MISAMIS UNIVERSITY

Ozamiz City 7200, Philippines

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Email Address: mu@mu.edu.ph
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HANDOUTS

MODULE 1.1 – 4.2

PHILOSOPHY

Prepare by: Celada, Kyrriel J.

June 07, 2021

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MODULE 1.1
IDENTIFYING THE ETHICAL ASPECT OF HUMAN LIFE AND THE
SCOPE OF ETHICAL THINKING.
OBJECTIVE:
Demonstrate an ability to apply personal values and ethical principles as basis for identifying, analyzing and
managing ethical issues.
OUTLINE:
 ETHICS Meaning
 Descriptive and Normative Study of Ethics
 Seven Step of Moral Reasoning Model
 Sources of Authority
 Conclusion
 References
__________________________________________________________________________________________________

ETHICS – moral philosophy

 Is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending and recommending concepts of right
and wrong behavior.
 Determining the grounds for the values with particular and special significance to human life.
DESCRIPTIVE AND NORMATIVE STUDY OF ETHICS
DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
 how people, particularly groups, make their moral valuations without making any judgement either for
or against these valuations.
Often the work of the social scientists:
 HISTORIAN – studying different moral standards over time.
 SOCIOLOGISTS or ANTHROPOLOGISTS – studying different standards across cultures.
 Normative Study – often done in philosophy of moral theology, engages the questions:
A normative discussion prescribes what we ought to maintain as our standards or bases for moral valuation.
7- STEPS OF MORAL REASONING (Pasco, Suarez and Rodriguez,2018)

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Ensure the rationality and impartiality of moral decisions. These can also serve as a guide in making choices of
moral import:
STOP AND THINK
 before making decisions, it is best to take a moment to think about the situation itself.
CLARIFY GOALS
 short term and long-term aim. 
DETERMINE FACTS
 Enough information is gathered before making a choice or decision. An intelligent choice is the
one that is supported by verified facts.
DEVELOP OPTIONS 
 Come up with alternative options to exhaust all possible courses of action.
CONSIDER CONSEQUENCES
 Filter your choices and separate the ethical from the unethical choices bearing in mind both your
motives and potential consequences of your action. Think long- term consequences and act
in accordance with the principles of justices and fairness.
CHOOSE
 Make a decision. Try consulting others. Find people with a virtuous character and
compare your reasoning with your analysis.
MONITOR AND MODIFY
 Enough monitor what happens after your decision and have enough humility to modify your
action or behaviors as necessary.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________

MODULE 1.2
EVALUATING THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM
LEARNING OUTCOME

 At the end of the discussion, students are expected to:

a) Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism
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OUTLINE
 Learning Outcome 
 Introduction
 The Challenge of Cultural Relativism
 Subjectivism in Ethics
 Conclusion
 References 

__________________________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
 Cultural relativism has gained currency not just in anthropological and cultural studies but in ethical
studies as well. 
 James Rachels, an American philosopher, questions some of the claims of cultural relativists. Instead, he
proposes how we should understand ethical issues not necessarily based on the lense of cultural
relativism. 
____________________________________________________________________________________
THE CHALLENGE OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM
HOW DIFFERENT CULTURES HAVE DIFFERENT MORAL CODES*
 James Rachels starts the chapter by differentiating the cultures of   Greeks and Callatians in burying the
dead. 
a) Greeks: practiced cremation 
b) Callatians: ate the bodies of their dead fathers 
 He also cites the case of the Eskimos.
 He claims that: if we assume that our ethical ideas will be shared by all peoples at all times, we are
merely naive. 
____________________________________________________________________________________
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
 It challenges our ordinary belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truth.
a) In effect, there is no such thing as universal truth in ethics. 
b) There are only various cultural codes, and nothing more. 

____________________________________________________________________________________
CLAIMS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISTS*
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 Different societies have different moral codes.
 The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society.
 There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one society’s code better than another’s.
 The moral code of our society has no special status; it is merely one among many. 
 There is no “universal truth” in ethics; that is, there are no moral truths that hold for all peoples at all
times.
 It is mere arrogance for us to try to judge the conduct of other peoples. 
____________________________________________________________________________________
THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ARGUMENT*
 Rachels claims that “at the heart of Cultural Relativism there is a certain form of argument.”
 He further contends that “the strategy used by cultural relativists is to argue from facts about the
differences between cultural outlooks to a conclusion about the status of morality.”
 Cultural Relativists offer this kind of reasoning:
a) The Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the dead, whereas the Callatians believed it was right to
eat the dead.
b) Therefore, eating the dead is neither objectively right nor objectively wrong. It is merely a matter
of opinion that varies from culture to culture.
 Cultural Relativists offer this kind of reasoning:
a) The Eskimos see nothing wrong with the infanticide, whereas Americans believe infanticide is
immoral.
b) Therefore, infanticide is neither objectively right nor objectively wrong. It is merely a matter of
opinion which varies from culture to culture. 
 Rachels consider the foregoing arguments as variations of one fundamental idea. They are special
cases of a more general argument which says:
a) Different cultures have different moral codes
b) Therefore, there is no objective truth in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion,
and opinions vary from culture to culture.
NOTA BENE: Rachels calls this as the CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ARGUMENT and he finds it
not sound or highly illogical. He considers this argument as fallacious and proves nothing
____________________________________________________________________________________
THE CONSEQUENCES OF TAKING CULTURAL RELATIVISM
SERIOUSLY
 We could no longer say that the customs of other societies are morally inferior to our own. 
 We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just by consulting the standards of our society.

