by wilful damage to the building or structure. Other factors also increase the
incidence of the vandalism, lack of security, wrong choice of materials, poor space layout, poor
lighting arrangement etc. Any act of vandalism will affect the aesthetic appearance of the
material or component. The end result in higher maintenance costs.

Weathering Agents
a)Solar Radiation
Solar radiation is received at the surface of the earth directly and as diffused long-wave radiation.
Solar radiation affects building materials is two ways:
i)Chemical effect of visible and infrared radiation will speed up the rate of deterioration carried
by other agents.
ii)Dimensional change in material that occurs when solar radiation is absorbed when it strikes a
material.
b)Moisture

Moisture is the principal agent of deterioration and is probably also the agent with the greatest
influence on the properties of materials. In many cases, moisture is a prerequisite for physical,
chemical or biological reactions to take place.

c)Wind
Wind can cause direct damage by the removal of part of a building. It can cause dampness by
driving moisture into or through a building fabric and excessive heat losses from the interior of a
building by uncontrolled air changes.
d)Driving Rain
The effect of driving rain is that the vertical surfaces facing the wind receive rainwater at an
angle. Constructional details could be used to minimise its deteriorating effect.

e)Atmospheric Gases.
In the presence of moisture, these gases contribute to the formation of acids that attack certain

materials; such gases include sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, oxygen and ozone.

Chemical Agents
a)Corrosion
Atmospheric corrosion mean an oxidation process where metal combines with oxygen in the air
to form rust. The process is usually accompanied by expansion of the metal which can affect
adjacent materials.

b)Sulphate Attack
In persistently damp condition, sulphates will react slowly with tri-calcium aluminates (a
constituent of Portland cement and hydraulic lime) which causes the cement render or mortar to
expand and eventually disintegrate.

c)Crystallisation of Salt.
Soluble salts may be present initially in certain building materials or may be conveyed into them
by movement of moisture from the ground or adjoining materials. When moisture gets into a
material and evaporates from the surface, the concentration of the salt in solution increases until

it crystallises out. It could cause surface disfiguring.

Biological Agents
Attack by rodents, insects, fungi, algae and plants may cause serious deterioration in various
parts of a building.

Mechanical Agents
Mechanical agents are those which tend to impose a physical force on building. They can be
static and permanent such as groundpressure or dynamic such as wind and vibrations.

Self Assess Questions

1. Identify three causes of deterioration peculiar to buildings in industrial areas.

2. In not more than a page and a half discuss how design deficiencies increase maintenance?

3. How can negligence/ignorance of the builder increase maintenance needs? Discuss this in not
more than a page.
4. With the aid of five pictures show the role of weathering agents in the deterioration of
building works.
WEEK3: DIAGNOSIS AND INVESTIGATION

INTRODUCTION
There is need to understand why and how defects occur, what the implications are and what
remedial measures are necessary to restore, maintain or extend the usefulness and safety of
buildings. Out of this need has arisen a discipline described as building diagnostics.

(1.1)Diagnosis Terminology

Building Diagnostic
Building diagnostic involves a process in which relevant experts investigate the existing
condition of a building, carryout the necessary tests, evaluate the data collected, make
recommendation professionally, and predict the future performance of the building. The process
makes use of a variety of techniques, ranging from visual inspection to sophisticated
instrumentation. It is obvious that building diagnostics involves experts from a wide range of
disciplines.

(1.2)Need for Building Diagnosis

During the life of a building, there will be many occasions when the physical condition of the
building may have deteriorated thus affecting its continued use. The building owner should know
when such occasions occur so that relevant experts may be called to arrest the problems in time.
Diagnostic assessment will be required under the following circumstances:-

a)Persistent Defects: Persistent defects such as cracks and deformations which appear to
worsen progressively or become widespread may need thorough diagnostic assessment to
determine the causes.

b) Ageing Structure: It is advisable that old buildings be checked periodically to determine the
presence and effects of hidden defects such as decreasing concrete strength or corrosion of steel
reinforcement.

c) Change of Use or Rehabilitation: A diagnostic assessment should be considered to examine

the suitability of the new usage and the extent of rehabilitation work required.
d) Sale of Property: A diagnostic assessment should be considered to know the condition of the
building, disclose to the purchaser the defects and their rectification and subsequently give
financial institutions a basis for arriving at a value for loans.

e) Post-Crisis Assessment: After severe crises such as fire an assessment is necessary to

ascertain the structural stability and safety of buildings.

(1.2)Process of Investigation
A plan of action has to be drawn up to make sure that the investigation process progresses
without unnecessary inconvenience to occupant of the building and the process entails several
steps:
a) Preliminaries: Documentation survey on maintenance records, design and as-built drawings,
specifications etc.

b) Visual Inspection: On-site investigation relying mainly on sight, hearing, touch and smell.
Additional information may be obtained by conducting interviews with occupants and
maintenance personnel. Visual inspection is essential as it may lead to selection of other
methods of investigation.

c) Testing and Monitoring: Techniques which include non destructive semi destructive tests,
destructive tests and chemical and physical analysis of materials.

d) Exploratory Works: Include the techniques of removing obstructions to facilitate a closer

inspection of hidden parts of a building.

(1.2)Remedial Measure Recommendation

Making recommendations is a very difficult task as there are many alternatives in repair work.
Remedial work chosen may belong to one of three general categories:-

a) Patching Up: Very popular because of lower costs involved, but should always be regarded
as a temporary measure.
b)Replacement of Parts: First consideration togive a permanent repair.

c)Complete Renewal: Most economic solutionfor buildings for longer life.

Self Assess Questions

1. Identify four tests that are carried out during maintenance operations
2. Mention four reasons for the need for building diagnosis.
3. Identify a scenario where each of the three remedial works could be applied.
WEEK 4: FOUNDATION DEFECTS

INTRODUCTION
The most expensive building repair bills are often incurred with foundation failures. The soil that
support the foundation is bound to be disturbed during construction and with the increased
loading some movement and settlement must be expected. Soil conditions have an important
influence on foundation design and the subsequent behaviour of buildings. Therefore prior to
designing foundation, it is necessary to identify the soils characteristics present on the site.

