ANC-Verbal Grammar Notes For All Competitive Exams

ANC - VERBAL GRAMMAR NOTES
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 ARTICLES...................................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER 2 PARTS OF SPEECH ................................................................................................................ 12
NOUN ..................................................................................................................................................................... 12
PRONOUNS ........................................................................................................................................................... 19
ADJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................................................... 22
VERBS .................................................................................................................................................................... 25
ADVERBS .............................................................................................................................................................. 31
PREPOSITIONS ..................................................................................................................................................... 33
CONJUNCTIONS................................................................................................................................................... 40
INTERJECTIONS ................................................................................................................................................... 42
CHAPTER 3 SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT .............................................................................................. 43
CHAPTER 4 PARALLEL STRUCTURE ....................................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 5 TENSES .................................................................................................................................... 52
PRESENT TENSES ................................................................................................................................................ 52
PAST TENSES........................................................................................................................................................ 57
FUTURE TENSES .................................................................................................................................................. 60
TENSES TABLE IN SHORT .................................................................................................................................. 64
CHAPTER 6 ACTIVE PASSIVE .................................................................................................................... 65
CHAPTER 7 NARRATION ............................................................................................................................ 71
CHANGES IN REPORTED SPEECH ................................................................................................................................ 74
NARRATION RULES TABLE ....................................................................................................................................... 75
CHAPTER 8 CONDITIONALS ...................................................................................................................... 76

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CHAPTER 1 ARTICLES
A, AN & THE
Articles are a type of determiner and they go before a noun.

A/an before a noun shows that what is referred to is not already known to the speaker,
listener, writer and/or reader (it is the indefinite article):
Shiva: Do you have a car?

Do you live in a house?
Julie: No, actually, I live in an apartment.
The before a noun shows that what is referred to is already known to the speaker,
listener, writer and/or reader (it is the definite article):
When do we use articles?
With countable nouns

 We only use a/an with singular countable nouns:
Example 1: I have a sister and a brother.
Example 2: That was an excellent meal.
 We can use the with singular and plural countable nouns:

The tree fell.
The lion roared.
The lions roared. The trees fell.
With uncountable nouns

 We don’t use a/an before uncountable nouns:
Example 1: Could I have rice instead of potatoes with my fish?

Not: Could I have a rice.
Example 2: I hope we have nice weather.

Not: I hope we have a nice weather.

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 We can use the before uncountable nouns when they refer to a specific
example.
Example 1: The rice we bought in the Thai shop is much better.
Example 2: The weather was awful last summer.
 To talk about an individual quantity or more than one quantity of an

uncountable noun, we use expressions such as a bit of, a piece of or a[specific
measure] of:
Example 1: That’s an amazing bit of news.

Not: That’s an amazing news.
Example 2 : Could I have a litre of milk, please?

Not: Could I have a milk, please?
General nouns
 We only use the with general plural nouns when we are referring to a specific
set within a general class of people or things.
Books are so important in my life. I mean all books in general.

The books were all over the floor. I mean specific books (that you and I
know).
We can make general nouns specific by using an article and adding more information
after the noun.
The life of a soldier is full of

Life is wonderful. (life in general) danger.(specifically the life of soldiers,
not life in general)
She had a life of hard work. (one specific
life)
He wrote a book on the history of
History sometimes repeats boxing.(specifically the history of boxing)
itself. (history in general)
The country has a history of going to
war.(one specific history of one country)

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without the definite article with the definite article – the
 Names of directions
 *seasons of the year (spring, summer,
autumn, winter)
The Sun rises in the East
 names of persons on the singular,

 family names in the plural
relatives
 The Aggarwals live in Chandigarh.
 Sai and Vandana live in London.
 Historical buildings, holy books,

 Names of metals, Names of
epics, names of newspapers
sports/games,
The charminar, The Taj Mahal,
 Gold, Cricket
The Kuran, The Mahabharata, The

Seattle Times.
 names of countries in the singular,

summits of mountains, continents, towns  names of countries in the plural,
mountain ranges, regions
 Germany
 the United States of America , the

 Netherlands, the Himalayas.