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 The idea or moral progress is called into doubt.
____________________________________________________________________________________
HOW ALL CULTURES HAVE SOME VALUES IN COMMON*
 Rachels claims that “there are some moral rules that all societies must have in common, because those
rules are necessary for society to exist.”
Examples: Lying and Murder
 He argues that it is a mistake to overestimate the amount of difference between cultures. Not every
moral rule can vary from society to society.
____________________________________________________________________________________
JUDGING A CULTURAL PRACTICE TO BE UNDESIRABLE
 Is there a culture-neutral standard of right and wrong?
 Why, despite all this, thoughtful people may nevertheless be reluctant to criticize other cultures?
1. There is an understandable nervousness about “interfering in the social customs of
other peoples.”
2. People also feel, rightly enough, that they should be tolerant of other cultures.
3. People may be reluctant to judge because they do not want to express contempt for the society
being criticized. 
____________________________________________________________________________________
WHAT CAN BE LEARNED FROM CULTURAL RELATIVISM
 Cultural Relativism warns us, quite right, about the danger of assuming that all our preferences are based
on some absolute rational standard. 
 They are not. Many of our practices are merely peculiar to our society, and it is easy to lose sight of that
fact. 
 Keeping an open mind.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________

SUBJECTIVISM IN ETHICS 
THE BASIC IDEA OF ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM*
 It is the idea that our moral opinions are based on our feelings and nothing more. 
 On this view, there is no such thing as “objective” right and wrong. 

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THE EVOLUTION OF THE THEORY*
 The idea will be put forward in a crude, simple form, and many people will find it attractive for one
reason or another.
 The idea will be subjected to critical analysis, and it will be found to have defects. 
 Those who have the confidence in the basic idea will refine it and give a new, improved formulation. 
 New arguments may be found that cast doubt on the new version of the theory. 
 Other may abandon the idea while others keep faith and try to salvage the theory by formulating still
another improved version. 
____________________________________________________________________________________
THE FIRST STAGE: SIMPLE SUBJECTIVISM
 The simplest version of the theory, which states the main idea but does not attempt to refine it very
much, is this:
 When a person says that something is morally good or bad, this means that he or she approves of that
thing, or disapproves of it, and nothing more.
____________________________________________________________________________________
THE BASIC IDEA OF ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM
 Simple subjectivism expresses the idea of Ethical Subjectivism in a plain, uncomplicated form, and
many people have found it attractive. 
 However, simple subjectivism is open to several objections such as:
 Simple Subjectivism cannot account for our infallibility.
 Simple Subjectivism cannot account for disagreement. 

____________________________________________________________________________________
THE SECOND STAGE: EMOTIVISM
 It begins with the observation that language is used in a variety of ways. 
 According to Emotivism, moral language is NOT fact-stating; it is not typically used to convey
information.  Its purpose is different. 
 It is used:
 as a means of influencing people’s behavior
 to express (not report) one’s attitude. 

____________________________________________________________________________________
Simple Subjectivism vs Emotivism
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SIMPLE SUBJECTIVISM EMOTIVISM

It interprets ethical sentences as statements of fact, of It interprets the utterance as equivalent to something. It

special kind-namely, as reports of the speaker’s attitude.  denies that the utterance states any fact. 

____________________________________________________________________________________
ARE THERE ANY MORAL FACTS?
 If we want to understand ethics, claims Rachels, we must focus on REASONS. 
 A truth of ethics is a conclusion that is backed by reasons:
 The correct answer to a moral question is simply the answer that has weight of reason on its side.
 Such truths are objective in a sense that they are true independently of what we might want or think. 
 We can be wrong about what is good or bad because we can be wrong about what reason commends. 
 Reason says what it says, regardless of our opinions or desires.  
____________________________________________________________________________________
ARE THERE PROOFS IN ETHICS?
 The impression that moral judgments are “unprovable” is remarkably persistent. 
 Why do people believe this?
 When proof is demanded, people often have in mind an inappropriate standard.
 When we think of proving our ethical opinions to be correct, we tend to think automatically of the most
difficult issues.
 It is easy to conflate two matters that are really very different. \
____________________________________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION
 While Cultural Relativism sounds plausible at first, it is still necessary to revisit its arguments whether
they can help us understand ethical decisions. 
 Rachels tries to counter argue the claims held by cultural relativists. 
__________________________________________________________________________________________

MODULE 2.1
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DIFFERENTIATING THE PARTS OF THE SOUL IN RELATION TO THEIR RESPECTIVE FUNCTIONS