(2.1)Causes of Foundation Defects

The extent of foundation movement depends on the nature of the soil and the amount of imposed
loads. Thus a good foundation design must take into consideration not only the type of structure
to be supported but also the soil conditions.

a)Movement of Soils
i)Clay Soils: clays, which shrink on drying and swell again when welted, are commonly

responsible for the movement of shallow foundations. The shrinking when drying is
accompanied by an increase in bearing strength, while the swelling when wet reduces its bearing
strength(Fig 4.1).

Fig 4.1. Cracking associated with shallow foundations on shrinkable clay.

ii)Sandy Soils: Dense beds of sand form excellent foundation soils, but underground water can
wash out the finer particles, leaving coarser material in a less stable condition. Much of the
bearing capacity of the sand may be lost in such circumstances (Fig 4.2).
 Fig 4.2. Washing out of fine sand particles by underground water.

Fig 4.3. Settlement caused by consolidation of soil.

iii)Organic Soils in Made-up Ground: Peats and other soils which contain a high proportion of
organic matter from decaying vegetation vary greatly in volume as their water content changes.

These soils are highly compressible so that they can even settle readily under their own weight,
therefore the bearing capacities of such soils are poor and they should not be used for
construction purposes unless deep foundation passing through the fill can be designed and
provided economically(Fig 4.3).

iv)Swallow Holes in Lime Stones:- In chalk or lime stone areas, cavities in the bedrock can
form by the action of subterranean streams dissolving the rock away. When the overburden
collapses into a cavity, a swallow hole is formed at the surface, causing serious damage to the
buildings above or near to the site(Fig 4.4).

Fig 4.4. Formation of ‘Swallow Hole’ in limestone.

b)Other Movements

i)Effects of Vegetation: The extraction of moisture by tree roots in shrinkable clay will cause
the soil to shrink. If this shrinkage takes place under the foundation there is a tendency for it to
settle thus affecting the stability of the building (Fig 4.5).

ii)Slopes and Excavations: Clay soils on slopes exceeding 1 in 10 are likely to move down hill
slowly, which may be subject to creep and this could result in heavy pressure on walls.
Fig 4.5. Cracking arising from drying action of tree roots

iii) Vibration and Sudden Shocks: Vibration may be caused by traffic or machinery and if
these vibrations are prolonged and intense they can affect the foundation of older buildings
causing them to settle gradually. An explosion can generate sudden shocks which can affect the

stability of the building structure and ground support(Fig 4.6).

Fig 4.6. Effects of vibration and sudden shocks

iv)Mining Subsidence: Buildings above mine tunnels can suffer deformation as the ground
subsides over the workings. Initially the buildings tend to tilt but subsequently the tilt decreases
and the settlement increases as the ground below is affected(Plate 4.1).
 Plate.4.1. Effects of mining subsidence.

v)Differential Settlement: When settlement is uniform over the whole area of the building, it is
very unlikely to cause any damage to the superstructure. Damage is usually the result of what is
known as differential settlement in which one side of the building subsides more than another,
leading to cracks and stresses in the superstructure(Fig 4.8 & Fig 4.9)

Fig 4.8 Settlement at the ends of a wall

Fig 4.9 Sagging under the centre section

Self Assess Questions:

1. Identify the common causes of failures of foundation under the following scenario:
a. Sandy desert area like Sokoto
b. Marshy rainy area like Bayelsa
s of a building.
2. Identify five things that reveal foundation failure
WEEK 5: FOUNDATIONS (ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIAL MEASURES)

INTRODUCTION
Most failure in foundation manifests in walls as cracks. These cracks could be in tension,
compression or shear and they may be of varying width sizes and direction. In order to arrive at a
correct remedial action to be taken, an assessment and classification of the defect must be carried
out.

(2.3)Assessment of Foundation Defects

The assessment of any defect in foundation involves identifying the form of the superstructure,
the substructure as well as the soil, and the determination how well they behave in combination.
According to BS 5930, investigation should follow these guidelines:-
• Visual inspection of the building taking note of any cracking and distortion.
• Examination of old building plans
• Examination of the geology, topography and water level records of the area, including nearby
trees.
•

Exposure of the substructure by trial pits and boreholes to assess ground conditions.

(2.3)Procedure for Reporting Damage

a)Determine position and direction of cracks
b)Distinguish where possible between tensile cracks, compressive cracks and shear cracks.
c)Determine approximate age of cracks by interviewing occupants.
d)Estimate the magnitude of any distortion or movement of the building, i.e. tilting, bulging or
sloping.
e)Record any impediment to serviceability e.g. jammed door or windows, breakdown of services
etc.

f)Report condition of the walls and finishes.

(2.3)Damage Classification
Damage can be classified as failures that affect:
• Aesthetic appearance of the building
• Service ability of certain parts of the building which result in fracturing of service pipes,
jamming of doors and windows and breakdown of services in the building.
• Stability of the building and require extensive repairs to foundations.

(2.4)Remedial Measures
Remedial measures are generally difficult and expensive. Generally the remedial measure
recommended for foundation failures is to underpin the whole external walls. However in clay
soils, where damage is not severe or the building is old, it may be adequate to reduce further
movements by surrounding the building with a relatively impervious apron of precast slabs or in

site concrete to a with of 1.50m.

The remedial action for effect of vegetation takes two forms, where trees have not reached
maturity it is good practice to cut them down and kill the stump, as the ground under the building
will slowly swell during the wet season, and tend to lift the building and partially close the
cracks. If the trees have reached maturity and the building is fairly old, it is unlikely that further
movements will occur. In this situation it would be best to leave the trees in position and merely
fill up the cracks in the building.
Repairs to cracks in walls will depend on the magnitude of the cracks. It ranges from hairline
cracks which are negligible to very severe cracks which involve partial or complete rebuilding.
Hairline cracks of less than 1mm wide can be easily camouflaged by normal redecoration or
filled with cement shinny.
Minor cracks which is rectified by chiseling and filling with concrete/mortar as required.
Major cracks which require extensive and expensive repair methods such as chiseling
blockworrk, introduction of rods and ties and filling. It may also involve stabilizing the
foundation.

Case Study Problem

Go round your campus and take at least six pictures of different cracks that may be as a result of

foundation failures and write a report using the format above.

WEEK 6 : UNDERPINNING AND SHORING

INTRODUCTION
Underpinning is a highly skilled operation and should be undertaken by experienced firms. No
one is like the other and each must be given individual consideration for the most economical
and safest scheme to be worked out. It is also generally necessary to provide extensive support
through shoring to buildings while excavating close to their foundations or while underpinning
their foundations.

