2nd Quarter Reviewer I

Oral Com

Speech Acts – an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended affect

Speech act is any of the acts that may be performed by a speaker in making an
utterance, as stating, asking, requesting, advising, warning, or persuading.
Function
 Offering an apology
 Greeting
 Request
 Complaint
 Invitation
 Compliment
 Refusal

3 types (J.L. Austin, 1962)

1. Locutionary Act – the act of uttering
- Literal meaning
- A speaker must produce clearly the words in order to deliver the
intended meaning of the message
2. Illocutionary Act – the social function of what is said or the intention
- Act accomplished in speaking and defined within a system of social
conventions
- Include stating, promising, apologizing, threatening, ordering,
predicting, and requesting
3. Perlocutionary Act – is resulting act of what is said
- Action or state of mind brought by, or as consequence of saying
something
- Persuading, embarrassing, intimidating, irritating, or inspiring the
hearer

- Memes are full of fun but not all can get the meanings
- When we speak language, we are performing a speech act
- Utterances: set of phrases, intentional action
- Speech acts are not into how knowledgeable you are in the language use but
appropriateness in language is even more important
- We need to know when to speak, what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what
manner
5 Classification of illocutionary acts by Searle:
1. Assertive
 An utterance intended to tell you how things are in the world
 A representation of reality
 A speech act that commits the speaker to the truth of preposition
  Is a statement, description, classification, explanation, and clarification
 Asserting needs confidence
 The quality (tone) of your voice is important
2. Directive
 An Act which commits the speaker to doing something in the future.
 Not true or false like assertives but it is either to be followed or to be
unfollowed
 When ordering, commanding, requesting, pleading, begging, praying, insisting
and suggesting
3. Commissive
 Commits a speaker to some future voluntary action
 Reveals the intention of the speaker
 Refers to vows, threats, pledges, guarantees, contracts, promises, covenants,
and oaths
 Some commissives are not promises to an individual but just commissive in
general such as : I pledge allegiance to flag
4. Expressive
 Reveals the speaker’s attitudes ad emotions towards a particular preposition
 Includes thanking, apologizing, welcoming, deploring it means when you have
disapproval of something.
5. Declaration
 The most interesting type of speech act as it brings a change in the external
situation
 An utterance that change the world by representing it as being so changed.
One thing to consider:
But take note of the utterances “I promise”. When you say, “I promise to come and see you”
 Both commissive and declaration because it is committing the speaker to a future action
and it is making the utterance a promise by declaring it to be a promise.
HOPE
Lesson 5: Sports Injuries and Safety Protocols
AGILITY
SPEED
BALANCE
POWER
COORDINATION
REACTION TIME

Sports Injuries
- Can result from poor training practices or improper gear.
- No proper warm-up and stretching before you play or exercise can also lead to injuries.
Example of Sport Injuries
1. Sprain - is a tear of ligament fibers, muscles or tendons supporting a joint. This can occur when
a joint is extended beyond its normal range of movement
A sprain may involve a small number of fibers through a complete rupture.
2. Contusion or bruise - It is bleeding into the soft tissue which is caused by a direct blow from
another person or an object. A bruise can occur to any soft tissue of the body.
This is caused by a direct blow to the head. Depending on the severity of the concussion
CONCUSSION:
Grade 1 – Mild
Grade 2 - Moderate
Grade 3 - Severe
3. Dislocation - This occurs when a joint ball is forced off its socket
A dislocation must be reset by proper medical professionals.
4. Fracture - Is a break, crack, or shattering of a bone. In closed fractures, the broken bone does
not pierce the skin, while in open fractures, the broken breaks the skin’s surface.
5. Strain - Are injuries that involve the stretching, partial tearing or complete tearing of a tendon.
Strains are categorized as first, second or third degree.
Chronic strains are injuries that are gradually build up from overuse or repetitive stress.

