RATIONAL EMOTIVF

BEHAVIOUR THERAPY
INTRODUCTION

When he first developed it in 1955 Albert Ellis termed

apy (RT). In 1961, he changed the name to rational emoti
Ellis (1993a) further changed the name to rational emotive behad pproach(RrET)atio.nalInnadl the
therapy
What Ellis meant by 'rational is cognition that is effective
in
cognitior merely being empirically and logically valid. He wished n g tather
cognitive from the start since many people at
word
narrowly restrict neheword
had
usedte
to mean intellectual or
logico-empirical: People's rationality res rationa
which of their desires or
preferences to follow and, therefore, is bac ging sound
emotions and feelings (Ellis, 1990).
thought
Ellis introduced 'behaviour' into his approach's name for the sake
of a
its start, the approach has strongly emphasized behaviour along with
emotion. Ellis wrote: "So, to correct my previous errors and to set the and
record straigh
I shall from now on call it what it has really always been rational emotive
behati
-

therapy (REBT)' (1993a: 258).

Ellis (2008a) distinguished between general REBT and preferential REBT. General RE
is virtually the same as cognitive behaviour therapy and aims to teach clientsrational
appropriate behaviours. Preferential REBT emphasizes a profound philosophic chage
At the same time as including general REBT, it also teaches clients how to dispute ine
tional ideas and self-defeating behaviours and how to use powerful cognitive emobe
behavioural methods as self-helping skills. This chapter focuses on preferential R
which from now on will be referred to as rational emotive behaviour therapy (kEBU

ALBERT ELLIS (1913-2007)

ons
in New
and grew up oungerthan

Albert Ellis was born in 1913 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, four years y much ofte
m o n t h s and
City. He had a brother and sister who were 19 w a s physically absent r e immersedn

him, respectively. His travelling salesman father and was much nderstandingym
neglectful
time. His Jewish mother was benignly than sne
as
*

ner own pleasures and ego-aggrandizing activities

 RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY 279

Lont (Ellis, 1991a: 3). Aged 12, he discovered that his parents
c h i l d r e n '

of
her
living fairly close, his father came round to visit
although
uing
care
e
p adiorced
d
that, aged four and half, Ellis almost died of
a
y e a r

a was
once

isfortune
s
than
nother
chil.

of nine, was hospitalized eight times- once for a period of

ntil the age psychological as well as physical problems. He
ghntis
and Ell also had
W h n e n
young,

talk myself out of that crap of being ingratiat-

almost
two
scared. Throughout my childhood and teens
Omonths.

be shy and
me
took
reared to
nzites
w a
b o r m .

hobia. I
viewed pubi speaking as a fate worse than public mas
I
ng
real
social

Nevertheless, he
did very well at school. However, his difficult
a
Jhad 7a: 69). and problem solver (Ellis,
bborn
stubb pronounced
become a
him to
tartbation

helped.
he overcame his terror of public speaking by persist-
hildhood
instance, aged 19,
period of three months. Furthermore,
For to overcome
63). over a
political talks
0A:

in
giving
politica

he force himself to talk to a hundred girls a row in the

in
g
As with public speaking, he was able to make a
wonmen,
with
mess
Botanical Gardens (Ellis, 1997a).
performed. These experiences were important precursors
ow he
how
changein and self-persuasion in
190-degree the great value of reasoning
Ellis discover
EBT because and actions.
dystunctional feelings number of
Hning his of 12 Elis turned out a large
career at the age
kainning his writing and received as many rejection slips
too. In 1934, despite

cares, esays and comic poems

become the Great
American Novelist, Ellis received
a bachelor's
ambition to York. Early occu-
hi carly
administration City University of New
from the
business
tgne in suitable jackets and being personnel
includeda business matching trousers tostill
aions
firm. Ellis devoted much
of his spare time to.writing
gift
of a and novelty turned exclusively
manager
getting difficulties his fiction published, Ellis
iction. Partly because of revolution'.
on the 'sex-family
Dwting non-fiction, especially focusing in 1942 Ellis entered the clinical
that he liked therapy as well as writing,
Discovering a master's degree
in 1943.
at Columbia University, receiving mari-
Pprchology programme
practice in psychotherapy
and
oOn after obtaining this, he began a small private University
received his doctorate
from Columbia
and sex therapy. In 1947, Ellis been cen-
on love having
I a thesis on questionnaires, an earlier thesis
personality to become
Ellis's ambition was
it got off the ground. After his doctorate,
Detore a training analysis
with an analyst
and so he completed
Snding psychoanalyst psychoanalysis
under his teacher's
trom the and began to practise
t Oney group Department of
Institutions
to 1952, Ellis worked for the New Jersey Center
d Om948 psychologist of the New Jersey
State Diagnostic
ainly as chief also continued
his
adhthen as
ad of New Jersey. He
chieft of the entire state
psychologist e
Pavate practice in
For me time, Ellis York.employed active-directive methods in his psychotherapy,
New had
worked through
Ellis had
herapy. Also, before undergoing analysis, of Epictetus,
Any of his own the philosophies
arcus bblems by reading and practising he started teaching clients the
Aurelius, pinoza and Bertrand Russe and so
280 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF OUNSELLINo AND
THERAPY
philosophic principles that had helped him. Between 1953
ingly rebelled against psychoanalysis and began calling himself a195s
rather than a 'psychoanalyst'. He wrote: '1 finally wound
1955, EAlIs ict
with RET' (1991a: 15). He gave his first paper on it at up,
t hato e beginnin the
Association's annual meeting in Chicago on 31 August 1956 beginniPsychol
erican ng ofogeig
In 1959 he founded the Institute for Rational Living, Inc.. no.
Institute, as a non-profit-making scientifi and educational ow called the
principles of rational living. Afterwards Ellis donated all his rova
organization Alber.
clients and workshops to the Institute. In 1964, the Institute h ught income teach
t

townhouse, where it is still headquartered. a

large
fro
New Ys
Ellis was a man of boundless energy, probably a genetic inheritan.
highly energetic parents who both lived reasonably long lives and nheritance from
last day of their lives' (Dryden, 1989: 545). He spent most of his
time worki Whe active until
he was over 83, in a week where he was mainly in New York, I
and group clients from 9:30am to 11pm with a
usually see individus
-

couple
of half hour
breaks
and mostly for half hour sessions with individual clients. So duringeach w f
over 80 individual clients and over 40 more group clients' (Ellis, 1997b:17 ln
Ellis held his 7.30-9.00 Friday night workshop
where he interviewed
people in pubi
On Saturday night and Sunday, he worked on bookS, Writing, researching, attendine-
correspondence and various other things. Until just before his death, Ellis gave nun
ous workshops and seminars in America and overseas and used the travel time to i
and read.
Elis's work was his main priority. However, he had 'had two marriages, two m
together arrangements (LTAs), many passionate love experiences, and scores of (reh
tively brief) sexual affairs from my twenty-fourth to my ninetieth year (2004a: 21.I
1964, he met 24-year-old Janet Wolfe and lived with her in an open relationship to
1965 to 2002. During this period he commented that his life 'would be greatly bere
of laughter, warmth, and intimacy without her' (Dryden, 1989: 541). Ellis and Jane-
he would no
had no children, since they regarded it as unfair that, owing to his work,
have had much time to spend with them.
Elis had to work around physical disabilities to attain and maintain his pnen

enal productivity level (Ellis, 1997b). From age 19, he was hampered Dy c
raigable eyes. The upshot of this was that he read rarely for more than 20
and often kept his eyes shut during therapy sessions. Aged 40, Elis was l g
the inconve
minimizing
having full-blown
attached diabetesfor
to this condition: and had toeating
instance small of
find ways meals about eacig
day-even
begn