(2.4)Underpinning
Underpinning a structure is required:
a) To support a structure which is sinking or tilting due to ground subsidence or instability of the
superstructure.
b) As a safe guard against possible settlement of a structure when excavating close to or below
its foundation level.
c) To enable the foundation to be deepened for structural reasons, e.g. to construct a basement
beneath a building.
d) To increase the width of a foundation to permit heavier loads to be carried, e.g. increasing the
storey height of a building.
e) To enable a building to be moved bodily to a new site.

Before any underpinning work is commenced the building should be carefully examined and any
urgent repairs carried out. It is important to carry out a soil investigation to determine allowable
bearing pressures for the new foundation. It is also important to recognize the true cause of
settlement and if underpinning is necessary to arrest settlement, underpinned foundation should
be taken down to relatively unyielding ground below the zone of subsidence. The structure to be

underpinned should first be supported with shores.

(2.4) Underpinning Procedure.

1. Excavate rectangular pits or legs at intervals beneath the existing foundation.
2. Pits are then filled with concrete or brickwork up to the underside of the existing foundation.
3. After, intervening legs are excavated and the concrete or brickwork constructed within them
to bond on to the brickwork already in place.
4. Maximum length of wall which can be left unsupported above each leg is usually 1.2 to 1.5m
of normal construction.
5. The unsupported length should be equally distributed over the length of the wall.
6. The sum of the unsupported lengths should not exceed one-quarter of the total length of the
structure.
7. Legs should be dealt with in groups of six in the sequence 1,2,3,4,5,6(Fig 6.1).

Fig. 6.1. Underpinning.

8. If the wall is heavily loaded or shows signs of structural weakness, the unsupported length at
any given point should not exceed one-fifth to one-sixth of its total length.
9. Concrete should be placed as quickly as possible after completion of excavation in each leg.
10. Blockwork or brickwork can be used to fill the spacing between the top of the underpinning
concrete and the underside of the existing foundation.
11. When excavating each hole or leg sufficient space is allowed in front of the wall to provide
adequate working space.
12. No earth faces should be left unsupported overnight.

Other methods of underpinning also exists which could be employed for cases where this
traditional method (Fig 6.2) is not well suited.
Fig.6.2. Traditional methods of underpinning strip foundations

(2.4) Shoring
Shoring is needed to give temporary support to walls and floors during alteration, demolition or
underpinning (Fig 6.3) or where a building has become unsafe. Shoring of a structure is
required:-
a) To support a structure which is sinking or tilting due to ground subsidence or instability of
superstructure.
b) As a safeguard against possible settlement of a structure when excavating close to and below
its foundation level.
c)To support a structure while making alterations to its foundation or main supporting of timber
and there are three

types

Fig. 6.3 Shoring

Dead Shores: The purpose of dead shores is to support dead and superimposed loads of a
building, mainly while alteration and repair work is in progress. Dead shores are vertical struts
bearing on the ground at the required distance away from the wall to be clear of underpinning
operations and surmounted by a horizontal beam or needle spanning between the pair of shores.
They must be securely braced together and provided with a firm bearing. If the ground has a low
bearing capacity, a mat or grillage should be provided (Fig 6.4).

Fig. 6.4 Dead shore

Raking Shores: Raking shores may be used to provide temporary support to a wall which has
become defective and unsafe, or as a precautionary measure while alteration work is being
undertaken. The arrangement of the shores will depend on the height of the building, loads to be
carried, extent of openings and space available adjacent to the building. Theangle of the shores
with the ground is generally between 45 to 75 degree (Fig 6.5).
 Fig. 6.5 Raking shore

Flying Shores: Flying shores are used to provide support between buildings, where an
intervening building has been demolished, or across a narrow street or alley. Flying shores can
be used where the feet of raking shores obstruct construction operations. The use of this type of
shore is restricted to spans of 4.50 to 10.5m at spacing of 2.5 to 4.om. Because flying shores do
not bear on the ground, they cannot carry the weight of a wall; they merely provide restraint
against bulging and tilting (Fig 6.6).
 Fig. 6.6 Flying shore.

Self Assess Questions:

1. In two paragraphs, discuss hazards associated with underpinning and shoring.
2. Identify the major differences between the various types of shores.
WEEK7: WALLS

INTRODUCTION
A wall is a vertical structure forming an inside or an outside surface of a building, usually built
of stone, wood, plaster or brick, which acts as a boundary or keeps something in or out. Walls
suffer particularly from the following defects:-
• Inability to support imposed loads, resulting in distortion or cracking
• Inability to keep out the weather
• Inability to insulate from cold with resultant condensation
• Deterioration
The defects that occur in walls may be as a result of inherent faults, deficiencies in production,
design, materials or workmanship, and attack by environmental agents.

(3.1) Brickwall/Blockwall
The majority of bricks in general use are made of clay, however, other materials like sandlime,
flintlime, concrete, etc, can also be used to make bricks.

(3.2) Causes of Defects in Brickwall/Blockwall

Brickwork/blockwork defects arise in a variety of ways but the general causes of defects in
brickwork are:
a) Production: these are inherent defects in the bricks/blocks during production and after but
before they are being used for the brickwork. The bricks may have defects in size, shape,
appearance, body and storage (Fig 7.1).
b) Mortar: the mortar for jointing should be of the quality to achieve workability, water
retentivity, strength, bond, durability and good appearance and texture. Mortal should be of the
same strength and consistency as the mix used for producing the blocks
Fig. 7.1. Production defects

c) Efflorescence: Efflorescence on brickwork can be seen as a white or whitish deposit of salts

on the exposed surfaces of the bricks; especially new brickwork. Efflorescence is caused by the
migration of salts from the interior to the surface of the bricks/blocks. Any absorbed water
drying out in the bricks will leave the salts behind. It can occur on internal as well as external
surface causing damage to decorations. External efflorescence although unsightly is rarely a
serious problem because the salts are washed away by rain. Internal efflorescence is usually
more troublesome as the plaster could be pushed off the walls. Therefore, where efflorescence
can be expected, decorative treatments on walls should not be applied hastily(Plate 7.1).