ACUTE INJURY
- Examples: Sprained ankles, strained backs and fractured hands.
Acute Injury
1. Sudden severe pain
2. Swelling
3. Not being able to place weight on a leg, knee, ankle, or foot
4. An arm, elbow, wrist, hand, or fingers that is very tender
5. Not being able to move a joint as normal
6. Extreme leg or arm weakness
7. A bone or joint that is visibly out of place

CHRONIC INJURY
1. Pain when you play
2. Pain when you exercise
3. A dull ache when you rest.
4. Swelling
Causes of Sports Injuries
1. Improper or poor training practices.
2. Wearing improper sporting gear.
3. Being in poor health condition.
4. Improper warm-up or stretching practices before a sporting event or exercise

Basic Steps to Prevent Sports Injury

● Developing a fitness plan that includes cardiovascular exercise, strength training, and flexibility may
help decrease your chance of injury.
● Alternate exercising different muscle groups and exercise every other day.
● Cool down properly after exercise or sports. It take two times as long as your warm-up.
● Stay hydrated. Drink water to prevent dehydration, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke.
● Stretching exercises can improve the ability of muscles to contract and perform, reducing the risk for
injury.
● Use the right equipment or gear and wear shoes that provide support and that may correct certain
foot problems that can lead to injury.
● Learn the right techniques to play your sport.
● Rest when tired. Avoid exercise when you are tired or in pain.
● Always take your time during strength training and go through the full range of motion with each
repetition.
● If you do sustain a sports injury, make sure you participate in adequate rehabilitation before resuming
strenuous activity.

R. I. C. E.
● Rest - Immobilization prevents further injury and gives the body time to recover
● Ice - Cold reduces pain by numbing the affected area.
● Compression - Pressure keeps swelling under control.
● Elevation - Keeping the injured body part above the heart reduces
swelling and the associated pain and discomfort.

Dehydration causes a person to:

- have a dry thirsty mouth
- become fatigued
- have less urine yield with dark color
- in severe case, unconsciousness

Usual Causes of Dehydration:

- hot weather condition
- too much sweat
- high fever
- diarrhea
- vomiting
- excessive exercise without taking in enough fluid

Drink at least eight glasses of water a day up to 12 glasses during summer months.
Dehydration - occurs when your body loses more fluid than you take in. When the normal water content
of your body is reduced, it upsets the balance of min
Overexertion - occur when you push yourself too hard physically.
Frequent causes of overexertion injuries include: lifting, pushing, pulling, holding, or carrying objects as
part of one's job.
Hypothermia - (abnormally low body temperature) and frostbite are both dangerous conditions that can
happen when a person is exposed to extremely cold temperatures.
- is dangerously low body temperature, below 95°F (35°C).
Hyperthermia - Abnormally high body temperature.
- hyperthermia is defined as a temperature greater than 37.5–38.3 °C (99.5–100.9 °F).
Common Sports Injuries
1.Basketball 4. Badminton
- ankle sprain - thrower shoulder injuries
- thigh bruising - knee injury
- knee injuries   5. Combative sports
2. Volleyball - concussion
- dislocation of fingers - hamstring strains
- ankle sprain
3. Track and Field
- hamstring strain
- spine fracture

Lesson 6: PROPER ETIQUETTE AND SAFETY IN THE USE OF FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT
Etiquette
- French word “Ticket” or “ Label”
- Written protocols describing orders or procedures and proper behavior.
- Is a conduct or procedure required by good breeding or prescribed by authority to be observed
in social or official life.
- Is a set of customs and rules for polite behavior especially among a particular class of people or
in a particular profession.
SPORTMANSHIP
- Is a conduct such as fairness, respect, and graciousness in winning or losing which is becoming
to one participating in sports.
- It is playing by the rules and principles and using sports etiquette.

Importance of Etiquette in Physical Education

1. Etiquette enhances the social aspects of every individual.
2. It is essential in maintaining friendly relationship between people.
3. It helps us respect other people and vice versa.
4. It enhances communication by breaking down barriers.
5. It protects the feeling of others.
6. It helps you feel good about others and yourself.
7. While doing your best, it encourages others to also do their best.

Protocols or Etiquette Before, During, and After Physical Activities

1. Wear comfortable clothing.
2. Use an appropriate gear for the activity.
3. Taking warm-up and cool down before and after an activity.
4. Take appropriate breaks during the activity.
5. To give you some stamina, eat light food.
6. Be hydrated.
 7. Beware of the weather and environment conditions.
8. Listen to your body.

Proper Etiquette and Safety Standards in Facilities

1. Read the rules and regulations of the place.
2. Maintain cleanliness and orderliness.
3. Be mindful to others.

Proper Handling of Equipment

1. Read the manual carefully before using any equipment.
2. Be alert and aware on how to use the equipment.
3. Take good care of the equipment.