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the discussion, you are expected to:
 Differentiate the parts of the soul in relation to their respective functions
OUTLINE
 Learning Outcome
 Introduction
 Ethics as the Art of Living Well
 The Soul
 Virtue, the Mean and Practical Wisdom
 Contemplation and Philosophical Knowledge
 Conclusion
 Reference
__________________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
 We are often most remembered by our most significant character traits.
 We build our characters through which we make choices in different situations we face in our lives.
 Character is not merely a theoretical construct but a product of action in the world – constant doing or
way of being that is made apparent by the possession and actualization of particular virtues or vices.
ETHICS AS THE ART OF LIVING WELL
 Aristotle assumes that any activity, practical or theoretical, aims towards some end or good.
 Examples
o health for the practice of medicine

o ship for shipbuilding

o victory for generalship
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 HOWEVER, these ends are still provisional goals to another goal.
 Almost all ends are not ending in themselves but mere conduits for a further or deeper end.
 Aristotle is not simply interested in finding out the different ends or purposes for human life.
 He wants to find out what our CHIEF END is.
 He is interested in finding out what all our lives essentially and ultimately aim to.
NOTA BENE: The CHIEF GOOD for the human person must NOT be something one aims at for the sake of
something else.
 Can it be wealth?
 No, because wealth is merely a means for possessing things such as houses or cars.
 Can it be fame or honor?
 No, because fame and honor are just instruments for feeding one’s ego which is a servant of
pride.
____________________________________________________________________________________
EUDAIMONIA
 Aristotle names the chief good for the human person as HAPPINESS or EUDAIMONIA.
 For him, happiness is the:
 SUFFICIENT goal
o Because to have it makes human life complete.

 FINAL goal
o Because it is desired for itself and not for the sake of something else.
 ATTAINABLE goal
o Because it is not a mere theoretical construct but something that one actually does
practically.
 Eudaimonia is sought for its own sake.
 All other ends (e.g., wealth, health and power) are sought because they are perceived to be
instrumental in one’s flourishing.

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 As the proper end of man, it is not some kind of inactive state but is actually something that one does.
 Our chief good is NOT something we merely possess but something that we continually
actualize (in practice).
 Eudaimonia, as defined by Aristotle, is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.
 The chief good is not achieved by one grand act or one big decision, for it is something one constantly
strives for.
 NOTA BENE: HAPPINESS is NOT mere self-indulgence or pleasure-seeking for Aristotle. It denotes
an activity that essentially corresponds to the proper nature of the human being.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

THE SOUL
 For Aristotle, the soul is the part of the human being that animates the body.
 BODY and SOUL are inseparable for Aristotle.
o But he emphasized the role of the soul more than that of the body in elucidating his ethics.
____________________________________________________________________________________
TWO PARTS OF THE SOUL

Rational Elements Irrational Elements

Rational Part Irrational Part

Vegetative
Speculative
Appetitive
Practical

PARTS OF IRRATIONAL ELEMENTS*

VEGETATIVE APPETITIVE

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It is in charge of the nutrition and growth of the It shares in the rational element of the soul.
human being.

It takes care of all the involuntary functions of the It cannot itself reason but it does share in the rational
body, from breathing to digestion and the like. element in that it can be influenced by it.
NOTE: Aristotle considers this as not relevant in
discussing happiness or virtue.

 Passions such as sexual urges and desire for wealth and recognition are quite difficult to control.
 It is the task of the rational part of the soul to reign in such passionate demands that seek fulfillment
oftentimes without any rational and practical consideration of all the factors involved in its desire for
satisfaction.
 The desiring element of the soul, albeit irrational, can be reasoned with.
 If a person suddenly feels the urge to eat all the food on the table that is meant for an entire family, it is
possible that he/she stops himself/herself from doing so once he/she realizes that such an act is grossly
unfit for a proper human being.
NOTA BENE: Examined under an Aristotelian lens, this person’s decision to keep his/her greed in check is
influenced by practical reason which determines the proper thing to do in a given situation. For Aristotle,
MORAL VIRTUE is necessary in making sure that desires do not control the behavior.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

VIRTUE, MEAN AND PRACTICAL WISDOM

 Virtue in Greek is arête which means EXCELLENCE.
 By excellence, the Greeks thought of how a thing fulfills its function (ergon) in accordance with its
nature.
 For example:
 If a knife cuts excellently, is sharp, durable and dependable for different tasks, then it may be said
that it is an excellent knife.
 It fulfills its essence as a tool for cutting and slicing.
 It may then be called a “virtuous knife.”
 So how to be virtuous?
 By exhibiting one’s capacity to fulfill one’s essence or purpose in such a way that one’s potentiality
as a particular being may be said to be actualized in the most excellent way.
 Can a guard dog that barks at the sight of an intruder be considered as virtuous?
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 Can a racehorse that consistently wins races be considered virtuous?
____________________________________________________________________________________
TWO KINDS OF VIRTUES
1. Moral Virtue
2. Intellectual Virtue

MORAL VIRTUE INTELLECTUAL VIRTUE

It has to do with the EXCELLENCE in the It has to do with one’s capacity to harness reason’s
performance of decisions relating to moral and contemplative capacity for arriving at knowledge.
practical activity.