 Single islands  groups of islands
Bermuda eg. the British Isles
 name with of-phrase, oceans, seas,

rivers
 parks, lakes, streets
 the Statue of Liberty
 Central Park, Hussain Sagar Lake
 the Indian (Ocean)

 the Mediterranean (Sea)
 the Ganges, the Suez Canal

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without the definite article with the definite article – the
 months, days of the week (definite)

 months, days of the week (indefinite)

 I always remember the Monday
 The weekend is over on Monday morning.
 when I had an accident.


 July and August are the most popular
 The August of 2001 was hot and
 months for holidays.
 dry.
* The American English word fall is always used with the definite article the.
Observe these examples:-
1. My brother’s learning how to play the violin.
We use the definite article when talking about what kind of music we play. But when
the focus on the instrument itself as an object we use a or the according to the
circumstances. Examples:-
 I’d buy a piano if we had a big enough house.

 The piano we looked at in the shop last week has been sold.
2. My sister’s learning how to play golf.
For sports and games we do not use an article. If we are talking about the ball as an
object we use a or the according to the circumstances. Examples:-
 I’d like a basketball for my birthday.

 The basketball we used yesterday seemed too heavy.
3. I like to spend my holidays at the sea, lying on the beach.
We usually use the definite article with sea, although it is a count noun.
4. My brother’s a sailor. He’s been at sea for three months now.
In this case the meaning is that the brother has been sailing from port to port for some
time. There is no reference to a particular body of water.

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5. All my family is sick. I’ve got a cold; my sister has the flu, and my brother has
bronchitis.
There is no explanation for why these different diseases have different uses of the
articles. It is just the case!
6. What’s for lunch today?
It’s unusual to have an article in front of the words for meals, unless you are referring
to a specific meal that you have had.
 I’ll always remember the first dinner we had together.
7. I need to clean the carpet. It’s filthy!
The definite article is used here because there is usually only one carpet in a room.
(Smaller carpets are called rugs.)
8. I need to buy a carpet. My feet always feel cold on this wooden floor.
The indefinite article is correct here since the carpet is unknown to the listener (and
speaker).
9. Boys will be boys!
When we are referring to all of a particular count noun, we do not use an article.
10. My brother is a doctor.
For statements of someone’s profession we always use the indefinite article.
11. Can you call a/the doctor please? I don’t feel at all well.
Both answers are correct. If you are at home and feel sick you would use the definite
article if you are referring to your house doctor who is known to the person you are
speaking to.
If on the other hand you are on holiday and you say the sentence to a stranger, you
would probably use the indefinite article.
12. Sometimes life is hard.
In this context life is an uncountable noun and therefore does not require an article.

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13. Wine is very cheap in France. Even a good one costs less than €10 a bottle.
When referring to measurements or containers in this way, we usually use the

indefinite article.
 This pork costs €15 a kilo.

 That toothpaste is €3.50 a tube.
14. Apples are usually sold by the kilo. These here are 40 Rs. a kilo.
In contrast to the explanation in number 13, things are sold by the kilo, by the ounce,
by the meter etc.
15. I like watching TV better than listening to the radio.
It is also correct to use the definite article in front of TV, but with radio the definite
article is required.
16. I always travel to England at night.
For some reason when we are referring to times of day, we say in the morning, in the
afternoon etc., but at night.
17. She fell ill in the night.
However, when we are referring to a specific night, we use the definite article.
18. There are billions of stars in space.
Space, meaning the universe around us, is always used without an article.
19. Can you please clear a space in that cupboard? I need to put my things in it.
In this sentence space means an area not containing other objects. Such spaces can be
counted, and as a count noun we use a or the according to the circumstances.
20. It’s a fact that English people talk a lot about the weather.
This is similar to number 9. When we are referring to all of a particular count noun,
we do not use an article.
21. It’s a fact that the English talk a lot about the weather.