Facilities Used In Physical Activities and Exercise

1. Park - it contributes to the health and well-being of the communities that surround them.
Usually you visit a park to jog, playing dual sports like badminton, biking and other physical
activities/ exercise. Because it is free, many Filipinos were conducting their activities here,
examples are Zumba, jogging, walking, running and other activities.
2. Recreation Center - a building that is open to the public here meeting are held, sports are played
and there are activities for young and old people. In this place you can do many things and conduct
activities like sports and exercises.
3. House - a place wherein you can do your physical activities and exercise whenever you want. Even
you are busy and our days are hectic; but we need to be physically fit even on our four corners of
our home.
4. Gym - a facility that is usually covered and is found in athletic and fitness centers and caters
physical fitness purposes of physical fitness, body shaping, muscle strengthening and discipline. The
place also providers programs which depends on the needs of the person.
5. Covered Court - one of the common facilities or places where physical activities or exercises can
be done. It is a playing surface with basket in the end.

Equipment used in Physical Activities and Exercises

● Beanbags – Small bags filled with any of several materials are often used for games. One forms
uses a box with several holes in it.
● Balls – ( various sizes, weights, bounce-ability, shape)
- Tennis ball
- Plastic ball
- Sponge balls
- Paper balls
- Foam footballs, soccer balls
 ● Balloons – commonly used with a physical activity named Balloon Toss. It develops skills in
throwing or tossing a balloon straight up in the air and aids catching balloons.
● Pylons – (buckets, rocks, chalk) it helps develop movement skills.
● Hola Hoops – It is usually made of plastic used for coordination balance, mobility, kicking,
hand/eye coordination, running, jumping.
●Skipping ropes – It is made of strings, wools and rope that strengthens the upper and lower body
and can burns a lot of calories.
●Measuring object – stick, rope, measuring tape, paper
● Scarves – It can be a tissue , handkerchief, paper towel and socks of you don’t have scarf. It helps
develop one’s motor skills.
● Plastic hockey sticks – It helps develop hand-eye coordination and timing in using this in physical
activity.
● Chairs – a common equipment in your house. You can use this in many physical activities and
exercises. Some benefits of using a chair are better flexibility, range of motion increased blood
circulation and increased muscles strength.
● Dumbbell – Usually made of metal with cast iron commonly used in gyms or even at home, it
works on the shoulders, chest, biceps and triceps.

Lesson 7: Optimizing your health through Physical activities

Physical Activity
► is any movement of your body that uses energy. Walking, dancing playing sports are some good
activities for you to become active. Applying the FITT principle such as frequency, intensity, type and
time can improve your performance.
Moderate Physical Activity
► this includes brisk walking, dancing, biking, swimming and jogging. Some household chores may also
be considered as moderate activities.
Vigorous Physical Activities
► these are activities that makes your heart pump faster than moderate activities and release more
sweat, such as sports that needs lots of running like playing soccer or even swimming and jogging.

► In 2008 – The Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI)

reported that 86% of the Filipino high school in Manila failed to achieve the
recommended physical activity. Same study from World Health Organization
(WHO) says majority of adolescents worldwide are not sufficiently physical
active and put their current and future health at risk.
► According to the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2010 the physical
inactivity or lack of physical activity has been identified as the fourth leading
risk factor for global mortality (6% of deaths)
21-25% - breast cancer and colon cancer
27% - diabetes cases
30% - ischemic heart disease
Common results of Inactive in physical activity
► Increased risk of being overweight and obese.
► Hypertension
► Anxiety
► Depression

Common Results of being Active in Physical Activities

► Improves bone, joint and muscle strength.
► Developed motor control and coordination.
► Helps maintain a healthy body composition.
► Increases the efficiency of the lungs and the heart.
► Protects the body from musculoskeletal problems such as low back pain
► Possibly delays aging process
► Promotes healthy cholesterol level
► Helps regulate blood pressure
► Decreases the risk of Type 2 Diabetes
► Reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease such as coronary artery disease and stroke
► Improves the psychological functioning
► Improves control over anxiety and depression
►Builds self-esteem and social inter-action
Earth Science
Types of rocks
Definition of terms
Erosion- a process by which sediments/soil are transported to places to lower level.
Igneous- Rock formed by the solidification of molten rocks ( magma)
Metamorphic- refers to rock which has been altered by heat or intense pressure at the depth of
earth crust
Sedimentary- pertaining to rocks formed by the sediment deposition (fragments of rocks,
minerals, animals or plant material.)
Weathering- slow breakdown of rock at the Earth surface, due to climatic and biological
processes.
Compaction- the process in which sediments are packed together and buried beneath other
sediments.
Comentation- minerals fill the pore spaces between the individual sediments particles, which
causes them to stick together.
Sediments- the weathered or broken-down fragments of rocks, minerals, and organic materials.
Magma- molten rocks or material that forms beneath the surface or the Earth.