It arises from habitual practice. It owes its existence and development to teaching.

 Aristotle emphasizes the role of practice and habit in the formation of moral virtue.
 No person is born morally virtuous.
 However, all persons have the latent potentiality to be so, if ONLY they habitually do
excellent deeds.
 It is only in practice that we come to know that we truly know how do to something.
 Aristotle says that moral virtues are states of character that enable a person to fulfill his/her proper
function as a human being.
 These states of character are aimed at an intermediary point between EXCESS and
DEFICIENCY- in a mean (mesotes) that can be considered as the appropriate response to
the demands of different situations.
 NOTA BENE: By mean (mesotes), Aristotle does not merely point to a mathematical mean,
such as six would be the mean in a scale of one to ten. Rather, it is a mean that is relative to
the person facing a moral choice.
 For Aristotle, virtue is a state of one’s character that is the result of choice.
 This choice is governed by prudence or practical wisdom (phronesis).
____________________________________________________________________________________
PHRONESIS
 Phronesis is the human person’s instrument in dealing with moral choices.
 It is a kind of knowledge that deals with practical matters and not just with ideas or concepts.

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 It is the intellectual virtue responsible for bringing the human person closer to his/her chief good in
the realm of morality.
o In other words, practical wisdom aids one in being happy.
____________________________________________________________________________________
THE PRINCIPAL VIRTUES AND VICES
EXCESS (VICE) MEAN (VIRTUE) DEFICIENCY (VICE)

Rashness Courage Cowardice

Self-indulgence Moderation Insensibility

Prodigality Liberality Meanness

Vulgarity Magnificence Paltriness

Vanity Proper Pride Smallness of Soul

Ambitiousness Proper Ambition Lack of Ambition

Irascibility Good Temper Lack of Spirit

EXCESS (VICE) MEAN (VIRTUE) DEFICIENCY (VICE)

Boastfulness Truthfulness Self-depreciation

Buffoonery Wittiness Boorishness

Obsequiousness Friendliness Surliness

Bashfulness Modesty Shamelessness

Envy Proper Indignation Malice

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__________________________________________________________________________________________

CONTEMPLATION AND PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE

 For Aristotle, the main functions of the intellectual virtues, namely, phronesis and sophia, are to aid
human persons in matters concerning moral choice and the attainment of knowledge of first principles or
eternal truths, respectively.
 If practical wisdom serves as a guide for action in everyday life, the act of contemplation is a pursuit
of philosophical wisdom.
 Aristotle subordinate’s practical wisdom to contemplation.
 This is because he believes that it is the kind of activity most proper to human’s most defining
attribute.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

CONCLUSION
 Ethics is a matter of living well through the habitual practice of virtue which essentially translates into
having a virtuous or excellent character.
 Aristotle teaches us that character is the most essential component of ethics.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

MODULE 2.2
EXAMINING THE ROLE OF NATURAL LAW IN CRAFTING AN ETHICAL LIFE
LEARNING OUTCOME
• Examine the role of natural law in crafting an ethical life 
OUTLINE
• Learning Outcome
• Etsi Deus non daretur
• Conscience and Natural Law
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• Three Contemporary Questions
• The Relational and Perfection of Love in Aquinas
• Conclusion 
• Reference
__________________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
 Natural law theory is instrumental to an ethics that is rooted in the Christian faith.
  There have been various thinkers and systems of thought emerging throughout history that could be
said to present a natural law theory. Among them is the medieval thinker, St. Thomas Aquinas
  Aquinas had synthesized concepts of the ancient Greeks to put forward an intellectual grounding that
can overcome the limitations of a simplistic divine command theory.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

 also called Aquinas, byname Doctor Angelicus (Latin: “Angelic Doctor”), (born 1224/25,
Roccasecca, near Aquino, Terra di Lavoro, Kingdom of Sicily [Italy]—died March 7, 1274, Fossanova,
near Terracina, Latium, Papal States; canonized July 18, 1323; feast day January 28, formerly March 7)
 Italian Dominican theologian, the foremost medieval Scholastic. He developed his own conclusions
from Aristotelian premises, notably in the metaphysics of personality, creation, and Providence.
 As a theologian, he was responsible in his two masterpieces, the Summa theologiae and the Summa
contra gentiles, for the classical systematization of Latin theology, and, as a poet, he wrote some of the
most gravely beautiful eucharistic hymns in the church’s liturgy.
 His doctrinal system and the explanations and developments made by his followers are known
as Thomism.
 Although many modern Roman Catholic theologians do not find St. Thomas altogether congenial, he is
nevertheless recognized by the Roman Catholic Church as its foremost Western philosopher and
theologian.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