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However, when we refer to a nationality without using the word people, we

sometimes do and sometimes don’t use an article. (It seems to depend on whether we
can change the noun into a plural form.)
 Germans love to travel. or The Germans love to travel.

 French drink a lot of wine. The French drink a lot of wine.
 Japanese make great cameras. The Japanese make great cameras.
22. The rose is my favourite flower.
We use the definite article when the focus is on something as a representative of its
class; when we are not referring to a particular example of it.
 The lion is the proudest of beasts.

 The whale may be extinct by the end of the next century.
In such examples it is also possible to use the plural form without an article.
 Whales may be extinct by the end of the next century.
23. The computer has changed the workplace out of all recognition.
The definite article is used here for the same reasons as in number 22.
24. A computer can only do what it is programmed to do.
25. I don’t like using the phone. I prefer to talk to people in person.
The focus in this sentence is on the phone as a means of communication not as a

particular object in the room. For this reason the definite article is used.
If the focus were on the object itself we would use a or the according to the
circumstances.
 I’m going to buy a new phone. I hate the noise this one makes when it rings!
 I liked the phone we saw at the airport yesterday. It was really easy to use.
In person is an idiom and so there is no further explanation for why we don’t use an
article.

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26. It’s time to go home now.
When we use the word time to mean clock time, it is usually countable, but in this
particular expression no article is used. Compare:
 A good time to meet would be after lunch break.

 She phoned me many times yesterday.
27. Do you have the time? Yes, it’s six thirty.
This is another reference to clock time, in this case a particular time, and so the
definite article is used.
28. I had a wonderful time in Paris last weekend.
Time here is broadly synonymous with "occasion" which is a count noun and so the
definite or indefinite article is used according to the situation.
29. I cannot remember a time when houses were so expensive as they are now.
30. The sky was getting dark as I arrived home.
The definite article is used for objects of which there is only one, the sky, the sun, the
moon etc.
31. I travelled home under a dark sky.
But in this case the indefinite article is used because the focus is on a particular sky,
i.e. tonight’s sky as opposed to other the skies of other days this week and in the past.
In this way the word sky has been made countable and can therefore be used with the
indefinite article.
32. If you carry on like that, you’ll end up in prison.
No article is used when the focus is on the punishment for a crime rather than on the
building itself.
33. A warden is a person who works in a prison.
Again the meaning of the word prison is as a place but as no particular prison is in the
mind of the speaker, the indefinite article is used.

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34. When you enter the prison you will see a large white building on the right-hand
side.
Here the meaning of the word prison is as a particular place, known to the listener,
and so the definite article is used.
***********

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CHAPTER 2 PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUN
Words which fall under name, place, thing, event or idea are known as noun. A noun
is usually the main part of a sentence. For example girl, apple, India, party, bird etc.
These words are grouped under noun. The image below explains the same:

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Nouns have several important functions. While it’s impossible to list them all here,
we’ll go over the most important jobs nouns are tasked with.
Nouns are subjects. Every sentence has a subject, which is a noun that tells us what
that sentence is all about.
John swung the baseball bat.
Nouns are direct objects. These nouns receive action from verbs.
John swung the baseball bat.
Nouns are indirect objects. These nouns receive the direct object.
Brad threw John the ball.
Nouns are objects of prepositions. These nouns follow the prepositions in

prepositional phrases.
John swung the baseball bat at Greg.
Nouns are predicate nominatives. These nouns follow linking verbs and rename the
subject.
John is a baseball player.
Nouns are object complements. These nouns complete the direct object.
They named their dog Max.
Types of Nouns:
There are different types of Nouns, they are as under;
1. Common noun
2. Proper noun
3. Collective noun
4. Abstract noun
5. Countable noun

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6. Uncountable noun
Now, let us start with common noun and proper noun.
1. Common Noun:
Words that are used to represent a general form of place, people, thing etc are known
as common nouns. These words are not very specific. These words are capitalized
when they are used as the first word in a sentence.
Let’s see an example,
‘A girl is sitting on the bench.’