Types of rock and rock cycle

Rocks are mixtures, or aggregates, of different minerals, of different minerals. Rocks are
solid materials that comprise most of the earth. Generally rocks can be divided into three parts
base on the process of their formation. These are igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and
metamorphic rocks.

Igneous Rocks
An igneous rock is formed by the hardening and crystallization of molten materials that
originates from deep within the Earth. The rock material is called magma. An igneous rocks is
divided into two groups, extrusive rocks form when magma flows into the surface of the Earth
or floor of the ocean through deep cracks or fissures and volcanic events.
The magma then cools and hardens.
An intrusive rocks results when magma solidifies beneath the Earth’s surface.
Extrusive rocks have finer grained texture intrusive rocks. Intrusive rocks vary from thin sheets
to huge, irregular masses.
Examples of Igneous rocks are: Andecite, Basalt, Diabase, Diorite, Gabbro, Granite, Obsidian,
Pegmatite, Pumica, Perodotite, Rhyolite, Scoria, Tuff, Unakite.

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks develop from sediments. Sediments are tiny grains of dirt, sand mud
and clay weathered or worm off rocks. These are then washed into streams, rivers, lakes and
oceans and they settle in the bottom of these bodies of water.
Every day more sediments are added. After thousands millions of years deep accumulations of
sediments are produced. The weight and pressure from the upper layers turn the sediments in
the bottom into sedimentary rocks. Examples of sedimentary rocks are: Brecia, Caliche, Chalk,
Chert, Coal, Conglomerate, Diatomite, Dolomite, Flint, Iron, Ore, Limesatone, Shale and Sand stone.
Metamorphic Rocks
These rocks can come from igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks or even from other
metamorphic rocks. When a rock is subjected to high temperature, high pressure and
chemically active fluids, it becomes unstable and begins to re crystallize into different stable
minerals. This causes change in the composition of the rock as well as the rock type. Example of
metamorphic rock are: Amphibolite, Anthracite, Gneiss, Hornfels, Lapiz Lazuli, Marble, Mariposite,
Novaculite, Phylite, Quartzites, Scarn, Slate, Soapstone

Process in the rock cycle

WEATHERING AND EROSION
All objects on the earth’s surface are exposed to the wind, along with many other
elements water, the sun, temperature changes. Over time these factors wear objects down and
break them apart.
The resulting bits and pieces of material are called sediments. Sediments is then transported by
wind and water, often ending up far from where it started. These processes of break down and
transport due to exposure to the environment, are called weathering and erosion. Weathering
and erosion affects all rocks on the earth’s surface.
COMPACTING AND CEMENTING
Over time, sediments accumulates in oceans, lakes, and valleys eventually building up in
layer and weighing down the material underneath. This weight presses the sediment particles
together, compacting them. Water passing through the spaces in between the particles helps to
cements them together even more. This process of compacting and cementing sediments forms
sedimentary rocks.
HEAT AND PRESSURE
Due to the movements in the crust, rocks are frequently pulled under the surface of the earth,
where temperature increases dramatically the father they decent. Between 100 to 200 kilometers (62
and 124 miles) below the earth surface, temperature are hot enough to melt most rocks.
However before the melting point is reached, a rock can undergo fundamental changes while in
a solid state- morphing from one type to another without melting. An additional factor that can
transform rocks in the pressure cause by tons of other rock by pressing down on it from above;
heat and pressure usually work together to alter the rocks under the earth surface.
This kind of change, which results from both rising temperature and pressure, is called
metamorphism, and the resulting rocks is metamorphic rocks.
COOLING
Liquid magma also turns into a solid a rock when its cooled.
Any rock that from the cooling of magma is igneous rock, and magma is cools slowly forms
another kind.
When magma rises from deep within the earth and explodes out of a volcano, it is called lava,
and its cools quickly on the surface. Rock formed in this way is called extrusive igneous rock. It
is extruded, or pushed, out of the Earth’s interior and cools outside of or very near the earth
surface.
If the magma doesn’t erupt out of the volcano, but instead get pushed slowly upward toward
the earth surface over a hundreds, thousands, or even millions of years, This magma will also
cool, but as much slower rate than lava evaporating from a volcano.
The kind of rock formed in this way is called intrusive igneous rock. It intrudes, or pushes, into
the earth’s interior and cools beneath the surface.