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ETSI DEUS NON DARETUR

  It literally means "even if there is no God."
  It is an expression that highlights the validity of this ethical system with or without faith in the Creator
God.
 This implies that the wisdom of the ethical system that is natural law is valid and binding for the
human person even if we bracket belief in God.
 NOTA BENE: Those who came up with the expression etsi Deus non daretur DO NOT advocate
atheism or protest against the faith. They simply mean that the deposit of knowledge or "divine wisdom"
that comes to us as "natural law" is VALID and in itself and is, therefore, the reasonable code of
conduct even for a man of good will who may be without faith.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

CONSCIENCE AND NATURAL LAW

 If one follows St. Thomas' discussion on conscience, one is inclined to conclude that "it is the proper
functioning of reason in moving the human person towards an end goal that is fitting of his/her
dignity."*
  One cannot do the right thing if one does not know what it is.
  The famous dictate then to follow the conscience absolutely is tied to an obligation to educate
it.
  Even if one does not know, he/she is obliged to know.
  If one acts badly out of ignorance and does not act to rectify the situation by bothering to learn,
that person is to be held accountable according to Aquinas.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

KINDS OF CONSCIENCE

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Callous Perplexed Scrupulous Ignorant

Callous conscience  It results in the long persistence in doing evil that the self is no longer concerned
whether what he/she does is good or bad.

Perplexed conscience  It needs guidance in sorting out one's confusion.

Scrupulous It fails to trust one's ability to do good, and hence, overly concerns itself with
conscience avoiding what is bad to the point of seeing wrong where there really is none. 

Ignorant/ It simply lacks education. 

Uninformed
conscience 

GIVEN SUCH PROPENSITY TO ERROR OF THE HUMAN CONSCIENCE, CAN WE THEN

DISOBEY THE DICTATES OF OUR CONSCIENCE?
 St. Thomas Aquinas still insists, "Absolutely not!
 Conscience remains to be our proximate norm that bids us to do good and avoid evil.
 If the extent of what one knows determines what is good to be done and the evil to be avoided, the self is
obliged to act accordingly (i.e., act on the good and shun the bad).
 These occasions again show the importance of the commitment to educate one's conscience,
basically because one cannot do good if one does not know it and since one's norm for acting is
the obligation that is set by one's conscience: acquisition of knowledge as what ought to be done
through education is critical for ethical living, according to Aquinas.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

THREE CONTEMPORARY QUESTIONS

• Who am I?

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• Who do I want to be?
• How can I get there?
__________________________________________________________________________________________

WHO AM I?
 The reality of human identity is that it is something defined yet also always in process.
 ETHICS for Aquinas is primarily a question of human identity.
  "All human acts are moral acts," Aquinas said.
 Since it is through his/her acts that man defines himself/herself, the ethical man is the task of
his/her free acts.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

WHO DO I WANT TO BE?

 The human person's self-knowledge is dynamic, that is, it is always open to the direction set by what one
wants to make of himself/herself.
 Self-knowledge here is malleable towards self-determination.
  Ethical acts give direction through freedom to build up the self towards a particular goal.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

HOW CAN I GET THERE?

 It fully utilizes the sound judgment of human reason and evaluates the best route to get to the goal
decided upon.
 It breaks down the task to be done into the particulars of actions and daily routine.
 Self-knowledge and self-determination are her bridge by self-governance.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

THE RELATIONAL AND PERFECTION OF LOVE IN AQUINAS

  Thomistic ethics is incomplete if it does not end with the love that is directed towards God. 
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  Thomistic natural law is NOT Christian simply because it is an ethics reconcilable or compatible
with faith. 
  It is a disciplined system that finds ultimate foundation and perfection in the reality of God. 
  The autonomy of ethics from faith afforded a level of disciplined reflection that enables man to not only
copy of the perfection that is God and apply it to himself/herself and his/her surroundings.
  The human being is NOT merely a stand-in for the Creator God.
  One is NOT a robot who learns the direction from everything else and applies it to oneself to
function as a tool for Deus ex machina (God of the machine).
  The relational that is inherent in the natural order finds value.
  The human person is NOT only bound to find full maximum capacity of one's being in a search
for self-actualization.
  His/her is NOT designed to find perfection on his/her own but thoroughly relates with
other human persons and all of creation.
 His/her is NOT designed to be a Pharisee who is perfect unto himself/herself. 
 His/her is open to be in all and to exist for all.
  The true destiny of man lies in gratuitous perfection that is beyond the human person yet relates
with him/her thoroughly in freedom and, therefore, in fullness of love.
 The relationship and loving invitation exceed the possibilities of achievements and realizations
that are reachable by the human person in himself/herself. 
  The highest perfection of man, for St. Thomas, is in his/her wanting to be with God. 
__________________________________________________________________________________________
"The ethical man is NOT the perfect man but one who wants to be saved by cooperating in freedom with
what is attainable."
__________________________________________________________________________________________

CONCLUSION
 Thomas Aquinas was influential in his articulation of the theory of natural law.