Ellis's hearing
three or four times in the middle of the night. In his late sixties whenaingooa
even
deteriorate and by his mid-seventies he had two earing aids that, m a bladder-

suffer from
also had to
working order, had their limitations. Later in life, Ellis a
engthyproces

tnat was easily filled but slow to empty, so that peeing

became mo
with
otheractiv

However, efficient as ever, Elis found ways of combining peeing

peein c a r e a r o u n d

In June 2003, Ellis had a colonectomy, and after that had nuS
 RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY
281

assistant and dearest

greatly helped by my frlend, Debble Joffe, with
'also
xtremely
close and loving connecnection' (Ellis, 2004a). EIlis died on
hatn enjoyan

een controversial. His REBT ideas challenged psychoanalytic and

i l i s sw o r

His.
sideas on sex challenged conventional morality. In addition,
Bnianorthodoxies.
his However, over the past 45 years or so,
afraid
wasnotaideas
to speak cognitlve
increasingly fashionable and Ellis regarded himself as
have become

the grandfathe
of cognitive behaviour therapy,
REBTand even before publishing in the area of
writer, eve
ithere
à prolitic
psychology.
is 2s
alvays
dover 800 papers in psycholo ological psychiatric and sociological journals
Ellis. authored or edited over 75 books and
tanthologies.
In addition, monographs
and Emotion in Psychotherapy (1962), A Guide to Rational Living (Ellis
1997), The Practice of tional Emotive Behaviour Therapy (Ellis and Dryden,
p c u d i n gR
: easo

and
Hiape Behaviour Therapy: A Therapist's Guide (Ellis and MacLaren,
Emotive
onal and Blau, 1998) Ask Albert Ellis?: Straight Answers and
AD EllsReader (Ellis
heAlbert fom America's Best-Known Psychologist (2003b), Rational Emotive Behavior
SandAdin Can Work for You (2004a), and The Myth of Self-Esteem:
and It Car
Works for Me
Therapy Can Change Your Life Forever (2005). Apart from
Emotive Behavior Th
Rational
guiding principles of Elliss (1991a: 30) work have been 'science, efficiency,

revolutionism, and passionate skepticism'.

kmety,

THEORY

ISIC CONCEPTS

RADAMENTAL AND PRIMARY GOALS

inual all humans have three fundamental goals (FG): to survive, be relatively free
a pain, and to be reasonably satisfied or content. As subgoals or primary goals (PG),
Unans want to be happy: when by themselves; gregariously with other humans; inti-
aey, with a few selected others; informationally and educationally; vocationaly
uOnomically; and recreationally (Ellis, 1991b). Furthermore, people live in a social
Sel-interest requires putting others a close second (Ellis and Dryden, 1997).
numans' basic goals as preferences or desires rather than needs or necessl
atonal living consists of
e to the thinking, feeling and behaving in ways which contrib-
ainment of the chosen zoals, whereas irrationality consists of thinking
naving in ways which block or interfere with their attainment. Living
in of striking a sensible balance between short-range and long-range
onism, or between the pleasures of the here-and-now and the longer-range pleas-
5
ned through present discipcipline. Thus rationality may be defined as the use of
r
Chosen short-range and long-range hedonism.
282 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF
COUNSELLILING AND THER
ERAPY
EMOTION, CoGNITION AND BEHAVIOUR
In an early paper on Rational psychotherapy' Ellis
mental hypotheses. First, thinking and 1958)
emoting are closely proposed th
and emoting so closely related that they usually accoma related. Secon th,reethinifkhugne
are
circular cause-and-effect relationship, and in certain (though h other
essentially the same thing, so that one's thinking becomes onardlyal)
becomes one's thought. Third, both thinking and emoting tend motion an,
alized sentences and, for all practical purposes, the the fom
keep saying to themselves are or become their tences that
thoughts and emotions.
internal self-statements are capable of both generating and Thu
hus
addition, Ellis stressed that thinking and emotion modifyin;
iinteract with beha their emoton
people usually act on the basis of oughts and emotions and their our. For instang
how they think and feel. actions infuens
HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY EMOTIONS
REBT is not an approach of no emotions; rather it emphasizes healthu
emotions. Negative emotions may be either
healthy, unhealthy or mixed ppropian
Maclaren, 2004). Unhealthy emotions are those that interfere with achievin aa
balance between short-range and long-range hedonism. For instance, it may
priate for people in an alien and difficult world to be fearful, cautious or viglants appra
so tha
they can take any necessary steps for realistic protection. However, anxietyand me
concern are unhealthy emotions, since they are based on irrational thinking or unsan=
beliefs and, in fact, may interfere with or block the attainment of goals. Similariy, hns
tility may have a healthy and an unhealthy part. The healthy part of hostilityinvolre
acknowledging discomfort or annoyance as a basis for action designed to overcom
or minimize the iritation. The unhealthy part of hostility may involve blaming oi.
ers and the world in such a way as to block effective action and possibly generate srer
more unhappiness for oneself and further hostility from others.
Pleasurable and enjoyable emotions can also be healthy or unhealthy. For exampë
an unse
people may feel excessive pride when praised by others because they possess shat:
belief about the necessity of others' approval. A sensible balance between achieving
achieving shart-ang
Tange and long-range hedonistic goals involves a balance between
and long-range appropriate pleasurable emotions.

TWO BIOLOGICAL TENDENCIES Cis

In all people a tension exists between two opposing biological creauv dev nand
to create,
(Ellis, 2008a). On the healthy innate tendencies
actualize themselves asone people have ghuman
hand,goal-attainingl beings. They have a great
tpoten-

innate ten

tial to be rational and pleasure producing. On the other hand, they nav
dencies to create, develop and implement irrational cognitions, unhealth b i o l o g i c a l l

and dysfunctional behaviours. REBT theorizes that often peopald on to th

and holo
199). Thus, ther
predisposed strongly, passionately,
to and construct
gidly
disturbance-creating musts and other irrational beliefs' (Ellis, 1995D
 BEHAVIOUR THERAPY 283
RATIONAL EMOTIVE

destructive of themselves and of others, to be illogical,

be
ntial to same mistakes.
the.

ually
to
repeat

major human irrationalities exist in virtually all

humans
all the has an inherent source.
b e l i e v e dt h a t
educational level. Human fallibility
Ells
culture
and
c o n d i t i o n e d into dysfunctional thinking
and behav.
so easily viewed as evidence for an innate
are both
seem.

that
people
modify ard to
har
failure to accept reality almost always
tacta are
so

1980). People's
The
these
Nt
hat
a n dt h a t

ionality (Ellis, emotional disturbance. However, differ-

ency t oirrat characteristio of
anifest
the
to isposition to irrationality
also have some degree of
them
predisp
genetic be irrational, they
raised to
enes
exist
ist
in
born and i rai
emotionally disturbed.
For example,
not only
re
they make themselves her childhood
Paople.
uch to make the worst
of
how sister chose
ice in Ellis's younger their biological tendency
to
p, Ellis
up, However, people can use

cElis,1991a, 20042a). to help as well as to damage themselves. First, they

growing can
wDen
condidions (Ellis,
offree
choiceice effectively
Second,
about what is going on.
degree more choose
e some and act can

e to think
differently
to think about
how they think, people their
the capacity containing
and counteracting
they possess skills for
cause cognitive
maintain the
o acquire and
tandencies to irrationality.

and
to cover change
PERSONALITY
added D and E
C THEORY OF to which he
first, to provide
a
ABC theory of personality G can be placed
Elis had an letter
addition, the
of change. In
the desirable result
comtext for people's
ABCs.

Coals, both fundamentaleventsprimar

and
A koversities or activating
in a person's life

Belieks, both rational and irrational;

and behavioural;
Consequences, both emotional
D Disputing irational beliefs;

EHectivenew philosophy of life. other and

are
virtu-

with each beliefs

behaviours
interact
events (A),
Just as cognitions, emotions andi activating
Goals (G), one another
with
aly never entirely pure, so do the ABCs of REBT. collaboration

y and consequy pure, 'all to be part

of a
seem
S(C
Elis, 1991b: 145).
basic categories
TONAL AND IRRATIONAL BELIEFS
lis (2008a, EN beliefsystems
into two

divided
2004)
aional belie' MCLaren,
and irrational beliefs. and gener
social reality,
with adversities (As
Rationall beliets (rBs) arehealthy, productproductive,
adaptive,
consistent

thinking
rationally
about

thinking.
P r e f e r e n t i a l

aly consist of edithy, wants.

When preferential
with

preferences
reacting
desires and in preferer
in tacitly
engage
block ea people and/or
r or their goals (G), icitly
explicit
either
involves
sted with demanding ing
 PRACTICE OF COUNSELLING AND THERAR
AND
THEORY

istic ways and experiencing appropriate e

niate emira *d
goal-oriented

rotion'
behavioural

beiets(a)
are
i6ncesth,ma
c

nigid,
ls,
their goals,
o n s e

dogmatic,

and
q u

are comprised
and are
e n c e

comprise
s
(C)
nhealthy, maladaptive, m
mUsts shouids
of demands, mustt 2
and
block ors
eforts to
achieve

adversities (As) that either

block or sabotagetheir
goals (CA), ersete
a about
demanding thinking

responses to
to
adversities (As) Tesult ffrom
mainly result a

winningmia
responses

people's
though becomest the often one
in reality, irrational
beliefs, thoug
beliefs,

frational
and self-defeating behaviour usually Wsf
that a person's (disturha
obsered
A) and that C
(2008a)
and B(belefabout ence
(advrersity) contrasts ABCs for Drefe
tionofA B C Box
=
11.1

low the
olon
formula'Ax
thinking

ABCs OF PREFERENTIAL AND

BOX 11.1DEMANDING THINKING

Preferential thinking goals.

as blocking or sabotaging
event perceived
or ativating
A Adveriy to have my important goals urbiodel z
thinking: 1 prefer
B Beie system invohing preferential
fufiled
frusiration and unhappiness;
behavioural avoiding a ryi
emoional -

Consequences
eliminate the adversiy.