WEATHERING, EROSION AND DEPOSITION

Unlocking difficulties
Weathering – is the breaking down of rock material into smaller size through mechanical and
chemical means.
Thawing – is the process by which ice turns from solid to liquid or semi- liquid state.
Erosion – is the removal and transport of rock materials from their original location to another
location.
Arid - means an extremely dry land
Deposition – is the process by which sediments are dropped off by agents of erosion.
Solifluction – refers to the flow downslope movement of water saturated oil.
Permafrost - is the layer under the earth surface that has been frozen permanently.
Exogenic processes – geological processes occurring at the Earth’s surface.

What is weathering?
weathering is a process by which rocks are broken into smaller fragments. This process is
due to the rocks exposure to varying temperature, pressure, substances and biological actions.
Weathering can either be mechanical or chemical.

Mechanical weathering happens when a large rock breaks into pieces physically without
alteration in its chemical composition. For instance, the root of a plant growing in a crack of a
boulder will eventually split the rock into smaller parts. In colder countries water that gets
into pores of a rock may freeze and then thaw, alternate freezing and thawing splits rocks
apart. In desert to much heat causes rock particles to expand and to contract when cooled;
alternate expansion and contraction also results to breaking of rocks.
When you kick a piece of rock and it crumbles down to pieces, you become an agent to
mechanical weathering.

Chemical weathering requires chemical reaction between rock minerals and other substances
in the environment in order to break rocks. For example, the iron component of rocks may
react with oxygen in water to from rust; rust make s the rocks weak and brittle causing them
to disintegrate .

Limestone , a carbonate containing rock, may decompose when carbon dioxide comes in
contact with it. Carbon dioxide absorbed by rain water and brought to the ground . As ground
water inter pores and cracks in limestone, the rock dissolves. Gradually, an opening is created
forming a cave. Some minerals in rocks like calcite and halite, causing their molecules to
dissociate into ions and to be carried away by water. This makes the rock weak and brittle.

What is limestone?
Limestone is considered a sedimentary rock. The compositional structure of limestone is mainly
calcite mineral, calcium carbonate, symbol CaCO3. This stone is often the most of the essence,
but rarely in pure form. Some impurities and limestone are clay, sand, silt, bitumen. The color
of the stone is also quite diverse, from white to ash or light green, yellow, even pink and black.

The chemical formula for calcite is CaCO3 and chemical formula of halite it is NaCl.

Mechanical and chemical weathering work together to produce fine, loose rock particles called
sediments. Sand silt and clay are terms used to describe the size of sediments. Gradually,
sediments turn into soil, a highly valuable resource . Soil is composed of weathered rock
particles, organic matter, minerals fragments, water and air.

Factors Affecting Weathering

The type extent and rate of weathering are affected by climate, rock type, rock
structure, slope and duration of exposure.

Climate. Chemical weathering is more effective and rapid in regions with high temperature and
rainfall. Temperature has a significant effect in hastening chemical reactions happening in
rocks . Water plays an important role in mechanical weathering as well as in carrying-out most
reactions in chemical weathering.

Rock type. Some rocks have different degree of resistance to mechanical to chemical
weathering. Quartzite, a hard bur brittle rock, is highly resistant to chemical weathering but
less resistant to mechanical weathering. Some rock types are more susceptible to weathering
than others. For example marble can be weathered more easily than granite when exposed to
similar conditions.

Rock structure. Weathering agents may enter a rock mass though its joints, faults, folds and
bedding planes. High number of this empty points makes rocks less resistant to both
mechanical and chemical weathering.

• Slope. Weathering is faster in steeper slopes than in less steep slopes.

• Duration of exposure. Rocks that are exposed to weathering agents for a longer period
of time is more likely to weather easily.

Erosion and deposition

Weathering makes rocks smaller and lighter, thus easier to be moved and transported.
When rock particles are move from one place to another, the process is called erosion. As
agents of erosion carry the rock particles, they lose energy until such point that they can no
longer hold them. Rock sediments are then dropped to certain locations, usually of lower
elevation. Deposition is the process by which sediments are dropped off by agents of erosion.