d) Stains: These may be white like efflorescence, but do not disappear when the

brickwork/blockwork is washed by rain. These stains are due to calcium hydroxide produced
during hydration of Portland cement reacting with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form
calcium carbonate, an insoluble while crystalline solid. This will form a disfiguring stain on the
brickwork/blockwork.
Plate 7.1. Effect of efflorescence on blockwork/brickwork

e) Impurities: The presence of lime nodules, vegetable matter, unoxidised carbon materials, and
other foreign matter or materials due to faulty screening during production of bricks/blocks may
cause spalling in the case of facing bricks or disintegration of plaster.

f) Sulphate Attack: Sulphate attack on walls is the result of the reaction of tri calcium
calumniate present in all ordinary Portland cements with sulphates in solution. This can cause
considerable expansion, disintegration of mortar joints and distortion of wall.’
g) Moisture Movement: Excessive expansion and contraction due to moisture content can
produce shrinkable cracks (Plate 7.2).
Plate 7.2. Moisture movement in blockwork/brickwork

h) Thermal Movement: vertical and horizontal movements occur in brickwork/blockwork due

to the effect of heat which may or may not be reversible resulting in cracks(Plate 7.3).

Plate 7.3. Thermal movement in blockwork/brickwork.

i) Bulging, Buckling and Spreading:- Bulging and buckling of walls may be caused by the
outward spreading of external walls, either vertically between ground level and the roof or
horizontally between the walls(Plate 7.4 & 7.5). The main causes of these problems are:-
1. Vibration from machinery, plant or traffic.
2. Overloading of the structure i.e. increased loads on floors or adding more structures.
3. High slenderness ratio which is inadequate thickness in relation to height.
4. Lack of cross ties between the outer wall structures.
This defect takes the form of a gap between the wall and the floor. Spreading, however, occurs at
roof level when the roof sags.
 Plate 7.4. Buckling in blockwork/brickwork

Plate 7.5. Bulging in blockwork/brickwork

j)Ground Movement or Settlement: Normal slight overall settlement of a building should not
affect the brickwork. However, differential settlement often resulting in cracked walls may occur
where there are sudden changes in ground conditions over the site or where there is inadequately
consolidated fill under foundations. Settlement cracks are usually diagonal and often appear at
door and window opening, these being the weakest parts of the wall.
k)Atmospheric Impurities:- Dust particles in contact with bricks and moisture from weak acids.
This causes deterioration of brick surface, which allow surface erosion.
l)Lichen, Moulds and Other Growths:- These organisms are rarely destructive but they do
produce disfiguring stains on brickwork/blockwall and other wall surfaces. Climbing and other
plants growing on walls can cause damage to walls but much depends on the condition of the
wall and the extent to which the growth of the plants is controlled(Plates 7.6 & 7.7).

Plate 7.6. Mould growths in blockwork/brickwork

Plate 7.7. Lichen growths in blockwork/brickwork

Self Assess Questions:

1. Identify five causes of deterioration on bricks/blockwork that are likely to cause cracks.
2. Classify the causes of deterioration of brick/blockwork under the following headings:
• Inherent faults.
• Deficiencies in production.
• Design
• Workmanship
• Materials.
• Attack by environmental agents.
WEEK 8: WALLS(CONTINUE )

INTRODUCTION
It is not always easy to judge from appearance how serious a defect is likely to affect the strength
and stability of a structure. Generally if walls are not too distorted or too out of alignment, it may
be taken that the damage may not be too serious, therefore when the damage is not sufficient to
affect the structural stability, the repairs can be carried out easily, but if it does, it should be
demolished to avoid disaster.

(3.3) Remedial Actions for Wall Defects

(3.3) Repairs to Brickwork/Blockwork

a) Production Defects:- It is very important to inspect, select and store bricks/blocks
appropriately before use to avoid defect that are caused by production and storage. In any defect
noticed after use, it is advisable to chisel out the portion and replaster.

b) Mortar: It is important to use an appropriate mortar, properly batched, and adequately mixed,
using the same mix throughout and taking adequate precautions.

c) Efflorescence: Efflorescence is normally washed away by rain/water and no special treatment

is needed. To accelerate removal, the brickwork/blockwork can be dry brushed periodically until
the soluble salts cease to crystalline. Precautionary measure should be taken before use to ensure
that the mix of materials is free from soluble salts.

d) Stains: The normal remedy for stains is as follows:

1. Thoroughly wet the brickwork/blockwork with clean water

2. Carefully brush on diluted hydrochloric acid

3. When stains have dissolved, thoroughly wash wall with clean water.
4. After removal of stains, flashings should be provided to prevent further percolation and
staining.

e) Sulphate Attack: In minor cases, affected brickwork/blockwork should be dried out and
moisture excluded as far as practicable. In severe cases rebuilding parts of the structure is
necessary and it is essential to use materials suited to the conditions such as sulphate resisting
cement.

f) Moisture Movement: Most of this defect occur early in the life of the building and are
unlikely to be progressive. It is necessary to use appropriate damp proofing materials and where
defect is noticed, the wall should be wind dried and the drainage around the structure improved.

g) Thermal Movement: Provision should be made for maximum thermal movement, after
rectifying the damage which is usually cracks.

h) Atmospheric Impurities: The surface dirt can be removed by washing. In addition, all
defective bricks should be cut out, the wall rebuilt and then repointed.

i) Lichens, Moulds and Other Growths: Such growths can be prevented or destroyed by
applying some toxic washes during a dry spell after partially removing any thick surface
growths. The effectiveness of the treatment depends on the porosity of the surface and the extent
which it is washed by rain.

(3.3)Repair to Cracks
Cracking of wall usually indicate failure or defective construction. It is unsightly and
unacceptable to the occupants. Cracking often result in air infiltration, heat loss and reduced
sound insulation, all of which cause a reduction in the efficiency of the building. Cracks could
run more or less diagonally, following horizontal andvertical mortar joints or pass straight down
through vertical joints and the intervening bricks/blocks and mortar beds.

Fine cracks of up to 1.5mm wide in joints are usually best left unfilled as they are unlikely to be

harmful. Wider cracks (1.5-3.5mm wide) will generally require repair. The procedure will
involve raking or cutting out the joints squarely to a depth of about 15mm and repoint with
mortar.

With cracks passing through bricks and mortar, cut out and rebound, using a mortar similar to
that in the existing wall.
Cracks of similar appearance can be due to different causes. When examining cracks care should
be taken to record precisely the direction of the cracks, whether or not they extend through the
wall and whether they taper off in any direction.