Demanding thinking goals

as blocking or sabotaging
A Adversity or activating event perceived goas uroae
1 absolutely must have my important
Beliei systen invohing demanding thinking:
B met'
and uiled, btl don't have to get my preference behavioural-sef-deery
emotional-anxietyand/orexcessive
hostility;
Lo6equences:
reaction or underreaction to the adversíty.

DEMANDING BELIEFS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES primary d

Imational belief systems often operate on at
least four levels: i d a r yd e m i n

ngDeliefs; derivatives of the primary demanding belierlsr

DEEIS, and derivatives of the secondary demanding beliere

1 Primary demanding belief(s. belief or

beliefs
iinvoo
The pnimary demanding coinedthe
demands and commands in relation has
the adversity. Elis (1980) shoulds, our
batior tot musts,
to indicate that these beliefs are usualy expressea
 RATIONAL
EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY 285

lusters of irrational bellefs that create inapproprlate

identified
three major
ha consequences:
He
got-tos b e h a v i o u r a l

my performances.
for all my
ervenauland
nd approval
a s#dowella
and win and kindly
considerately
I want
reat me
which I live must be arranged so that
Iget practiclly everything
under

ditions
0 Conditio a n d easily
quickly
comfortably

lemanding belief(s);
demand
People sually create highly unreallstic and overgen-
musturbatory and absolutistic demands. of their
atributions as derivatives
pnmary

or
Une
p e r i c t i e s
anda
t that often accompany their musturbatory beliefs (Ellis, 1991b
edinferenonal derivatives
i n t e r e n c e s d e r i v a t i v e s

urrational

eralized
common
are:
2004)
Three

and
M a c l a r e

importantgoalsu
n ,

unblocked and fulfilled as I must, it's awful

ER have my
Ifl don't than bad.
totally bad or
( ) AMTulzingy-
more
a i scontext, ' a w f u l " mean

don't hahave my impotant

fI don't
"f1
goals unblocke and fulfilled as I must,
stand-it-itis-

Icant
) can'tstandit!'
don't have my important goals unblocked and fulfilled as I
oneself ef and others-"'fI and 'Others are bad people for blocking my important
Domnin worthless person'
I'm a stupid,

C, they tend to exac-

goals"
themselves miserable at
Once people make
demanding belief(s): about being miserable. In other words, they
Secondary. themselves miserable
by making
Ae their misery consequence () of the primary demanding belief ABC into an adversity or
ndom the negative secondary-level demanding belief ABC. Box 11.2 provides an example of
iating event (A) for a about anxious, depressed about make themselves anxious being
Frequenty, people
uch chaining.
about feeling guilty
and so on.
being depressed, guily belief(s): People can now
choose to create and derive awfulizing,
Derivativesof secondary demanding well as their primary
and others from their secondary as
Iant-stand-it-itis, and damning oneself
and their derivatives for the price
now have two negative consequences
musturbatory beliefs. They create with their
can intensify the unhappiness they
done. Also, in an ever-spiralling cycle, they
beautrhul hang-ups.

SECONDARY
BOX 11.2 ABCs FOR PRIMARY AND
DEMANDING BELIEFS

Primary ABC
Al 1 did
poorly on my job today
BSince Imust do well,isn't that horrible!'
11feel anxious, depressed and worthless
Secondary ABC
A2(C1) 1feel anxious, depressed and worthless.'
'Sincemustnotfeel anxious, depressed and worthless, isn't that horriblel"
eel even more
anxious, depressed and worthless.
 COUNSELLING AND THEOA
ERAPY
PRACTICE OF
AND
THEORY

286 TOLERANCE
FRUSTRATION

AND LOW oblems can be grouped ur

DISTURBANCE neurotic

EGO that turbatory beliefs and their derivah

proposed
Elis (1988) three ma
to the rustration tolerance
ings
according and (2) low frus muct
0r discomfon o
disturbance
(self-damning);

arises
from the belief that I ell and win appe
people thinking and.
disturbanCe
Fgo it leads to
turbance. because
performances' hen they do not do a well as
for all my persons wher they must. He
since people demand that they be sp
undeserving
and
Inadequate

regarded
this as godlike
grandiosity
kdten,
outstanding and superhuman.
the grandiose belie
tolerance arises
from they ae
ation be easy and. satisfying for them. They then progess
conditions must
so special that irrational beliefs that thers must treat me considerate
both the
holding either or
which I live must be arranged so that I at
'Conditions under
and kindly' and and I cant
quickly and easily.' Awfulizing stand
I want comfortably, disturbance and low fisme
cally everything beliefs. Basically in ego
derivatives of such I must be perfect, ad
that must have an easy life,
it-itis are

people are insisting

is "T
tolerance what (Ellis, 1988: 119
always cater to me, me, me, me!"
people and conditions should

ACQUISITION

was much
irrational beliefs? Ellis's emphasis
How do people acquire rational and
than on how they initaly
more on how people sustained their irrationality
to focus ens
acquired it. The past cannot be undone and it is counterproductive
Sively on how people feel about the past. Ellis advised people to "forgt
on hhow
"Godawful" past' (1988: 69). He considered that psychology has tocused
indicates how peopie
people originally become illogical and that this by n o means
tochange
naintain or perpetuate their illogical behaviour, or what they shoula do
and
it. Consequently, Ellis's treatment of the developn
pment of irrational cognition
dentifet
musturbatory beliefs was cursory.. However, three main strana Since biological or
biology, social learning and choosing irrational cognitions. the main focs

innate
here is
tendencies to irrationality have been previously discusseu
on soclal learning and choosing.
SOCIAL LEARNING this
Given that human beings roneness t o irrationality,
lie

tendency Is frequently are born with a distinct prone es pecially early in

when people are exacerbated their environonment,

most vulnerable to by
highly suggestible, outsi to Ellis saw human one
but acne outside influences.
which
8estible,
might have been
for a
acknowledged innate differences. Irratiethe child
approprlate in view of the helpless
Ideas,

are
acquiau

number of reasons youngu

State
o

dren are
unable to think(Elis,
(Elis, 1991b, 2008a;
t h a no n
First,
20 Elis and Harpper, 1997), immediate rather
clearly, in par lar insisting on
 RATIONAL
EMOTVE 8EHAUIOUR THERAP

HERAPY
heing
tification a n d bei
unable accurately to distinguish real from imazined
olde,
norma dren become less insistent on havinng
grow
wever,
as they
as t hey
diately gratified. Second, childish demands can fre
ed under two
d demands immedi

nce parents saying that a fairy Fodmother mill

main
their derivatives: for ins
head. desires.
by magic, on the planning and thinking of athers
dependen
(1) ego
assuagedi

ce
(LFT) or discomfort Uencir.
be children
t h e m . Third,
are
conditionability is greatest when they are very younz
do well and
win dis or

of the
conditio

family group themselves have irational tenden

and feeling that approval
suggestibility

members

and
they inculcate into their childre
their

as well as
they
they are i par
parents
Rxurth. Derstitions which
must. indoctrinatio of the mass media. Lastiy, cuitures andd
at they be He
special, perfect,
prejudices
ted
aessis exacerbate d by the fdefeating and society-defeating views.
selIf
irrational,

impart
hat people think igons can
em. They then they are HOOSING I R R A T I O N A L C O G N I T I O N S

1st treat me progress to is not simply a matter of rezcting to hon others

anged so that considerately
I o f aacquiring
irrationality
«
theirown emotional disturbances through not deve
get
practi. The
p r o c e s s

largely
create

ulizing and I
can't-stand- ehavE
Humans
their capacity for rationa choice. Negative social leaning expe
ance and low rcising
frustration g
and themselves lead to people acquiring irationai cognitios. Many
life, I must be not in
perfect, and r e n c e s

had negative upbr bringings choose not to disturb themselves unduly.