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 He showed us that the universe was determined by an order of love that ought to define the sense of the
good of human beings.
 Whether one believes in a transcendent, loving god or not, he showed how people could intuit an order
to things that was inherent to all beings that existed.
 Whether one was a believer or not, one could see that there is this order which is the ground of people's
wholeness and self-realization.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

MODULE 3.1
APPLYING THE CONCEPTS OF AGENCY AND AUTONOMY TO ONE’S MORAL EXPERIENCE
LEARNING OUTCOME
Apply the concepts of agency and autonomy to one’s moral experience 
OUTLINE:
 LEARNING OUTCOME 
 Introduction
  Autonomous Reason, Goodwill and Duty
  Obligation is Understood as "Man" as an End in Himself/Herself," Autonomous, and Universalization
  Kantian Ethics and Religion
  Conclusion
  References 
__________________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
 Deontology is based on the "light" of one's own reason when maturity and rational capacity take hold of
a person's decision-making.
  We are encouraged to have courage to think on our own, to use our rational will against external
authorities as well as internal base impulses that tend to undermine our autonomy and self-
determination.

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__________________________________________________________________________________________

AUTONOMOUS REASON, GOODWILL AND DUTY

  Kant insists that every time we confront moral situations, there are formally operative a priori
principles that can be brought to the fore.
  Kant's research on ethics has named these as 
  REASON 
  GOODWILL and
  DUTY 
  The foundation of a sound ethics for Immanuel Kant can only be the authority of human reason.
 The voice of God is not heard directly today while man is living in this passing world.
 Voices of ministers and priests who claim to speak for God are but other human beings who
make use of their own reason in trying to understand what goes on around them.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

OBLIGATION IS UNDERSTOOD AS "MAN" AS AN END IN HIMSELF/HERSELF,"

AUTONOMOUS, AND UNIVERSALIZATION
 Obligation for the human person is something one's reason elects and his/her goodwill owns simply as
something he/she ought to do.
 Obligation is simply a MUST, a "categorical imperative" or duty that is defined by reason as doable for
man's volition, and therefore, should be carried out by the human person.
 "Man as an end in himself" means the obligation cannot be passed on to others.
 His/her is AUTONOMOUS in reasoning and willing the execution of his/her defined duty.
 One's reason is also the presence of other reasonable beings one ought to strive to be in accord with.
  "Man as an end in himself" conjoined with this responsibility to reach for duty that is universalizable
necessarily demands that other human persons ought to be treated not as instruments in the execution of
what one should do but as fellow reasonable beings, ends in themselves.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

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KANTIAN ETHICS AND RELIGION

 Immanuel Kant full established the independence of his ethics from religion.
 A "religion is not true itself," according to Kant, if it goes against what man "ought to do" as defined by
his/her autonomous reason and goodwill that reaches for universality.
 Only false religion or cult falls unreasonably to superstition and does away with duty as an
obligation for his/her goodwill.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

IS KANT AGAINST RELIGION?

 NO. For him, the value of religion rests on its reality as an openness to "what one can hope for."
 Religion for Kant is the very openness of ethics to the complementary strength that is provided by hope.
DOES KANT DEFINE "HAPPINESS" AS THE MOTIVATION FOR HIS ETHICS OF DUTY?
  No, he does not.
  What is ethical is indifferent to happiness for Kant and is purely motivated by duty itself.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

KANT ON HAPPINESS
  Happiness is understood by the human reason as reasonably related to ethics.
  "He/She who has lived justly by doing his/her obligation dutifully is the most fitting for happiness."*
 “Happiness ought to be related to the ethical task of man.”
  Happiness CANNOT be a motivation for the ethical obligation of man according to Kant. 
 The ethical person is open to happiness he/she cannot give to himself/herself. 
 His/her DUTY can also be an expression of hope that "he/she can make himself/herself worthy
of happiness."
__________________________________________________________________________________________

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KANT ON THE ETHICAL PERSON

• Someone who woos in courtship that person one likes.
• Someone who cannot oblige the other to give him/her a positive answer to his/her offering of love and
devotion. 
• Someone who can only make himself/herself worthy of a "yes."
__________________________________________________________________________________________

CONCLUSION
 Kant's ethics provided for a ground for legislating norms of rational behavior for autonomous persons.
 His ethical system emerged at a time when Western civilization sought for a foundation for moral
behavior that did not depend on faith or tradition.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

MODULE 3.2
APPLYING UTILITARIANISM IN UNDERSTANDING AND EVALUATING LOCAL AND
INTERNATIONAL SCENARIOS
LEARNING OUTCOME
Apply utilitarianism in understanding and evaluating local and international scenarios 
OUTLINE 
 Learning Outcome
 Introduction
 The Greatest Happiness Principle 
 Replies to Objections 
 The Ultimate Sanction
 Conclusion
 References 

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__________________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION 
  Human decisions always have consequences.
 Utilitarianism is an effort to provide an answer to the practical question “What ought a person to do?”
v The answer is that a person ought to act so as to produce the best consequences possible.
  The principle of utility is about our subjection of the two sovereign masters: pleasure and pain.