Case Study Problem

1. Visit a block industry, a building construction site and an abandoned construction site.
Observe any defects and proffer solutions for each. Use pictures to buttress your observation.
WEEK 9- CONCRETE DEFECTS

INTRODUCTION
Concrete by nature, is a non uniform, non isotropic structural material consisting of aggregate
particle air voids and moisture. Variation in production and subsequent attack by its environment
means that concrete is not totally immune to defect although it is generally a durable and
maintenance free material. There is therefore a need for regular inspection of all reinforced
concrete structure so thatany deterioration can be detected at its early stages, and a decision
taken on remedial works.

(3.1) Factor Affecting Concrete Durability

These could be classified into:
a) Faulty design which includes wrong mix proportion, inadequate joint provision e.g. expansion
joints and under design of the concrete elements such as inadequate reinforcement.
b) Inferior materials which is caused by use of partially hydrated cement, contaminated water or
aggregates.

c) Poor construction practice which is caused by faulty formwork, improper placing causing
segregation and inadequate curing causing shrinkage cracks. It could also arise from inadequate
vibration and misplacement of steel.

d) Abuse of structure such as acts of vandalism, lack of maintenance and change of use of the
structure.

e) Environmental effects caused by thermal movement, moisture movement, freezing and

thawing or surface erosion of the concrete structure.

f) Chemical aggression which includes sulphate attack, acid attack, leaching of lime etc.

g) Physical aggression such as abrasion, erosion, cavitations etc.

( 3.2)Types and Causes of Concrete Defects
Concrete buildings are subject to movement due to compression of foundation, shrinkage of
concrete, thermal movement, variable loading and wind pressure. Defects of reinforced concrete
member can take the form of surface cracks which are influenced by the effective concrete cover
to the steel reinforcement, and internal cracking where the member is subject to bending. Some
important conclusions that may be obtained from a well executed visual inspection of concrete
structure include the following:-

i) Spalling of concrete indicates corrosion of steel reinforcement. If spalling occurs in spite of

adequate cover, the concrete is likely to be porous and weak (Plate 9.1).

Plate 9.1. Spalling defect in concrete floors

ii) When spalling occurs in flat roof and bathrooms and is accompany by damp and wet patches,
it is likely water penetration is the cause of problem (Plate 9.2).

iii)Vertical and diagonal cracks in beams indicate that the beams may be overstressed in flexure
or shear respectively, either the beams are under-designed or applied loads are higher than those
assumed in design.
iv) Vertical cracks in columns indicate a high level of compressive stress in the members which
tend to split vertically under the lateral bursting pressure and weaken the confining links.
v) Random cracking in floors indicates shrinkage on concrete and lack of movement joints (Plate
9.3).

Plate 9.2. Spalling defect in concrete in flat roof

Plate 9.3. Random Cracks in Floors

vi) Diagonal cracks along walls and at beam ends indicate differential settlement of foundations,
in the case of beams; the diagonal cracks are concentrated towards one end of the beam.

(3.3) Repairs of Concrete Structures

Having established the causes of the defect by careful diagnosis the next step should be to
consider the requirement of the repairmethod. The selection of the correct methodand material
for a particular application requires careful consideration, whether to meet special requirement
for placing, strength durability or other short or long term properties. The first step in the repair
process is to cut away all loose or deteriorated concrete until the sound concrete core is reached.
Cutting back should be at right angle to the external surfaces. All exposed reinforcement must be

thoroughly cleaned. The formwork must be designed sothat the concrete will fill it completely
and there must be adequate access for compaction purposes. The method used to place the
concrete are usually similar to those used in new work, except the quantities are smaller. Before
any crack is repaired it is necessary to determine its cause so that the correct method of repair
can be decided. If the cause of the crack is unlikely to reoccur it may be filled with a rigid
material. But if it is caused by movement that is likely to continue, then any attempt to seal the
crack may cause a new crack to appear along side the old one.
Self Assess Questions

1. In the section under causes and effects of concrete defects, identify the causes and effects for
each point.
2. What precautionary measures need to be put in place during the repairs of concrete
structures? Discuss in a page.
WEEK 10: STONE WORK

INTRODUCTION
Building stones are generally limestone, sandstones, or granite. They are used generally as wall
cladding and facing materials.

(3.1)Requirements of Building Stones

a) Strength:- Building stones should normally be of adequate strength to carry imposed load
especially at lintels and when used for civil engineering work.

b) Moisture Resistance: - Building stones hardly absorb water but sandstones may absorb up to
20 percent and are subject to appreciable moisture movement. Penetration of damp is also
unlikely except at window mullions or jambs and at sills, copings etc (Plate 10.1).

c) Compatibility: - Damage can result from the use of different types of stones in direct contact
with one another.

d) Durability:- The durability of stonework is influenced by the stone’s chemical composition

and structure and its performance.

Plate 10.1. Decayed stonework

(3.2) Causes and Defects in Stonework
a) Continuous wetting and drying of stones by rains and sun causes internal stresses leading to
disintegration of stones.

b) Dissolved acids or atmospheric gases in rain water react with the constituent of stones causing
its disintegration.

c) Consequent increase in volume due to frost action causes the stones to disintegrate.

d) Abrasive effect of the dust particles caused by dusty winds lead to deterioration of the stones.

e) Atmospheric impurities react with stones containing carbonate of lime resulting in their
deterioration.

f) Building materials used for laying stones sometimes react chemically with the constituent of
stone, causing the stones to disintegrate.

g) Differential thermal stresses between its surface and mass may lead to fatigue which may
cause scaling and spalling.

h) If stones having different physical characteristics are used together then they may cause
mutual decay.

i) Deterioration also occurred due to roots of trees penetrating the joints of masonry thereby
keeping the stones damp which causes deterioration.