(Ellis, 1988: 119).
s's emphasis
was much
on how they initially
ductive to focus exces-
people to "Forget your
gy has focused on how
sindicates how people
y should do to change
ational cognitions and
nds may be identified:
Is.Since biological or
ussed, the main focus
people who have.
w i t h o u t support, work through their problems. The reverse is
with or
others, do not in themselves lead to rztional
Stil
lso true F a v o u r a b l e . social learning experiences
who have had favourable upbringings develop significant
itions. Many people
learning experíences ínffuence people for good or il,
rianal beliefs. While social choose
Tatio
react to them. Ellis and Dryden con-
they
how
T Still have the capacity to c a n be summed up by the view that as
inded: Thus, the REBT theory of acquisition
o u r experiences; rather w e bring o u r ability
hmans we are not disturbed simply by
disturb ourselves to our experiences' (1997: 21).
MAINTENANCE
Wiy do people persist in holding their irational beliefs and their derivatives?
People not only become irrational, they stay írrational. In fact, often they become
en more irrational. Staying rational in a n irrational world is a struggle Once
guired, people tend to repeat their irrational beliefs again and again and again.
Continually stressed that people have strong tendencies to reindoctrinate

ss to irrationality, this
specially early life, in
w humans as basically
nal ideas, which once
he child, are acquired
997). First, young chil-
ediate rather than on
elves with their self-defeating ideas. People's irrrational beliefs do not con-
Indause they were once 'conditioned' and so now hold them 'automatically'.
lnople still, here and now, actively reinforce them, and their present active
propagandizations and constructions keep these beliefs alive (Elis, 2008a).
ASONS
olowt CONTRIBUTING
tlowing are some
TO HUMANS STAYING IRRATIONAL
kIsonal cost to reasor
sons that contribute to humans staying irrational, often at great
themselves, others and to society.
 Y ANI) IRAU1 f
c)N INAFII INe AND tue
APY
RUN DRNAI ENDENINES
tnnana' hisgtonl wmlomten t latlallty uld ut
RN AUreNed hat away witlh
himar maturale
ang al aung anY IolonNIn, ImnnaN nostly embrace slu halance Ihetwer
EMOTIONAL CONTRINUTONS
A tistir mmusts a often "lhot' cogntlons that have a strona aual..
Hment in them. Such agnitons are elkd strongly and
e timult t rhange In addlthon, pevple powerfully
en develop not
efeeltny cm
as such, can
pvnmary iatdonal bellets, but also secondary lrratlonal bellefs only derlva
and thelrvatives of
a wsult they ralse the level or thetr
emotlonallty an then may think de the
ves. As
tionalty Hey may îall to see How ujset tlhey are, Furthermore, they Are. even more
iitta
that they tatl to ralitytest and dtspute thelr irvatlor
onal bellefs in now
herwise tdo, mstead of making people better, the ways that the une
make them mrse,
consecquences of Irratlonal
eles

INSUFFICENT SGIENTIFIC THINKING

ople xontinue to disturd themselves because they fall to think sclentifically about
what is going on in the world, To thnk sclentlflcally people need
constantly to observe
and eheck the 'facts' to see tlhe extent to whieh they are 'true' and whether or not
they
have changetd, Selentifie thinklng ls tlexIble and requlres evldence to uphold or negalte
vlewponts. Also, the setentiie method ls seeptlcal that the unlverse has any abolue
standands of Hood' and 'bad'. Selence does not have absolute rules in regard tohunan
behaviou
REINFORCING CONSEQUENCES
People can emotlonally, cognittvely and behavlourally relnforce thelr Irratlonalb
Emotionaly, absohuttstie musturbatory bellets lead tostrong negathvefeellng e
severe anger and dlepresslon- that make them seem true. Cognltlvely and bena
ally, people relnforee thelr bellefs in different ways accordlng to the bellet. For
people who must be soctally approved avold taklng soclal rlsks, and by d o l n
otherwlse.
Furtherm
vince theniselves that it is too difleult and erous to do Thecs
wlen avonling sovlal situatlons, they may feel a sense of emotlona
makes n
o thefr emotlonal, cognitlve and behavloural reactlons
a
rather than less soelally anxlous.

past
EMPHASIzING ONE'S 'GODAWFUL PAST
Us stated as an REVT nslght: 'Your early chlldhood ex1erlences t mal
People
(1988: 70
ditontnR <did not orlglnally make you tllsturbed. You dld'
 RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY
289

hance for causes in their

by looking
N e m o t o n ld i s t u r b a n o

pasts, FocusIng on the past

focusing on the present, in which they stll
people may be upsetting
ith the
same ational beliefs with which they upset themselves In the
yIshrs
undo their pasts, but t they can change thelr
not presents and futures.
thevmor, often focusing on the past eads not only to an overemphasis on the past
present,
but also to an veremphasis on other people's behaviour rela-
etothe

BELIEFS ABOUT CHANGE

REALISTIC
low frustration tolerance can be both cause and consequence of unrealistic
Apes
wTking to change, with or without professional assistance, their thoughts,
actions.
Irrational beliefs about change include (Ellis, 1987, 1993b):
Aing
and

change with discomfort, work and practice on my

little part
mast be able to
I think, feel and behave shouldn't be so hard.'
Changing how
and profoundly"
Imust change quickly
I must not have any setbacks.'
When changing,

THER COGNITIVE FACTORS

factors and processes whereby people maintain and worsen
Rloning are some other
their irational beliefs and emotional disturbances (Ellis 1987; Ellis and Dryden, 1997):

Naietr: People can have and hang on to hugely naive personal theories about the nature of their

pychological problems and how they are maintained.

gporance: People, including therapists, can consider that it is statistically normal and healthy for
dhem to be unnecessarily upset. They fail to distinguish between healthy and unhealthy thoughts,
felings and behaviours.
Sadity: Many people are too unintelligent to work effectively on their emotional problems. They
i to gain sufficient insight into the fact that they create their own disturbances.
irrational beliefs and
eepivenes: Without therapy, many disturbed people rarely look at their in
now these create and drive their upset-ness. Even when these are pointed out to them
dd
epy, many disturbed people are still incapable of grasping how they upset themseves
gdy Even when they acknowledge their self-defeating iratlonal beliefs, many peoplengiy
sbck musturbatory beliefs and their derivatives, for instance awfulizing and l can't-stand-it
disorders, whereas others
ae people may be psychotic or have borderline personality
simply rigid thinkers.
are prone to avoid facing and dealing directly with thelr problems.
They use
sHumans
methods of distorting and enying problems, for instance rationalization and avoldance.

Polyaonnaism and indiference: Some people who

OUs ilness, prone to extreme anxlety
are
and suffer from a seri-
its seriousness. Sometimes,
ch defen
edrt disease or
cancer, may deal with it by denying
occasions, such thinking
YSive manoeuvres may
may block efforts to help people to cope. However, on many
attain physical health and psychological change.
Cnangingthe situation: t the sltuation, for instance,
obtaln
For the easy way out is to change
a
divorce,rather than try , many or not to change
the
y to ch
to change themselves and then consider whether
 290 THEORY AND PRACTIC
OF
COUNSELLINGING ANAND THERAPY
situation. For every neurotic who
really tries to have
there are
probably ten times as
many trying to feel a
fundar
behave self-defeatingly rather than to get better hu
for therapy. better. This
ratio holde
oldschangitrueng the the
whethersituationsNot in
Other palliative People and
means:
with emotional disturbances rather of h
than get to the
use distraction
technique such as root of
progressive them many palliatve pere
try superficial positive thinking. Many people relaxation,
lose the biofeedbac and
t

cults. Short-term feel-good remedies like and potertbd

turbed people seek low-level and alcohol and druas ves in
are.
palliative remedies rather tha
meditarteiloigniousandandyonr
political,
pr

solutions.
than more
rigorous anand
, ffior
lonny
INSUFFICIENTLY CHALLENGING BELIEFS THROUGH
People may reinforce their beliefs ACTION
tried and true' self-defeating waysthrough unwillingness to chano
may bring their actions, Tr
term gain. An Ellis
insight is: "You can «change short-term relief at the
irational beliefs
them: by performing behaviours that
contradict them' (198888: (iB's)1 expense of l
by acting azim
ple change their actions to challenge their beliefs? 109). Why then don
One
insight into their irrational beliefs, their
derivatives, and
reason is that
ther don'tpe
ioural consequences. Another reason is that people resist thetheir emotional an
taking action. Some people may not be clear on what to risk and effort invelhe
do. Still nvolved =
to do, but lack the skills, confidence others mav know
knew. wta
who change their actions, but lack the
and support to do it.
Another is pen
staying power to maintain them, category
faced with difficulties and setbacks. especially wi
Such people suffer from low frustration tolerane