In this sentence, words ‘girl’ and ‘bench’ are nouns. These words are common nouns
because they are very general and do not go into specific details like which girl or
name of the girl or which bench etc.
2. Proper Noun:
Words which refer to a specific person or a place such as name of a person or a place
come under proper noun. These words are always capitalized as they refer to a
specific person or a place.
Let’s see an example,
 ‘Sita is sitting on the bench.’

Here ‘Sita‘is a proper noun as this word refers to a particular person but the bench is
still a common noun.
Another example,
 ‘Sita lives in Delhi.’
Here ‘Sita‘and ‘Delhi’ are proper nouns because Sita refers to a particular person and
Delhi refers to a specific place.
This brings us to the next stage in understanding Nouns – Singular and Plural of
Noun:

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When a noun represents only one object, person or place then it is known as singular
noun. For example, girl, bottle, mountain, plan etc.
When a noun represents more than one object, person or place it is known as plural
noun. For example, girls, bottles, mountains, plan etc.
There are few rules to form plural of a noun.
 Plural of a noun if formed by adding an‘s’ to the noun. For example,
Lamb Lambs
Bird Birds
School Schools
Plan Plans
Apple Apples
 If a noun ends with x, z, s or sh then, for plural form add ‘es’ to the noun. For
example,
Watch Watches
Bus Buses
 If a noun ends with f or fe then, change f to v and add es

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Thief Thieves
Leaf Leaves
 Some exceptions,
Man Men
Woman Women
Child Children
Species Species
Aerobics Aerobics
3. Collective Noun:
There are few nouns which are always represented in a collective form or as a group.
These nouns are always treated as singular. For example
 He has a library of books in his study room.

A library here is a singular.
 I buy a sack of rice every month.
In this sentence, a sack of rice is taken as a single object. A sack may contain
many rice grains but the entire sack is considered as a single entity.

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Here are few examples of collective noun,
 A school of fish
 A pride of lions
 A library of books
 A crowd of people
 A pack of cards
 A bowl of rice
 A galaxy of stars
 A kennel of dogs
 An army of ants
 A crew of sailors
 A bunch of musicians
 A group of dancers
 A tribe of natives
4. Abstract Noun:
Any noun which cannot be seen but can be felt is known as Abstract noun. This noun
is always represented in singular form. It mainly expresses intangible things like
feelings, ideals, concept and qualities. Few examples of abstract noun are
 Idea
 Air
 Belief
 Skill
 Beauty
 Bravery
 Courage

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 Curiosity
 Fear
 Evil
 Sophistication
 Sensitivity
 Talent
 Tolerance
 Trust
Have a look at this sentence…..
 Beauty lies within a person’s heart.
Here the word beauty is the main subject of the sentence. Beauty cannot be seen. It
is an opinion which can differ from person to person.
5. Countable Noun:
Nouns like objects , people etc. which we can count are countable nouns. For
example,
 I have ten pencils in my house.
Here pencil is a countable noun.
6. Uncountable Noun:
Nouns which we cannot count are known as uncountable nouns. Here are few
examples,
 Bread
 Rice
 Sugar
 Flour
 Water
 Milk
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 Cheese
 Butter
 Honey
Note: Do not get confused between collective noun and countable noun. Collective
nouns are words which are used to represent a group of people or animals or a
collection of objects. It can either be countable or uncountable. But a noun is called a
countable noun only when it can be specified as a number.
PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words which are used to represent nouns.
There are different types of pronouns namely
1. Personal Pronouns:

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Personal pronouns are of three types. They are
a) First Person Pronoun

b) Second Person Pronoun
c) Third Person Pronoun
2. Reflexive Pronoun:
They are used in such a way that the action defined in the sentence turns back at the
subject. Example,
 I hurt myself.
Who got hurt? I.
3. Emphatic Pronoun:
The compound pronouns such as myself, themselves, itself, herself etc can act as
emphatic pronouns.
They are used to emphasize the subject.
 I will do it myself.
 I myself heard the remark.
The word myself here tries to add more force to the subject.
4. Demonstrative Pronoun:
Words such as ‘this’, ‘these’, ‘those’, ‘that’, ‘such’ etc which tries to point out an
object are known as demonstrative pronouns.
Take a look at this example,
 I have heard your explanations. These are merely excuses.
5. Indefinite Pronoun:
Words which refer to a person or thing in a general way but not in particular are
known as indefinite pronouns.
Some of indefinite pronouns are ‘one’, ‘none’, ‘somebody’, ‘nobody’, ‘few’, ‘many’,
‘others’, ‘any’, ‘anybody’, ‘everyone’ etc. Example,