(3.3)Repairs of Stonework
Some form of chemical treatment may be applied to stonework to keep it dry. However it should
be noted that although the treatment may improve the impermeability of the stonework, to
moisture penetration, it can also drastically affect the appearance of the stone.
In the entire repair of stonework, attention must be paid to cracks, bulges or signs of settlement.
Accurate diagnosis is important and requires careful observations and measurements.
Repair of stone work involves one or more of the following operations:-
i) Stitching of cracks caused by structural movements
ii) Grouting of cracks not likely to worsen in condition
iii) Re-pointing of mortar joints to improve appearance, and reduce water penetration.
iv) Cutting defective stones and replacing them with compatible ones from similar sources.
v) Metal anchorages should be replaced by bronze and stainless steel ones to avoid or stop
corrosion
vi) Redressing of stoneworkwhere srcinal surfacehas eroded.
vii) Creepers and other plants should be removed carefully with a weed-killer which does not

have adverse effects on the stone work.

(3.3) Cleaning of Stonework

Most buildings are cleaned regularly for aesthetic reasons. The choice of cleaning techniques
may depend largely on the type and condition of the surface, cost, speed and convenience to
occupants of the building. The main method commonly used as follows:-

a) Washing or Water Spraying : This is washing away the accumulated dirt from the surface
with a water spray and brushes. It is cheap and least harmful but is also the slowest. This method
is not effective when stubborn dirt has been formed over a long period.

b) Dry-grit Blasting: Abrasive grit is blown under pressure at the surfaces to remove the dirt.
Three sizes of the nozzle are used according to the demands of the job. It could be quite dusty.

c) Wet-grit Blasting: Similar to the previous method except that water is introduced into the
air/grit stream, thereby reducing the visible dust. It is less harsh on surface, but it generates slurry
which can be troublesome.

d) Mechanical Cleaning: uses conical carborundum stones, grinding and polishing discs, and

rotary brushes attached to power tools. Special precautions and great skill is needed to avoid
causing damage. Very fast method, useful with hard stones but the cost is high.

e) Chemical Cleaning: Makes use of hydro-fluoric acid as it leaves no soluble salts in the
stonework. Could be quite dangerous and caution should be taken to prevent contamination. It is
a fast method at relatively low cost for use with harder stones(Plate 10.2).
Plate 10.2. Effect of chemical cleaning on stonework

f) Steam Cleaning: Uses mains water pumped to a boiler and the steam generated is played on
to the stone surface assisted by brushes and abrasive stones (Plate 10.3).

Plate 10.3. Steam cleaning machine

Self Assess Questions

1. Find out from occupants of buildings with stonework the popular methods of cleaning.
2. Analyze all the methods of stonework cleaning and recommend one for Nigeria giving our
peculiarities.
WEEK 11:- TIMBER AND TIMBER ROOF DEFECTS

INTRODUCTION
The strength and usefulness of timber can be affected by a wide variety of defects, some of
which can occur during natural growth, others during seasoning or manufacture, while others
result from attack by fungi and insects.

(4.1) Defects in Timber

a) Natural defects occur during the growth of the tree and include the following:
i) Knots: parts of a branch which becomes enclosed within the growing trunk (Plate 11.1 &
11.2). They affect the strength of the timber as they cause a deviation of the grain and may leave
a hole.
ii) Shakes: Separation of fibres along the grain owning to stresses developing in the tree. They
affect the strength of the timber by reducing the cross-sectional area (Plate 11.3).

b) Conversion Defects: This is due basically to unsound practice in cutting or attempts to

economize during conversion of the timber.

Plate 11.1 Knots in a piece furniture

 Plate 11.2 Knots on plank of timber

Plate 11.3 Effect of shakes in timber

c) Seasoning Defects: these defects are directly caused by the movement which occurs in timber
due to changes in moisture content. These defects are mostly irreversible.
i) Checks: longitudinal separation of the fibres which does not extend throughout the whole
cross-section of the wood.
 ii) Warp: Distortion in converted timber which causes a departure from its srcinal (Fig
11.1).

Fig 11.1 Effect of warp in timber

iii) Collapse: Condition which may occur during the early stages of seasoning when wet
timber shrinks unevenly and/or excessively(Plate 11.4).

Plate 11.4. Collapse in timber

d) Fungal attack: Fungi are the chief cause of decay of timber. Their development is dependent
on moisture, oxygen and cellulose in the timber and the absence of any one of these prevents
decay. Fungal attacks can be caused by either dry rot or wet rot.

i) Dry Rot: Active when particularly seasoned wood is fixed in a warm, damp and poorly
ventilated position (Plate 11.5).
 Plate 11.5. Effect of dry rots in timber

ii) Wet Rot: Active in timber which is excessively wet whether located in the interior or exterior
of a building (Plate 11.6).

Plate 11.6. Effect of wet rots in timber

e) Insect Attack: Beetles of different kinds infect timber because the organic nature of the
material is favorable to its life cycle of hatching, growing and emerging.

f) Termite Attack: Termites are found mainly in the tropics. They are classified into two:-
i) Dry wood termites that confine themselves entirely within the timber and need no contact with
the ground. They may fly into buildings or carried there in previously infested timber
ii) Subterranean or soil termites are more widespread and need to maintain contact with the
ground. They cause destruction by constructing tubes or covered gullies in the soil over
intervening plaster or concrete.
(4.2) Defects in Timber Roofs
a) Pitched Roofs: Roof timbers may be affected by
i) Wet rot resulting from leaks in the roof covering or condensation.
ii) Dry rot due to confined unventilated roof spaces.
iii) Insect attack caused by power-post beetle particularly in damp conditions
iv) Construction defects caused by poor workmanship and the use of poor materials which

mostly lead to sagging.

b) Flat Roofs: Timber and other board materials show considerable movements under changing
moisture content, thereby inducing high stresses

(4.3)Timber Roof Remedial Measures

Defective areas affected by fungi or insect attack may either be replaced by new ones or splicing
old to new where necessary. In case where defect is not severe, it is possible to treat the affected
timber and strengthen it with timber or steel members bolted to it. To control or reduce both
forms of attack, all timbers for roof construction should be properly and adequately treated with
preservation. Where a roof has sagged or through insufficient ties has forced walls out of plumb,
it may not be feasible to force the structure back into its srcinal position. In extreme cases
reconstruction will be necessary. Vapour barriers need to be provided to protect against water
vapour.

Self Assess Questions

1. In two paragraphs each, discuss how natural and seasoning defects in timber can possibly be
reduced.

2. Visit a timber shed and identify with the aid of pictures the defects commonly noticed in the
available wood.
WEEK 12: PAINTING DEFECTS

INTRODUCTON
Paints are widely used today as a surface coating to protect, preserve and decorate many
materials such as timber, steel and plaster. Painting enhances the appearance of buildings and in
many cases also protects materials which would otherwise deteriorate. The maximum durability
of a paint is only achieved when the surface has been carefully prepared. The manner and
circumstances by which the paint is applied will also influence the performance of the paint
system. Such factors as weather conditions at the time of painting, the standard of care taken
during painting application and the actual method of applying the paint are also very important.