THERAPY

THERAPEUTIC GOALS

Earier in this chapter, I presented Elis's GABCDE outline. There are twomeaningsto
depending on whether the change goals of REBT are inelegant or elegant

INELEGANT CHANGE GOALS

rote: "Inelegant
change largely consists of some kind of syr hataccompun

13). Here, at D, REBT targets the cognitions, emotions and behaviour nal b e h a v i o u s

REBT

self-defeating feelings, like anxiety and depression, and dysfunctio inelegant

ed or

avoiding social and public speakin situations. The goal of focuse

ds for
an
effective
venesin

1S that of focused or
inelegant change. Here the letter E stai
philosophy focused on one or more specific symptoms or. rational
beli
to
Telation to these symptoms can be cognitive (similar
healthy feelings) and behavioural (desirable behaviours
 RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY
291

NTCHANGEGOALS

elegant change involves clients with

elegant change,
ast
ine nd ideational
to
and philososophic change - which meansdisturbances
that it tries
at
attitudes that they can use to undisturb
u t i n ga p r o t o u

several core
macquire themselves
of ituations,
situations merely with the emotional-behavioral
and not
te
vanety prob-
ich hey mainly came to chotherapy' (Elis, 2003a: 233). In elegant
na
k nith whi

further than ane effective

new philosophy that
goes supports the removal
mptoms to assist ents to develop and implement an effective philoso
a y a i h cs y m p t o n

ote: To do this, clients need to acknowledge how often and how

wrot
Elis
nhroflie. escalate their healthy goals, desires,and preferences into
arrogant and
andiosethey
sangty must-urbati - and apply emselves to anti-musturbatory thinking'
E stands for the goal of effective new
philosophies for specific
in inelegant REBT, and for the goal of an effective philosophy of life
mptoms
Shudes effective new philosophies for specific symptoms) in elegant REBT.
wtichi
tafteaching anti-musturbatory thinking, Ellis actively encouraged practically
Ashispartoft
dlients to achieve three highly important cognitive-emotional-behavioural
his

sats or goals
(1999a, 2003a).

Uonditonalsef-acceptance (USA}: Clients can always choose to acceptthemselves just because

they are alive and human, whether or not they perform well or are approved of by others.
lnonditional other acceptance (UOA): Whatever other people do and however abominably they
at, dients can choose to accept the sinner, though not their sins, to try to help them behave
bette, and to refuse to damn them as people.
Unconditional life acceptance (ULA): Otherwise known as high frustration tolerance (HFTD,
unconditional life acceptance means that clients can choose to acknowledge that their desires
e not needs; adversities are not awful but can be highly inconvenient; they can stand what
hey do not like, and "long-range hedonism, or striving for today's pleasures, without neglect
ng tomorrow's, will often get them more of what they want and less of what they dislike"' (Ellis,
1999a: 39).

PROCESS OF THERAPY
Naght from the REBT is an active-directive struc-
tuted therapy start, therapists show clients that
helping toclients to feel better, but by chang-
; get better.only
on not
their tieuSing
igng their thinking: and behaviour, Orientation or induction can be
way of pre-therapy lectures at the start of
tlsherapy nd using clients' proble
demonstrations, brief explanatory
material to illustrate the application of REBT
and
Dryden, 1997).therapy
efore Commencing
Some REBT therapists like clients
to fill out a basic
l information form that also elicits information about their presenting
yoblems Elis and Dryden, 1997: 8-95). In addition, therapists may ask clients