Erosion and deposition are facilitated primarily by gravity, along with the other erosion agents –
water, wind, and glaciers.
Agents of Erosion
• water
Rainwater that does not soak or evaporate runs over the ground, carry with it rock
particles. This surface runoff eventually enters a body of water such as streams , lakes and
oceans. As waters continues to move along , it picks up sediments. Lightweight sediments
become suspended in water and are carried away by water while heavier particles roll along the
bottom. Large ocean waves pounds along edges of land, wearing down rocks in it. Sediments
deposited in ocean basins may gradually undergo lithification to form sedimentary rocks.
• Wind
Loose and soil particles are carried away by wind and are deposited at another
places . Wind is capable of transporting light particles over large areas thousands of kilometers
away. When wind blows strongly, it may pick larger particles causing sand storm in desert and
arid regions. A dust storm may take place when fast wind lifts dry and fine soil particles.
• Glaciers
Glaciers is a large mass of ice and a snow that forms in colder parts of the world .
As glaciers move across land, they erode solid rocks and deposit eroded materials somewhere.
When ice at the base of a glaciers melts, water penetrates the pores and cracks of the rock
beneath it . As water refreezes, rock fragments are plucked by the ice and are dragged along to
different locations. Glacial erosion scars rocks surface forming grooves and striations.
• Gravity
Gravity is a major force that drives erosion and deposition. Soil and weathered
materials in high elevations like hills and mountain are pulled down by gravity. Loose rocks on a
steep slope may roll downside and deposit materials at the base. The down slope movement of
the large amounts of soil and rock particles due to the effect of gravity is called mass wasting
or mass movement. Mass wasting can be slow or fast. Slow mass wasting occurs gradually. Creep is
the slow movement of particles from higher to lower elevations. It happens very slowly that is almost
un noticeable, yet it is the most widespread affecting nearly all slopes with weathered rocks at the
surface. Trunk of trees bending

The amount of usable water resources on Earth

Water is a valuable natural resource that can be found in many different forms
throughout the environment. Water comes in two forms: fresh water and salty, and it covers
roughly 70% of the earth's surface. In this lesson, you will learn about the various sources of
water as well as understand how water is essential to the survival of living beings.
Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of
water include agricultural, households, recreational and environmental activities. Moreover,
about 70 percent of the human body is water and bodies of all plants and animals also contain
water. All living things require water to grow and reproduce.
Sources of Water. Rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds and springs are
natural sources of water. Dams, wells, tube wells, hand-pumps, canals, etc, are manmade
sources of water.
Rain Water. Rain water is collected on Earth in the form of surface water and
underground water.
1. Surface Water. Water present on the surface of the earth in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes,
reservoir, ponds and streams is called surface water. The water in rivers and lakes comes from
rain and melting of snow on mountains. Rivers flow into the sea.
2. Underground Water. Some of the rainwater seeps through the soil on to the non-porous
rocks below. This is underground water. Sometimes due to high pressure, this water sprouts
out in the form of springs. It can be obtained by digging wells or sinking tube wells, etc.
Groundwater lies under the surface of the land, where it travels through and fills openings in
the rocks. The rocks that store and transmit groundwater are called aquifers.

Water Distribution on Earth

Figure 4 is a pie chart showing where all water on, in, and above the Earth exists. The
first pie chart shows how almost all of Earth's water is saline and is found in the oceans. Of the
small amount that is actually freshwater, only a relatively small portion is available to sustain
human, plant, and animal life. It is observed that only 3% of Earth's water is freshwater which is
the water needed for life to survive.
The middle pie chart shows the breakdown of freshwater. Almost all of it is confined in
ice and in the ground. Only 0.3% of all freshwater is surface water, which serves most of life's
needs.
The last pie chart shows the breakdown of surface water. Most of this water is found in
lakes. Rivers make up 2% of surface freshwater and 11% swamps. Although rivers account for
only a small amount of freshwater, this is where humans get a large portion of their water.
Water is very important in each of our lives. Not only it is essential to our health, but
also, we use it for numerous household tasks. Every day we use water for cooking, bathing,
cleaning, and drinking.
The World Health Organization and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Report (2017) define
improved drinking water sources as those that have potential to deliver safe water by nature of
their design and construction. These include piped water tube wells or boreholes; protected
dug wells, protected springs; rainwater.
Families that use bottled water or refilling stations for drinking are classified as using an
improved source only if the water they use for cooking and hand washing comes from an improved
source.
According to the results of the 2017 APIS, 94 percent of the 24 million Filipino families
have improved source of drinking water. In the urban and rural areas, 97 and 91 percent,
respectively, have improved source of drinking water. Residents in rural areas are more likely to
have an unimproved source of drinking water than those in urban areas (9.1% vs. 2.6%).
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
Alfred Wegener
In the early days, geologic phenomena, such as earthquakes and volcanic explosions, were
thought to be caused by supernatural forces. It was thought that planet was formed the way it
is. These ideas stated to change radically in 1915 when Alfred Wegener, a German
meteorologist, introduced the
He proposed that a long time ago in the geologic past, the continents formed a single landmass,
which he called Pangaea, that broken into several continents and drifted to their current
positions. He used observations and concepts from the fields of geography, geology, biology,
and paleontology to support his hypothesis.