(4.0) Defects in Paintwork:

The common defects associated with paintwork can be categorized as follows:
a) Defects Due to Poor Workmanship:
i) Crazing and cracking: The elasticity of oil-based films diminishes as oxidation proceeds with
ageing. The loss of elasticity is caused by application of drying paint over a soft undercoat and
application over contaminated surfaces.
The effects are cracking of paint film extending through the entire paint system, crazing which
allows shallow breaks in the paint system or alligatoring which is a term used for pronounced
wide cracks over the entire surface.
Prevention includes using compatible paint systems and allowing the primer or undercoat to dry
properly/rubbing down and redecorating will remove slight crazing. In more serious cases
however, the existing paint must be stripped and the full paint system properly applied.

ii) Curtaining: This defect occurs when very thick coatings fail to dry flat. The causes are
uneven application or heavy application over the wet edge. Prevention lies in the use of good

painting techniques and practice. Remedial measures include sanding down the dry film and
recoating.

iii) Grinning: This is the ability of paint to hide the surface which depends on the thickness of
the film, the type of pigment used, and its absorption and reflectance characteristics. Grinning
can be due to one or more of the following reasons:
 Over thinning of the paint
  Applying paint too thinly or unevenly and covering too wide an area.
 Pigment content of the paint is too low
 Drastic colour change with too few coats
 Knots in timber not properly treated.
Preventive measures involve the use of reliable materials and good workmanship in the
application.
Remedial measure is to apply more coats of paint over the entire surface evenly.

iv) Drying problems: The paints remains soft for a long time after application which may be
caused by:
 Too thick a coat being applied
 Use of unsuitable thinners
 Applying under wrong climate conditions
 Presence of oil, grease or wax on the surface.
The remedy is to scrape off existing film, clean the surface thoroughly and the re-apply a new
coat of paint evenly. Care should be taken to ventilate the painted work.
v) Sinkage: This term refers to the wet paint being absorbed into the surface which is caused by
surface porosity.
To prevent this problem, it may be necessary to apply more coats of sealer or undercoats to the
surface before the finishing coats.
vi) Painting Faults: Poor painting techniques or the failure to take care during the painting
process can result in other faults:
 Holidays or misses in the coating resulting from working under poor lighting conditions,
undercoat of similar colour to the top coat, or careless application.
 Lifting which is some disturbance of the previous coat resulting from the use of too strong
solvents for the new coat. It can also occur when previous coat is not dry when new coat is

applied.
 Pimpling usually on a sprayed paint film, due to wrong air pressure used, paint not properly
mixed, wrong thinner used, or spraying to close or too far away from the surface.
To rectify these problems another coat can simply be applied to the surface or a complete
rubbing down or removal of paint film and repainting.
b) Defects Due to Discolouration of Paints.
The discolouration of a paint film can occur gradually over several months or even years. The
most common causes are:
i) Chalking: This is the condition of a paint surface which, having lost most of its gloss, is
coated with a white powder. Generally, chalking appears on whites and light tints, and is the
result of photochemical breakdown of the surface layer. The main causes of chalking are:
 The use of unsuitable pigments

Ageing of paint film
 Repeated condensation on the film followed by drying out.
A good washing will remove the deposits and restore the gloss or colour. However, in more
serious cases, it is necessary to remove and apply the full paint system.

ii) Bleeding: This is the discolouration of the paint film by some ingredient of the coating or
surface below.
The remedy is to use a specially formulated sealer or aluminium paint.

iii) Loss of gloss: Gloss in the degree to which a painted surface reflects light. The follow are the
common causes of loss of gloss
 Materials to be painted are highly absorbent, such as new plaster or wood where sealing is
essential to prevent sinkage.
 Poor application of paint
 Excessively rough surface
 Painting in damp and foggy conditions

iv) Mould or algae growth:- Paintwork affected by these organisms develop various coloured
spots, patches or stains in black, red, green or brown.

Prevention of this defect is to ensure that the surface is clean and not infested with growth prior
to painting.
The remedy in mild attacks is to scrub the organisms off. In serious cases, the old paintwork is
stripped off, the wall is then treated with a fungicidal wash, allowed to dry and redecorated with
a special fungicidal paint.
c) Defects Due to Chemical Attack.
i) To control the problem of efflorescence it is necessary to remove all the salts by brushing and
washing, and to avoid if possible the use of water-thinned paints.
ii) Saponification:- The alkalinity of lime plasters, cement rendered surfaces and concrete
results in the breakdown of oil-based paints by saponification. The degree of the breakdown
depends on the strength of the alkali present and the duration of wet conditions to maintain the
activity of the alkali.

Where the attack is severe, the film should be removed preferably by scraping, allow the surface
to dry out thoroughly and then seal the surface by the application of an alkali-resisting plaster
before repainting.

d) Defects Due to Loss of Adhesion

i) Blistering:- Blistering is due to the liquids or gasses trapped in or underneath the paint film.
This causes loss of adhesion of the paint film which with expansion, blows up the film as
blisters.
ii) Brittleness and flaking;- These result from internal stresses set up in the film during the
initial contact when drying. The main causes of brittleness and flaking are:
 Use of an excessively short drying oil medium.
 Absorption of moisture resulting in swelling and loss of adhesion.
 Painting over a loose surface
 Presence of moisture on the surface will impair adhesion of the film.
The remedial measure is to completely remove all the defective paintwork and the repaint.

Self Assess Questions

1. Go through the text and pick all the human factors that cause paint deterioration. Suggest

how this could be minimized.

2. Observe buildings in your institution and detectpaint failures. State the possible causes
and their remedial measures.
WEEK 13: DAMPNESS IN BUILDINGS

INTRODUCTION
Dampness is one of the most serious defects in buildings. Apart from causing deterioration by
disintegration of the structure (Plate12.2), it can also result in damage to furnishings and contents
as stains and fungal growth (Plate12.3) and can in severe cases adversely affect the health of
occupants. Good design measures are essential to keep the moisture out of building, but when
these measures are inadequate, dampness can enter the building materials to cause their
deterioration.