VIRTUE ETHICS DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS UTILITARIANISM

Emphasizes the character of Emphasizes the motivation of duty Judge’s actions based on the quality
the agents and quantity of pleasure they are able
to extend to as many people as
possible

John Stuart Mill, (born May 20, 1806, London, England—died May 8,

1873, Avigno, France), English philosopher, economist, and exponent
of Utilitarianism.

He was prominent as a publicist in the reforming age of the 19th century,

and remains of lasting interest as a logician and an ethical theorist.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

THE GREATEST HAPPINESS PRINCIPLE

 In Mill's ethics, actions are understood as right with respect to their capacity to promote happiness and
wrong when they tend to promote the opposite of happiness.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Mill's Definition on Happiness and Unhappiness

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HAPPINESS UNHAPPINESS

It is pleasure and the absence of It is the pain and the absence of

pain. pleasure.

NOTE: For Mill, the Principle of Utility or the Greatest Happiness Principle is the supreme measure of
morality. 

OBJECTORS OF THE DOCTRINE OF SUPPORTERS OF THE DOCTRINE OF MILL

MILL

It is a doctrine suited for the followers of the It is actually the accusers (objectors) that present the
Ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus who human person in a degrading light by implying that
thought that the purpose of philosophy is to human beings are incapable of experiencing any other
attain happiness and tranquility. form of pleasure other than that comparable to an animal.

NOTE: Epicurus believed that happiness corresponds to ataraxia and aponia, the peace and freedom from fear
and the absence of pain, respectively.

Bentham's version of utilitarianism focuses on the potential amount or

quantity of happiness that an action can potentially produce for it to be
considered right.

Mill's ethics makes a sharp and nuanced division of higher and lower
forms of pleasure in terms of quality.

WHAT MILL IS NOT SAYING?

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 That people who has experienced both the pleasures of sensation and pleasures of the intellect
consistently prefer the latter on every occasion.
 That the competent judges of pleasures always prefer the higher forms of pleasure.

WHAT MILLS DOES NOT CLAIM WHAT MILLS CLAIMS

That the exercise of distinct human faculties like the That the pleasures derived from uniquely
intellect has a greater intrinsic value than the exercise of human activities such as reading, conversing
those that promote the pleasures of sensation. with others, and philosophizing have
superior value than other forms of activities.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

REPLIES TO OBJECTIONS
To the Objection that Happiness is UNATTAINABLE
 Mill responds by saying that if his objectors define happiness as a continuity of highly pleasurable
excitement, then it is true that such a life is indeed impossible.  
 Pleasures often only last for a certain period.
 The life of happiness defined in his theory is NOT a life of rapture but an existence made up of a few,
transitory pains, different pleasures with a decided predominance of pleasure over pain.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

To the Objection that Happiness is UNATTAINABLE

 Mills asserts that a satisfied and happy life is mainly composed of a balance between tranquility and
excitement.
 Another reason why some experience difficulties in being happy is lack of mental cultural cultivation. 
 Happiness is attainable if one understands it realistically and lives one's life in solidarity with others and
cultivates one's deeper capacity to enjoy that which endures in the transitory. 
__________________________________________________________________________________________

To the Objection that UTILITARIAN MORALITY is INCOMPATIBLE with SELF-

SACRIFICE
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  Mill answers this objection by saying that utilitarianism does not recognize the goodness of self-
sacrifice which places the welfare of others over and above one's own but only to the extent that it is
done for the sake of promoting the greatest happiness of the greatest number, and for no other reason is
it acceptable other than this.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

To the Objection that UTILITARIAN MORALITY is INCOMPATIBLE 

with SELF-SACRIFICE
  He reiterates that utilitarianism not only promotes the happiness of the agent but of all concerned who
potentially experience the consequences of the agent's act.
 Utilitarianism upholds the belief that a truly moral person always tries to incorporate the good of others
in every decision he/she makes.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

To the Objection that SOCIAL CONCERN IS A RARE MOTIVE FOR ACTION

v  For Mill, a distinction must be made between the motives and the consequences of one's actions with
respect to which of the two is the basis for judging an act to be moral or not. 
v  One must distinguish between the rule of action and the motive.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

To the Objection that SOCIAL CONCERN IS A RARE MOTIVE FOR ACTION

v  From the utilitarian perspective, the motive has nothing to do with the morality of an action.
v  Mill says that a great number of actions are meant to benefit individuals rather than the greater majority.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

THE ULTIMATE SANCTION

  Although external sanctions like those that emanate from social and supernatural sources enforce the
utilitarian principle, they do not compel one to follow it.
 According to Mill, it is man's "feeling for humanity" that constitutes the ultimate sanction of the
principle of utility
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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External Sanctions that Provide the Impetus for Moral Conduct
 Fear of Displeasing God (if one believes in a God)
 Fear of Disapproval from other people*
  Mill explains that although external sanctions do promote the welfare of the whole, it is still the
internal sanction of conscience that is considered as the ultimate sanction of morality.
  Conscience is the internationalization of the external sanctions of morality that feels remorse each
time one acts without considering first the effect or consequences of one's actions in other people's lives.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion
  Utilitarianism espoused the Greatest Happiness Principle, which states that actions are right when they
promote the happiness of the greatest number and wrong if they cause the opposite.
  The principle of utility judges the morality of actions based on consequences.
  Pleasures of the mind are considered higher than the pleasures of the flesh.
  To contribute to the pleasure of others and to decrease the measure of pain that afflicts them is one's
realization of a truly moral life.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