data form which asks clients questions about their

feelings
y
 OF COUNSELLING AND THERApy RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEPHAVIOUR THERAPY
ND PRACTICE
Irustration, ustice, achlevement, worth
infustl
see ents
cllents for weckly Indivk sessions. Ellis's own
following
areas:
acceplance,
(1997: 36-9). often
theraplsts
0 minutes. Clents
normally have five to 50 sesslons. thetapy
in the eiss. s
Brlef
and
catastrophizing
locus on
specific p r o b l e m s
lght from the MOofte laa sesions Is used for chents who have specific problems or for thoe
certalnty
certalnty
encouragea
encouraged
t the
to
the client's answer start. scof one ttay in therapy for
a
short time
(Ells, 1996),.
Clients
are
read out to item 23 In
list (PRINT) your
the r aly n therapyo t o stay
In
the
iduals who are not
Ellis
frequently
which asks: Brlefly aph can usually attaln elegant change of
therapy
information
clients were asked to
q u e s t i o n n a i r e presen phlcal only
prepared
only pally disturbed symptom removal
asblv, individuals with severe problems should come for individual
n
and probiems. Tnen com o0herapy. rany for at least six months so that they can practise what they learn.
laints,symptoms
symptoms aalu tihe form of
the main lorim of
assessment
main
assessment
in REBT is
that wblem
clients and working wi.
Probably brlef
mostbothersome.
orking with the used with
clients, ranging from those who
most kinds of
are.
a number
of With sessions
phase of REBT, both ther
material t comes and/or gr b e us dis.
heraplst and cllen that they borderline personality disorders,
can Psychoticedy
from having REBT psychoticswhen
end of the initial they
Towards the emotional and boi nt should ntact with reality, and individuals with hioh
share. of the main client's
ioural problems a uals with higher-grade mental deficienc
have an
understanding
future for their t consider REBT
REBT suitable for clients who were out of contact with
prioritize these to proviae a structure
consider
togetho nd
not
started to
focused on therapists adopting an Vormally,Ellls
did
icc state, seriously autistic or brain injured, and in the low
he middle phase
of REBT is
how to strengthen
their rational beliefs and
and educational
weaken the
appro: in a
reality,
highly
mani
mental deficiency.
He often referred seriously disturbed clients for medication
to teaching clients helping clients . irrational of
of REBT has agendas:
main
two
ranges
to REBT.
ones. This phase and teaching them the skille addition
significantly more effective with mildly disturbed clients and with those
in
emotional
solving
and behavioural problems
problems. In general, in addition to focusing on what clients have been most identifying and dingle major symptom, say sexual inadequacy, than with strongly dis-
difficult to assist the latter to change since
o have
the previousS week, therapists encourage them to w lt more
bothered about during hed clients. Therapists rina mucn
tasks are assignedn t n a t the causes of musturbatory thinking and emi
onsistent problem before moving
on to
the next. Homework
or failed to learn het
nd par REBT theory hypothesizes
to what the client has learned innate.
ticular attention is paid disturbance
largely
are
so that blocks
to the learning process Frequently, clients are asked
can be addressed.
to
of homework assignments. Hard and persist
fll out REBT self-help forms part
as
to be a prominent feature of the middle nhaco
THE THERAPEUTIC RELATIONSHIP
tends
lenging of inrational beliefs
realistically and unromantically now says: Yes, strongly persuade and push vour eh
main role of the therapist is that of an authoritative, but
to strongly persuade themselves in the direction of their main goals and preferences and not authoritar-
In REBT, the
against sabotaging their own purposes' (Ellis, 2003a: 238). strives to impart to clients self-helping skills conducive to thinking
jan, teacher who
The main object of the end phase of REBT is to help clients become their own thera and behaving effectively so that they can attain their
zationally, feeling appropriately
pists. Termination may take place not when clients have worked through all their often employ a fairly rapid-fire active-directive-persuasive
goals. REBT practitioners clients down to a few
problems using REBT skills, but when they feel confident that they can use these skills
philosophic methodology. In most instances, they quíckly pin
to address the remaining problems on their own. Therapists work towards termination basic dysfunctional beliefs (Ellis, 2008a).
active-directive teaching
either by decreasing the frequency of sessions or by negotiating a specific termination What kind of a therapeutic relationship best supports this
date. During the end phase, therapists can work with clients to anticipate problems and role? Therapists try to build rapport with clients by using empathic listening, including
dificulties and articulate how they might use their REBT skills to deal with these prob
reflecting feelings. Ellis and Dryden (1997) distinguished between affective empathy,
lems. Most REBT therapists schedule follow-up sessions to monitor client progress. the philoso-
understanding how clients feel, and philosophic empathy, understanding
offer both kinds of
T Scommitted to assisting clients to maintain their changes. However, Els phies or
thinking underlying these feelings. Therapists attempt to
(1988) acknowledged the likelihood of backsliding. Right from the start, chens e empathy. In addition, therapists offer clients unconditional other acceptance (UOA),
aught that they can only change and maintain change with work and Pia cepting them as fallible human beings and not judging the goodness or badness
rougnout therapy, homework assignments are used to help clients skills for However, frequently, if
DOn outside and after therapy. When clients find themselves backslidingbuid
uyThen told r personhood against predetermined moral standards.
clients' negative behaviours.
to go back to the ABCs and see what patterns.
a r e , therapists will share their reactions tomost of their clients. They are war
they did to fall back into
theur nerapists do not show undue warmth to
they are encouraged to forcefully dispute are advised to co clients
o y again and (D)
again until they genuinely
these irrational
bene1fs with their ding in clients' dire needs for approval. They try to encourage
effective replace their irrationa Own problems and assume responsibility for finding their
own
warmth a
new
philosophies (E). han REBT therapists
a n seeking it from therapists. Often clients perceive
E
 RATIONAL EMOTVE BEHAIVAJR THERAPI
puting challenging and question)
involves
. Displd about
themselves, others and
the unsustantiated
world. In most hypthees
I B T
ionts few centrale
down to a few
down central irrational
a instances, PEKT
hat quickly pin clents ideas and their
hallenge
then
and dispute. In
1dition, they teach dients deriva
they
that beliefs. Cognitions, feelings and behaviours hw to
etheir Oin igational beliefs. Therefore, when disputinginteract in how people
a e a t ea n d m a i n t a l .
to be likely irrational beliefs and
theirderivatíves, the ts are more effective if
they work in all
cognitive, emotio fowneriential and behavioural modalities rather than threeof
is entirely pure or free from in one or
However,
n0 modality the
COGNITIVE I N T E R V E N T I O N S
SCIENTIFIC QUESTIONING
be using either a didactic or a Socratic
approached
may style. In a didactic
therapists can provide explanations and illustrations. In a Socratic
Disputing
or scientific
estioning approach, throu a series of leading questions therapists
to pinpoint
where thinking, feeling and behaving becoming
is
atempt
lematic. Such estions are not only fori therapists to ask clients, but for clients to prob
leam
themselves. When practising disputing, it is very important that clients do so
to ask
outside of stressful situations to give them the chance to build up and fine-tune thei
actual situations.
skills for the
ROx 11.3 illustrates four areas of cognitive disputing (Ellis and Maclaren, 2004
BOX 11.3 FOUR AREAS OF COGNITIVE DISPUTING
Functional disputes
Functional disputing aims to point out to clients that their beliets may be interfering with their ataining
their goals. Typical questions are:
' s it helping you?"
"How is continuing to think this way (or behave, or feel this way) affecting your life??
Empirical disputes
tmpirical disputing aims to help clients evaluate the factual components of their belies. Typical ques-
tions are:
Where is the evidence that
you must succeed at all important tasks
Where is the proof that it is
Where is it written?"
accurate?
(Continued)
 COUNSELLNG ANO THEPAP
pRACTICE OF
E J AND
Ygre t anbd to get z p , TOgrdE higiy rrznaet
dients
TI make from dea ke t
gn n i
tat ree
leaps are
hgriligit ilogc prte sand r e p r
ng a an
i a r e e r z e me a
en rn i p s t y apen
IKE SIS Darg to te t e a n d r
etiow ta
isbEaEarC
eien,
bad ce e betariourai e E I
ET
Se orteie
TereE .
Ens raksyau a
fe
na
tabeas
E Enrg ard z s a t i a n in
a igurg a aa a s i liTe A ATENAL COPINS STATEMENTS
Pi pica aein
and dient
can f o r i z e
ioal copig sze
isputing of inational belies, bE sm ia
ime m iorceral be i p e emo
s s z E n e n i s ozn
your l i f Sone copng
TE Tsatan om ing
aasadiE
Ta apish th tsk or T don't have
to ez
to n z v EOE tnis joð, but thee a mesii
mes Schs Td preT a i iou
ae f Nothing
nd makes
ii ~ n l to a I Sr
er filiastated in a r e a E of Boz 114).
beieis O Eifective new piosrii nTeiant
z s a s d e t ci pEEEnizl and benavioural eñais shoid
Z z z i t t e i é Dsizie esoional sea n
aaie ÉE e E piosopnis. For dients seeking elegzrúae DISTUSSIDN
e ieie d karg how to dispte irrational belifs s an ee eanistsczn ë a s
with diets varios apesdthi n e l e esae
pebic sgeg irid Ds993
Phicsp azEYiboth now znd in iiure. Boz 1i4provides aa13TE wh Roger, a 243arod computes progranma
s e d the harm of self-rating and how he aould hooe tD m n s m y
eanpie w i i i i e s g i n g and its effects (Ellis, 1988). whether or not he failed at speaking and whethaa mt e s i s àeE
salig and shoned his anxiety to othes
OENITIVE HOMEWORK
BC 14 A% 9CDE EXAMPLE OF CcoGNITIVE DISPUTING Cients need repeatedly to challenge their iational beliss and to p a i s the
pg stiTls both to learn them and also to reinfore their new aioal p e s p
r n meries ardal toet e j EBT ses various homework techniques to develop disputing skils
Ceas d sessions Therapists encourage cãerts to record sesiors and i a n a e s
IE EEAn mates me a
r e pEson
e p r s Cients are encouraged to fl out self-help foms. Theraps t e s
Eoma e a e depession, wortiessness, arviety, anga
e y csents dispute their irational beies. For instance in Sichel and s s (ss
ESDE teaíora aneaecee ehráing to go for se po woud
Garoe n actvating event (A) and the consequences or diets dde
conditions (9 y e
y m t isee e consists of three columns. In the first colun,
nich o 15
hy t anhd to et ejesestora tinalbe.
es (5), for instance 1 MUST do wel or very wel" and Peopie MUST ie up t
egstes joo
Oris TERRIBLEY, lead to their consequences (C n addbom,
t ed riona
a besefs. In the second column, there is space for them to
 RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAP
COUNSELLING AND THERAPY
OF
PRACTICE
AND
nd evaluate alternative strategies, outline the steps to attain goals,
rational beliefs (E) to replace their
and evelop the requisite practical skills for s
supports,
success.
effective
ati and
they rie
in
write in feelings and behao val beh clearly
resources
belief.
In the
third
column,
there is a space
where
( )wher
they can
Ihe
form
ends with the i following self-st experieng &h
atement
dentiíy.
EMOTIVE/EXPERIENTIAL INTERVENTI ENTIONS
After
the
colurnns
rational