(4.4) Causes of Dampness

a) Water introduced during construction: During bricklaying and plastering, tones of water
are introduced into the walls. The wall remains damp until a hot season has passed.

b) Penetration of water through roofs, parapets and chimneys : roof may admit fine rain
particularly in exposed situation. Roofs must be laid to an adequate pitch, securely fixed and

with a generous overhang at eaves to present such penetration. Parapets and chimneys can collect
and deliver water to parts of the building below roof level unless they have adequate damp-proof
courses and flashings.

c) Penetration of water through walls: penetration occurs most commonly through walls
exposed to the prevailing wet wind or where evaporation is retarded. Sometimes the fault may be
from a leaking gutter or down pipe. (Plate 12.1)

Plate 12.1. Moisture penetration through walls

d) Penetration of water through broken/decayed plumbing pipes placed in walls could also
cause dampness

e) Rising damp: moisture from the ground rising in a porous wall may be caused by:-
i)Absence of damp-proof courses. Fig 12.1

Fig 12.1 Absence of dpc

ii)Bridging of damp-proof course internally by floor screed laid which is not keyed to the

d.p.c. in the wall (Fig 12.2) or external rendering (Fig 12.3) which is liable to crack, and
allow moisture to rise.

Fig 12.2 solid floor bridging dpc Fig 12.3 Bridging of dpc by
External rendering
iii)Bridging by earth deposited against the outside of a wall (Fig 12.4)

Fig 12.4 Bridging by earth

iv)Bridging caused by mortar dropping and other debris in cavity walls (Fig 12.5)

Fig 12.5 Bridging by mortar droppings

Plate 12.2 disintegration of plaster Plate 12.3 stains and fungal growth
(4.4) Remedial Measures
a) Rising damp: cheap and easy measures can be taken in some instances. These include
lowering the earth or paving which extend above the damp-proof course or to remove rendering
or pointing which bridges the d.p.c. however in case of lack or defective d.p.c, more expensive
methods are adopted.
i) Physical insertion of damp-proof courses
ii) Electro-Osmotic process

iii) Installation of siphons

iv) Chemical injections

b) Rain water penetration: It may be necessary to rectify defective damp-proof courses around
window and door openings. A one brick thick solid wall is unlikely to withstand severe weather
conditions satisfactory and it may be necessary to apply a suitable external finish. The most
common external finish is rendering or roughcast.

Self Assess Questions

1. Identify three locations in buildings that are likely to surfer from dampness, stating their
causes.
2. Suggest the most appropriate solutions to question (1) above.
WEEK14: SITE VISIT

INTRODUCTION
After 13 weeks of learning the theoretical aspect of maintenance technology, it is necessary to
visit real life sites to observe practically, structures that need different forms of maintenance and
those undergoing maintenance actions.
Site visit
Students are taken to identified sites to observe various failures in buildings:
a) Foundation failures.
b) Wall defects
c) Defects in roofs
d) Dampness in buildings
e) Painting defects

Students’ Report
Students are expected to write a comprehensive report on their observations to cover:
• Causes of defects
• Picture/sketches of observed defects
• Schedule of dilapidation
• Recommendation towards preventing future occurrences.
The report will take the following format:-
• Preliminaries
• Main report- background
- Case study
- Analysis
• Conclusion
The format of the schedule of dilapidation is shownbelow

SCHEDULE OF DILAPIDATION

LOCATION OF PROPERTY:

DATE OF INSPECTION:

INSPECTED BY:

S/no Component Defect Remedies Bill item description Qty Unit Rate Amount

Fig 5.1 Format of schedule of dilapidation

WEEK 15: TECHNOLOGY OF MAINTENANCE

INTRODUCTION
The technology of maintenance is concerned with all the factors that influence and cause the
need for maintenance work.

(4.6) Technology of Maintenance

Occurrence of defects in the fabric of a building can result from many unrelated decision and
action. In order to understand technology of maintenance, the following must be discussed:-
a)Design decision
b)Maintenance at design stage
c) Materials
d)Assessment of exposure
e)Climate
f)Atmospheric pollution
g)Durability

(4.6) Terotechnology
The term ‘’terotechnology’’ has been used to embrace the life cycle requirements of physical
assets. It is a combination of management, financial engineering and other practices applied to
physical assets in pursuit of economic life cycle costs. It is concerned with the:-
a) Specification and design for reliability
b) Ease of maintenance of plant, machinery, equipment, building and structure with their
installations.
c) Commissioning
d) Modification and replacement

e) Feed back.

The standard of maintenance achieved has an important influence on the quality of the built
environment and there seem little doubt that society will continue to expect higher standards in
new and existing buildings. There is a need to improve the methods of managing and executing
building maintenance. Maintenance budgets should be clear and well reasoned and supported by
full information. Feedback from occupier to designer should be improved in order to assemble
information on both the preference of the user, and the performance of materials, components
and constructional methods. There is a general lack of essential basic data. Design teams
frequently neglect consideration of maintenance aspects and there is a great need to reduce the
gap between design and maintenance. Decision making in building maintenance could be
assisted by the application of operational research techniques. Consequently for many years to
come, maintenance will remain a significant and important part of the work of the construction
industry.

(4.6) Role of Maintenance

The performance of any building can be affected by decisions taken and actions performed at
any stage of a building project, from its initial conception to its final demolition. This reflects the
importance of maintenance throughout the life of a building. A skilful design can reduce the
amount of maintenance and also make it easier to carry out the work. Decisions at the design
stage include selection of materials, forms of construction, orientation of the building and user
requirements.

The construction stage requires a high level of supervision to ensure good standards of materials
and workmanship as well as correct detailing and specification.

Maintenance is needed throughout the entire period that the building remains in use or
occupation so that the various facilities are kept to an acceptable standard. The amount of
necessary building maintenance work could be reduced by improved methods of designs,
specification and construction. Effective maintenance management embraces many skills. These
include the technical knowledge and experience necessary to identify maintenance needs and to
specify the right remedies, an understanding of modern techniques of management, knowledge
of property and contract law, and an appreciation of sociology.

Self Assess Questions

1. Briefly explain seven considerations the designer must take to minimize maintenance at the
design stage in two pages.
2. On a page discuss the importance of maintenance throughout the life of a building.