MODULE 4.1
EXAMINING THE ETHICAL DIMENSION OF ENVIRONMENT AND BUSINESSES.
COURSE OUTCOME:
 Produce a community need and explain the importance of that project from a moral standpoint.
OUTLINE
 Introduction
 Normative Theories of Business Ethics
 The Stockholder Theory
 The Stakeholder Theory
 The Social Contract
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 Stages of Organizational Moral Development
 Conclusion
 References
__________________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
ETHICS AND BUSINESS
 The business element refers to the application of values within a business context.
 'BUSINESS' - means that a firm must earn a profit in order to survive and to serve its mission.
 Business Ethics as a process of responsible decision making.
 Every worker in a company and certainty everyone in a management role, will be faced with an
issue that will require ethical decision making.
 Must rely on personal values and principles of the individuals involved. Individuals will have to
decide for themselves what type of person they want to be. 
__________________________________________________________________________________________

NORMATIVE THEORIES OF BUSINESS ETHICS:

THE STOCKHOLDER THEORY - 
 This states that business are merely arrangements by which one group of people, the stockholders, and
advance capital to another group, the managers to be used to realize specified ends and for which the
stockholder receive an ownership interest in the venture.
THE STAKEHOLDER THEORY - 
 It holds that the management's fundamental obligation is not to maximize the firm's financial success but
to ensure its survival by balancing the conflicting claims of multiple stakeholders.
THE SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY - 
 It states that all businesses are ethically obligated to enhance the welfare of society by satisfying
consumer and employee interest without violating any of the general canons of justice.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

STAGES OF ORGANIZATIONAL MORAL DEVELOPMENT:

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THE AMORAL ORGANIZATION
 Winning at any cost' attitude.
THE LEGALISTIC CORPORATION
 It exhibits compliance with the letter of the law as opposed to the spirit of the law.
THE RESPONSIVE CORPORATION
 It begins to acquire values other than profitability and legality.
THE EMERGENT ETHICAL ORGANIZATION
 Actively seeks greater balance between profit and ethics.
THE ETHICAL ORGANIZATION
 Normative moral theories are used as guides for designing various activities.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

CONCLUSION
1. What are the different approaches in Business Environment Responsibility?
2. What are the principles of sustainable business?
__________________________________________________________________________________________

MODULE 4.2
ANALYZING IMPORTANT MORAL CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION
OBJECTIVE
• Produce a creative work that addresses a community need and explain the importance of that project
from a moral standpoint.
OUTLINE
 Introduction
 Global Ethics
 Globalization
 Humanistic Education

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 Narratives
 Narrative in Education
 Conclusion
 References
__________________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
 Globalization in our day has become a key word for a process that is primary concerning an
international expansion of economy, or more precisely, a systematic intertwining of financial capitalism
and communication technology that seems to exceed any control by the nation- state and hence by social
policy (Apel, 2000)
GLOBAL ETHICS
 The possibility of understanding and practicing ethics in the basis of humanity shared by all. 
GLOBALIZATION
 May be understood not just in terms of a single, unified system which links one country with
another but also in terms of a growing awareness of such common human bond.  
COMMUNITARIAN
 Is a philosophy that emphasizes on the connection between the individual and the community.   
HUMANISTIC EDUCATION
 Is a person- centered education, an approach to education based on the work of humanistic
psychologists, places a great deal of emphasis on learners/ students' choice and learning.  
 It is crucial in the articulation of Global Ethics.
THEORY OF JUSTICE (RAWLS, 1971)
 It gave way to a boom in political ethics, especially with regards to the international discussion
of human rights and universal acceptability of democracy. 
POLITICAL LIBERALISM (RAWLS, 1993)
 It has abandoned the claim to a free- standing philosophical, moral foundation of the theory of
justice (obviously under the impact of communitarian) thesis that all philosophical theories of
morality must be dependent on comprehensive views of metaphysics. 

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 MISAMIS UNIVERSITY
Ozamiz City 7200, Philippines
Tel No. +63 88 521-0367 / Telefax No. +63 88 521-2917
Email Address: mu@mu.edu.ph
CERTIFIED: ISO 9001:2015 Risk Management – Det Norske Veritas, The Netherlands
ACCREDITED: Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities Commission on Accreditation
(PACUCOA)
NARRATIVES
 They are tools to humanistic education to enhance the students' ability to experience and exercise
sympathy.  
NARRATIVE IMAGINATION
 It is a basic competency that individuals should develop to become genuine global citizens.
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CONCLUSION
1. How different is ethics from value maximization?
2. How ethics applied in companies and law?
3. What is the significance of ethics in globalization? 

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