The Seven Continents

1. Asia – 50 countries 6. Australia – 14 countries
2. Africa – 54 countries 7. Austria -
3. North America – 23 countries
4. South America – 12 countries
5. Europe – 51 countries
Pangaea
Pangaea was a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early
Mesozoic eras. It assembled from earlier continental units approximately 335 million years
ago, and it began to break apart

Evidences of continental drift theory

THE FIT OF CONTINENTAL SHORELINES
Although it was previously pointed out by observers before him, Wegener viewed the
apparent fit of the continents along their coastlines as pieces of jigsaw puzzle—an indication the
continents
DISTRIBUTION OF GLACIAL SEDIMENTS
• Wegener plotted in the map the location of the sediments and rocks that were formed during
the last glaciation of the late Paleozoic. He also analyzed the Orientation of the striations or the
scratches imprinted as glaciers moved along the surface of rocks. These sediments are present
in Southern parts of South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. With the exception
of Antarctica, is unlikely they these sediments formed if the continents were in their current
locations. Moreover, the current orientation of the striations indicates that the glaciers moved
from the ocean toward the land.
Paleoclimate
• If the southern part of pangaea is located in the polar region, as indicated by the
presence of glaciers, then it follows that's the rest of the supercontinent extended to
the equatorial region and to the Northern Hemisphere. As observe today, the equitorial
region has a tropical climate characterized by conditions that favor lush vegetation
such as abundant rainfall and warm temperature. There are rocks that were formed
under s particular climatic regime, including coal or accumulated plant remnants.
However, coal deposits are found even in areas that presently do not have tropical
climate but are likely to have had, as these were located in the equatorial region
Distribution of Fossils
Paleontologists have distinguished fossils or remnants of organisms preserved in rocks that
indicate marine and terrestrial organisms. Some terrestrial organism are restricted in certain
continents because they cannot swim and cross over the vast oceans that
• After mapping the distribution of fossils of known land organisms, Wegener found out that
there are fossils of the same organism in certain places in several continents.
• He also notice that a lot of fossilized life found in the rock records did not fit in the climates they
were found in.
• Example, is rocks in Alaska contain fossilized palm tree leaves, which is uncommon in that
latitude today.
Distribution of Rocks
• Wegener was able to recognize the distinct assembly of rocks occurring on either side of the
Atlantic Ocean. Based on the type, age, and sequence of layering, these appear to be
immediately adjacent to each other if the Atlantic Ocean is closed and Pangaea is
reconstructed.

Relative and absolute Dating

Radioactive decay – the process by which an atomic nucleus of an unstable atom
loses energy.
The Earth is around 4.6 billion years old. Physical evidence of geological
changes and the mineralized remains of living organisms (fossils), as well as
material remains and artifacts of human societies, offer archaeologists important
insights into the past.
Archaeologists seek to place discoveries within a broader historical
framework; in other words, to get a sense for the time period that an object
comes from and how it relates to other finds, times, and places in the
archaeological record. This helps to build a better picture of how humans lived in
the –past, as well as how humanity, culture, and societies evolved over time.
There are a variety of scientific methods that archaeologists use to analyze
the age and origins of fossils, remains, or other artifacts. Dating methods can
enable bio-archaeologists to determine factors such as environment, diet, health,
or migration patterns of humans, plants, or animals. Knowing the age of an object
of material culture, how it was made, and the surrounds in which it was found,
also help classical, historical, or ethnoarchaeologists to better hypothesize the
purpose or cultural meaning that might have been attributed to it in the past.
Ordering archaeological finds within time periods across traditions is how
archaeologists piece together the past that connects all contemporary cultures
today.

RELATIVE VS. ABSOLUTE DATING

Relative dating methods estimate whether an object is younger or older
than other things found at the site. Relative dating does not offer specific dates, it
simply allows to determine if one artifact, fossil, or stratigraphic layer is older
than another.
 Absolute dating methods provide more specific origin dates and time
ranges, such as an age range in years. How specific these dates can be will depend
on what method is used.