belhets.
WORK
HARD TO REPEAT ECTIVE bout
R notional/experiential interventions to supplement an
at
their
effective
1 WLL CAN
SO THATI CAN MAKE
MYSEIONAL
amiving
of
work
and
practice:
ON MANY
MANY
OCCASIONS
O C C A S I O N S
FUTURE' (Sichel aand 2).UR rapists ons
cognitive i n t e r v e n t i o n s ( E l l i s
(Ellis and MacLaren,
2004). Such interventi include the
necessity MYSELE
ON
IN THE 984:
FORCEFULLY TO SELF-DEFEATINGLY
Irrational
Beliofe DBS Consie
ACT LESS as
DIBS
(DISputing
the belief
h rationally support of sin que
ported,e
can
AND
NOW f o r m is known whether following:
worst that coould happen
imagery (REI), clients arare encouraged to imagine
Another
self-help
belief I
w a n t to
dispute,
t h e belief, the exsüng In rational
emotive
or adversities (A) that could happen to them, for instance, rejection
emotive imagery:
Rationa e m o t i v ei m o g e
against
tions
about:
the
existing
evidence
belief, and good
and good thir
things that might haone events
and Maclarern, 2004). They vividly
belief, to thee
form Inever want (Eis, 95T, Ellis
a c t i v a t i n g
what I
wanted in respect
Elis, 1986).
A further self-help ryden and colleagues
. 1992; Ellis and of
the
worst
se approval they really
bringing9
host of problems into the
and
their life.
a
achieved
(Dryden
and (Dryden et alal., occurring
touch with the undesirable negative emotional conse-
never
what I
wanted
through
the
ABDE
Sequence
Dryden, Dye this adversity couraged tto get in
achieved clients
rage, self-hatred o
(A) for instance, anxiety, depression,
e n c o u r a g e d
takes are instance
form that 3' 5" they
self-help statements on x carde.
and repeat them Then adversity feel what they feel and not
rational coping triggered by this it (C1). They should spontaneously
write out feel
1997).
cards: Clients
can quence
quence d really, really feel. Once they feel unhealthily upset at C1, they should hold on
analysis to
list the the same adversity (A) in their imagination,
sessions. cost-benefit
do a supposed
to behaney
sethey two. Then, keeping
between
are
t e m for asking clientst h e i r i r r a t i o n a l thoughts and
times
various what minute or to a prescribed healthy negative
at
Referenting
is a for
their disturbed negative
feeling
this feeling
Referenting:
and
disadvantages
of changingto
clients
practise talking their friends: relatives out of to
should
work
on
disappointment, regret, frustration,
changing
sorrow,
such as so
imtation or di
advantages sensible rational
real others:
Encouraging they (C2),
strongy and repetitively, themselves,
by telling
c o n s e q u e n c e
Practising
REBT on
competently
performine situations to do this isis did treat me shabbily and unfainty,
themselves
The way they really
example, Tes, me fairy,
Visualize
h o w to ror
pleasure.
why they must treat
their disturbances.
be shown
coping statements: But there is no reason
(1999b, 2003b Elis heliefs
can and
or have d o n e .
persist with their imagery
Clients
Visualizing: for instance
Ellis wouldn't
Cients should
wish they 9).
to read,
fear
they
curently books
of theadvantan
vantages a3nd which I would be
(Elis, 13T: (CT) to a healthy negative
feeling
cients self-help that
aware
that is keenly preferable unhealthy feeling
Ellis (1993d)
assignment of carry-
their
Assigning (1997). however change homework
Bibliotherapy: until they the
Ellis and Harper statements Ihey
s h o u l d have
(2000) and rational feeling they are tying
minutes.
Emotional Problem
lems a few disturbed
Crawford materials.
including Soving usually takes only 30 days tor
each
of self-help (C2)- it for about
and Start Living (19878),
audio-cassettes,
disadvantages innumerable
procedure daily
Ellis made
and How
to Stop Worying this imagery clients and by cients
Self-help
cossettes:
Human (1984)
with clients in areas such as coping ing out both by therapists
on
though working be performed
that possess a
(1982), How to be Happywatch videotapes of therapists clients find listening
to cassettes and to change.
Forceful disputing
may
beliefs involve
hot cognitions
need to
Forceful disputing:
irrational
clients can tolerance. Many Since many Often therapists
In addition, 1993e). disputing.
forceful and vigorous
frustration
low themselves (Ellis, moderately
overcoming beliefs. Weak or
with anger
and on
they require of their clients'
emotional component,
to be helpful. large the shaky logic how to c r e
and point out
programmer,
videotapes the computer for
observing persuade
strongly argue, Ellis showed Roger, them to
himself forcetuly:
their lives. insufficient.
and say
adversities (A) in strong disputing
may be about public
speaking it would be
PROBLEM SOLVING events and solve: for statements in public, though
or unnervously
activating them to try to anti-worrying well himself which in
(G) to the for ate strong
NEVER have
to speak a dialogue
with
bring their goals
at with Roger
reality problems
deserves
succeeding NEVER, worked out slob who
Clients
example 1 NEVER,
getting a job and
or
many practical addition, Ellis such as T'm
a nervous
goals present a mate, or choose 454). In irrational beliefs,
torce
These finding nice if I did!'(1991e: which he vigorously,
good education, these reality problems of his potent in public!',
and in
instance, obtaining
a
they solve have an emo
some
fool of myself
such
cassertes
have a choice
about whether
themselves,
then they ne cassette-recorded
rather than risk
making a
make, and
remake m o r e
powerfuly,
their therapisis
ana,
Work. Clients
about them. If
clients upset
therapists assisttne
can
hat
to
0e mute disputed
them. Clients
can
them back to
themselves,
and heatedlyhomework. they c a n play
themselves cases,
to upset In such it is beer Then
about their reality problem. beliefs.
Sometimes related
as false ideas
are ana
oand
tonal
problem
the relevant
irrational
worked tnroug ision ta
emselves
in therapy groups, to the
other group members.showing clients what their situations
have simulated
and actively dispute until they a as a way of clients in a dit-
might deter de
giving
detect not address practical
difficulties with Ellis uses role playing therapists
place role-played
o r couple g: Roger sessions.
clients do In role playing, instance,
they fect relating to others.
individual For individual
an them. to
difficulties. For instance,
sufficient
chance to
see
W tively in
joined
as a n
adjunct
to let
Roger
ask
emononal themselves neces offer assistance in thinking he had perfomance
divorce until they have given happily togetn
live
wnec and the therapy group Ellis stopped
the
irrational beliefs, they might
However, n y i n gi a t i o n a l
ficult talk in front of Ellisanxious during the
role play,
a lessening of their solve reality
problems.
roblems andgoas When Roger appeared
clients to accompar
Therapists willingly assist and disputing
insist vigorously ecting
sary, they also on to
help clients da
beliefs. In assisting problem solving, therapists
300 THEORYAND PRACTICE OF coUNSELLING AND
ERAPY
RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR
himell 'What am I telling myiell right now to make myself anxlou THERAPY
to think and teel away this anxlety (Ellis, 1991e; 454A) what canl
.Reverse role playing: Reverse role playing Is another REBT forceful do
lisputl techmlquo, rqht nou
Alter
explaining
cis0s wlhe cllents,