PRINCIPLES OF RELATIVE DATING

Absolute Dating Methods

Absolute dating methods measure the physical properties of an object itself
and use these measurements to calculate its age. One of the most useful absolute
dating methods for archaeologists is called radiocarbon dating. It works by
measuring carbon isotopes, which are versions of the element carbon.
carbon-14 dating, also called radiocarbon dating, method of age determination
that depends upon the decay to nitrogen of radiocarbon (carbon-14). Carbon-14
is continually formed in nature by the interaction of neutrons with nitrogen-14 in
the Earth’s atmosphere; the neutrons required for this reaction are produced by
cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere.

Radiocarbon present in molecules of atmospheric carbon dioxide enters the

biological carbon cycle: it is absorbed from the air by green plants and then
passed on to animals through the food chain. Radiocarbon decays slowly in a
living organism, and the amount lost is continually replenished as long as the
organism takes in air or food. Once the organism dies, however, it ceases to
absorb carbon-14, so that the amount of the radiocarbon in its tissues steadily
decreases.

Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 ± 40 years—i.e., half the amount of the

radioisotope present at any given time will
undergo spontaneous disintegration during the succeeding 5,730 years. Because
carbon-14 decays at this constant rate, an estimate of the date at which an
organism died can be made by measuring the amount of its residual radiocarbon.
Carbon-14, C-14, ¹⁴ C or radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon with
an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Its presence in organic
materials is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard
Libby and colleagues to date archaeological, geological and hydrogeological
samples.

Another EXAMPLE OF element with its half life and isotopes.

The half-life of uranium-238 is about 4.5 billion years, uranium-235 about
700 million years, and uranium-234 about 250 thousand years.
Dendrochronology: Since most trees produce a ring of new wood annually,
archaeologists use the variations in cross-sections of wood to produce timelines.
Dendrochronology (or tree-ring dating) is the scientific method of dating tree
rings (also called growth rings) to the exact year they were formed. As well as
dating them, this can give data for dendroclimatology, the study of climate and
atmospheric conditions during different periods in history from wood.

BIOENERGETICS
What is cell?
“A CELL IS DEFINED AS THE SMALLEST, BASIC UNIT OF LIFE THAT IS RESPONSIBLE FOR ALL OF LIFE’S
PROCESSES.”
Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A cell can replicate
itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks of life.
 All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or many
cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells. Cells are the building blocks of all living
beings. They provide structure to the body and convert the nutrients taken from the food into energy.
Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism. They are of
different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our body is made up of cells of
different shapes and sizes.

BIOENERGETICS
The study of energy in living systems (environments) and the organisms (plants and animals) that utilize
them.

ENERGY
• Ability to do work
• All living things require energy
• transformed
• cannot be recycled

PHOTOSYNTHETIC ORGANELLES
2 GROUPS OF PIGMENTS (PLANTS)
• Chlorophylls
• Carotenoids
CHLOROPHYLL A AND CHLOROPHYLL B
are green pigments that absorbs all wavelengths of light in the red, blue, and violet ranges
PHYCOBILINS
the pigment found in red algae which give them their reddish color absorb light in blue and
green ranges
CAROTENOIDS
are yellow, orange, and red pigments
CHLOROPLASTS
are cell organelles found in plants and algae

NOTE
CHLOROPLASTS
Organelles found only in plant cells that carry out photosynthesis
MITOCHONDRIA
Organelles found in plant and animal cells that carry out cellular respiration
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
is often regarded as the most important life process on Earth
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
is the means by which cells release the stored energy in glucose to make ATP

PHOTOSYNTHESIS EQUATION
CELLULAR RESPIRATION EQUATION

HOW DO ORGANISMS GET ENERGY?

FOODS
Organic molecules that store chemical energy.
PRODUCERS (AUTOTROPHS)
• Make food not only for themselves but for other living organisms as well
• Starters of food chain
ORGANISM THAT MAKE THEIR OWN FOOD
TREE
ALGAE
CYANOBACTERIA
CONSUMERS (HETEROTROPHS)
• Food obtain by consuming other organisms
• They may consume autotrophs, other heterotrophs, or both
• Includes animals, fungi, and some single-celled organisms
ORGANISM THAT CANNOT MAKE THEIR OWN
• ANIMALS
• INSECTS
• HUMAN
ENERGY-GIVING MOLECULES
A. Glucose
B. ATP

ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE)

molecules store smaller amounts of energy, but each molecule releases enough energy to do
work within the cell.