the princlple
The purpose o hese
shame-attackingg exerises,
exerclses kEST
therapist switch roles, s0 clents are now In a posltlon
to
dlspute
actively not 5/há/melu and that they can be done
Is too p rove
that cantheraplsts
neryaiate
whch the holds on to As strongly As the clent dled
theraplst In earller Own Irrall ale really
jed to witn relative these in
eve
hehaiours themeves
disclose more about what they comfort and
role played Roger tenaclously holding on to some of his Irratlonal bellels addiiony shameful. Box self.arceptanee.
example ol a perceive, or vhat the
11.5 proviaes an
tise forcelully atacking them (Ils, 1993e) so that
Roger cod percelvo, they perceye otthersinIn
shame-alla a*.
.Unconditlonal acceptonce: The lherapist's Daslc acceplance of them oumt pmac 91-4 allacking efcle (Es, 196%
think that they are acceplalble, desplte any
them asas ne people lhelps clents feel
negative characteristles,
.Humour.The Judiclous use of humour can help recduce cllents' Irratlonal hellat.
and
ehavlours to absurdity. Theralsts frequently exaggerate
.cllents' lefs and self-delenting BOX 11.5 EXAMPLE
nutty I
kinds of puns, witticlsns, lrony, wlhinsy,
evocalve lànguage, slang, and delberate
obscenity' (Ils, 1980: 26). for example, Es ald to Roger, is
really should feel ashamed of avolding miaking speeches, Every other
erate \ use olgsprlgily
public-speaking
varlou
The theraplst
SHAME-ATTACKING EXERCISE
phobla
person vour
ently and has no anxlety, Wlhal a unicque Jerk arel'
a You Albert Ells
to themselves ratlonal humorous 5ongs and
you (991e; 454). Encouraainc e Sl
tellng amusing
counteract cllents' tendencles to take thhemselves, others and anecdotes are furthe
The cllent
ng
the world too
serlousi Phald, who was anxlous about tes-laking,
eeartant subjects at school because shekeptknowprocrastinating
that
on her
studies, and relured ta tabe
BEHAVIOURAL INTERVENTIONS the term. Chana was afrald of people linding Out how taking them would entall several tests during
she p0orly did
As with
emotlonal/exjperlentlal Interventlons, REBT theraplsts
on test.
cognltive Interventlons., Ellis behavloural
use The shame-attacking exerclse
venttons to
supplement and reinforce tnter.
people doubted whether Chana chose the exerclse of asking strangers lor a dollar bll,
ever truly
change thelr
irratlonal bellefs until Elis Instructed Chana,
them. When young, Ellls suffered from severe they act many tlmes agalnst
aers for dollar bills, to work on p0ssible
feelings of humillation änd embarrassmentwhen asking sstan. askir
fears of public not to make herself feel ashamed and and then choose
new women. He forced himself
to repetitlvely speaking and meting embarrassed.
and talking to women on a engage in actlvitles (glvlng polltlcal talks
park bench in the Bronx Botanical Garden) Durlng the exerclse
his fears. In both Iinstances his that challenged At first Chana felt very nervous and
actions helped rld him of his tongue-tied about
going up to a stranger. However, she
1997a, 2004a). irratlonal fears (Ell, herself that she did not need the
Followling are some REBT behavioural interventlons. stranger's approval and, by the third time she tried it, she reminded
tofeel shameless and,
by the fifth time, started enjoying the exercise. really began
ASSignments that challenge demandingness: Clients who have After the exercise
and derivatives of these
beliefs about the awfulness of musturbatory belefs about approval
one
for a date or force rejection may encouraged ask s0me
be to As a result of the exercise Chana saw that she could do
themselves to socialize. Simultaneously they convince themselves that knew her in which she talked about her test-taking shame-attacking people exercises with who
not awful, but only inconvenient, to get
the Efective New Philosophy: 1 don't need their problems.
As part of this process, Chana
rejected.
the assignment of deliberately making a real
Clients who have perfectionist beliets may nave developed
attempt to speak badly in public. think!' goddamned approval. Let them think what they
Hents are encouraged do to their
anxious client, was asked to speak in assignments repetitively. For instance, Roger, speech
public as often as he could, once or w week (E,
1991e). Often clients are asked to do their
Ceive as highily dangerous until they see that assignments floodingly, staying in situa
instance clents
afraid of riding on buses or their 'danger is largely imagined. raining The distinction between behavioural skills and
When therapists assist clients with behavioural skills for cognitive
skils is
in rush
hours, if that is what underground trains are urged to do this imprecBE
they most fear. Concurrently, in all immeald dispute their nsa nal heliets
-
musturbatory derivative
e n t s cognitively in disputing the accompanying irrational beliefs and derivatve
behaviourally, they can dispute them instances w
beliefs self-state
ame-attocking exercises: Elis hypothesizes cognitively evant skil. dometimes, clients are asked to seek additional training experiences to acquire re
that ego anxiety is highiy too
shame,
guilt, rea atat work. fotstance, Ellis thought that speech-anxious Roger showedinsuficientassertioni
beliefsembarrassment
behind these and humiliation. Consequently, the more people
nfront the ira work, for instance not refusing to do presentations when genuinely unprepared. Ellis encour
feelings, the less r to attend a six-week assertioni course at his Institute as well as take a five-month oublic
things in public that they regardthey likely to disturb
are
do the mples areyell
ing out the stops
as
particularly shameful or emoa sind. rassing Example loudin a loud eaking course at a local college (Ellis, 1991e)
voice in chemist
on
elevators, buses or underground ins or asking for
trains sex-related item n d penalties: REBT therapists use rewards and penalties to encou
shops. aa omework and 1980; Elis and en, 1997).
For
implement self-change programmes (Ellis,
 PRACTICE OF COUNSELLING AND THI RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY
THEORY AND
302 303
filled out an
RET self-help report a
s of REBT group therapy and one weekend of a rational encour
time Roger Whona gave pubii o l o w e db y2 4
instance, every
to one of his favourite CDs, Whenever he lalled to carry
reward
himself by listening for 30 minutes. Two c
minutes. Two doses of this would roup.
afathon orbatim transcript case example is that of Ellis working with a woman
would talk to
his boring aunt
aunt
excruciatino an asln teers bring up
ment he
assignments! (See
Ellis, 1991e.)
Cured
v o l u n t e e r s
tto
o
proDiems or leeling inadequate as a therapist
d Dryden then
doing
reviewed
the transcript and
who
not nd
Roger of therapist Elis
an
analysed its REBT
a person. case exam
ruden, 1997), In yet another case example of REBT, though this
and
as
and Di the r
E l i s illustrated the cognitive, emotive and
(EIis illustrated
oVERCOMING RESISTANCE
hon ects behavioural afaDehavioural
meth
procedures and doing
transcripts,
resist following therapy
irrational bellefs (Ellis,
ework asslgnmen time
without therapy with Jane, a z/-year-old
Od woman afflicted with severe social
19971
When clients odsh e u s e d
7).
do so because of the following
and Dryden,
(Ellis
they mainly (2) You
(the therapist and others) must helo help me change;aand work
anxiety
conducting therapy. An early example is his work with Gloria in
well at changing myself; and seen
also be
myself must
occur quickly
and
easily.' Stemming fro suo s (1B),
ay
nproaches to Psychotherapy
film series (Ellis, 1965). In addition, videos of Ellis
(3) Changing for instance depression and E conducting sessions are available from the Albert
consequernces,
negative-feelings self-pl and the Three inent REBT therapistsend
resisters have
such as procrastination withdrawal, In ad
and and ot
(address and website at of c
of
website chapter). For example, Elis made a videotape
behavioural consequences, as awfulizing. The main
Dron, they Institute (address and with guilt over her husband's sui
ed ttherapy with woman dealing
a
irrational beliefs, such EIls
of Addictions, Ellis in
conducted
derivatives he Dealing with Addictions, interviewed a 32-year-old
employ teach them to tind a n d rorceruily dispute the main iration ich videotape, entitled
Dealing
resistant clients is to ide, In anotherfrustration tolerance, hedonism and polyabuse.
Short-term
to resistance.
to their with low
beliefs contributing to use rational coping statements t man
encourage resistant clients
Therapists can I can, in fact, enjoy its difficultu and its
doesn't have to be easy. FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS
instance Therapy c a n ask clients to list the disad.
addition, therapists
1986a: 262). In
challenge' (Ellis, of working at therapy and then regularly
and the advantages resistant clients can be
vantages of resisting Furthermore, s o m e along with
about these lists. therapy and
marathons either
reviewing and thinking it o n friends and
relatives.
of REBT
include group In group
and
REBT using Ellis and Dryden, 1997).
Other applications of it (Ellis, 1992;
helped by proselytizing o r instead irrational beliefs on
one
individual counselling and disputing
to apply detecting disturbance irra-
members a r e taught at attacking
their ego
REBT, get practice
also addition clients
In
2008a). They perceive as risky.
another (Ellis, m a t e r i a l that they in
can partake
disclosing skills,
CASE MATERIAL tional beliefs through a s s e r t i o n and
other
communication
on
working
in groups, while
REBT in action, only couples and family
of REBT to marital,
plays. major interest in the application of 1993c, 2005; Ellis and Crawtord,
demonstrations
case
about providing
Elis was conscientious a case example
containing verbatim
some of which are
mentioned here. Ellis presented
23-year-old woman wno ELlis has a problems (Ellis, 1986b,
1991c, 1991d,
marital or love
partners together,
sessions with a
see
second and fourth elationship Therapists usually their complaints
transcripts of the first, and compulsive, afaid or Elis and Dryden,
1997).
teach them
that e v e n though
self-punishing, impulsive
because she was
with her parentsL
UDU complaints,
and then justiied. ln paruc
at C is not
ame to therapy life, and was guilty
about her relationship their behaviour at A, frequenuy, therd-
their upsetness
hostility. Also,
males, had no goals in
describe tolerance
accurately beliefs generating REBT,
conducting uds
a20years, y on musturbatory
skills. În
family
may De,
1971, 2008b). of his Ocuses and relationship behaviours
transcript, plus
commentary, nir specific
Elis provided a verbatim
a orhack pists teach partners compromising
of how
obnoxious
S1on of REBT brief therapy
with Ted, a 38-year-old African-American, others,
independent educator
of
whenever he
took the traili ife (Elis, Te and and
children. psychological
how to
with two children, who became panicked epeatedly taught to both parents
learn
t e s of an
E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g
about having intercourse wt
influential ordinary
people
ore self-actualizing. 1Thrrough
and whenever he thought Ellis is possibly the m o s t of helping
to his office verbatim
irstSara,
transcript case example
is that of the who
worked terms
century
in
become
more
the public
in
1996). Another 25-year-old single
Woman,
any overcome their
S t disturbances
and educating
inrtial interview Ellis conducted with a
section in her a llis. 2008a). Ei emotiotional
made a major contributio
as the head of a computer programming irn i n d i v i d u a l work, and cassettes, he
and self-denigratin8 *
traumatic violent history, was very i n s e c u r e
or sessions
further six
aso discussed Sara's overall treatment of a
 AND PRACTICE OF
COUNSELLUNG AND THERAPY
THEORY
on how to i v e
more effectívely. He also i n e .
America and elsewhere
books.
IK
other writers of
self-help
ous
throughout the world, with institutes or
RERT is practised widely
ce
the Nether
in Britain.
Australia, the United States, France, Germany,
Israel and Mexico. Ellis concluded that REBT is what its name implies
empirical and humanistic. Such
emotive, realistic and visionary,
an arm
humans in al their complexity (Ellis, 2008a)
REVIEW AND PERSONAL QUESTIONS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1Why does Elis now call his approach rational emotive behaviour therapy?
2 Describe the differences betveen
emotions
healthy
or and unhealthy
appropriate r
np
What does Ellis consider to be the
Gve an example of Elliss ABC
biological basis of personality?
theory, where B represents:
demanding musturbatory thinking
) preferential thinking?
SCntikcaly discuss Elis's ideas about the derivatives of
irational beleS
Discus the roles of social learming and free choice in acquinng
Describe the contnbution of each of the
ening, irational beliets: following factors to mn
biokgical tendenies
emotional contrnbutions;
inkent scientiic thinking:
reihorcing consequenes;
(eenphasizingones Gaiayi'nnt