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 None of his poems are well known.
6. Distributive Pronoun:
Words which refer to persons or things but one at a time are known as distributive
pronouns.
Generally ‘each’, ‘either’, and ‘neither’ are called distributive pronouns. Example,
 Either of these roads leads to the railway station.
7. Relative Pronoun:
If a pronoun tries to relate to a noun which is mentioned earlier in a sentence

(antecedent), then this pronoun is called relative pronoun.
Words like ‘who’, ‘whose’ and ‘whom’ are known as relative pronouns based on their
usage in a sentence. Example,
 These are the boys whom all praise.

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ADJECTIVES
There are five types of adjectives. They are.
1. Adjective of quality
2. Adjective of quantity
3. Adjective of number
4. Demonstrative Adjective
5. Interrogative Adjective
1. Adjective of Quality:
Words which are used to describe about the kind or quality of a noun are known as
adjectives of quality. Example,
 She is a beautiful girl.
In this sentence, the word she is a pronoun which represents a noun and the
word beautiful is an adjective. Here the adjective explains or adds more
information about the noun in terms of its kind. Hence it is called adjective of
quality.
2. Adjective of Quantity:
Words which show the quantity of thing needed for a noun are known as adjectives of
quantity. Example,
 Take great care of your health.
In this sentence, the word health is the noun and the word great is an adjective.
Here the adjective is used to express the quantity or the amount needed for the
noun. Hence this is known as adjective of quantity.
3. Adjective of Number:
Words which are used to express the exact quantity of noun are known as adjectives
of number. Example,
 I have taught you many things.

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Here many is an adjective which describes the noun things. The adjective is used to
specify the quantity of the noun. Hence, it is known as adjective of number.
Adjective of number are of three types namely.
a) Definite Numeral Adjective

b) Indefinite Numeral Adjective
c) Distributive Numeral Adjective
a) Definite Numeral Adjective:
Words which express the exact number are known as definite numeral adjectives.
There are two types of definite numeral adjectives,
a) Cardinals (one, two, three etc.)

b) Ordinals (first, second, third etc.)
For example,
 He came first in his class.
Here the word first is the adjective which is used to describe the position of the
noun.
b) Indefinite Numeral Adjective:
Words which do not express the exact quantity are known as indefinite numeral
adjectives. Some of indefinite numeral adjectives are
 All
 No
 Many
 Few
 Some
 Any

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 Several
 Certain
For example,
 All Indians are my brothers and sisters.
Here the word all is an adjective which is used to describe the quantity of
noun Indians but not the exact number.
c) Distributive Numeral Adjective:
Words which points out or describes noun one at a time are known as distributive
numeral adjectives.
For example,
 Either pen will do.
Here the word either is the adjective used to point out one noun from a group of
nouns.
4. Demonstrative Adjective:
Words which are used to point any noun in particular are known as demonstrative
adjectives. Some of the demonstrative adjectives are this, these, those, that etc.
Example:
 These mangoes are tasty.
In this sentence, the word these is an adjective which is used to represent a set of
noun in this case, mangoes.
5. Interrogative Adjective:
Words which are used to ask questions are known as interrogative adjectives. Some of
interrogative adjectives are what, which, whose etc. Example,
 Whose book is it?

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In this sentence, the word whose is an adjective which is used to question the
ownership of the noun in this case, book.
Note: Adjective of number and Adjective of quantity depends on the usage in a

sentence.
VERBS
A word which denotes an action or state of noun or subject is known as verb.
Example:-
 Sheela eats an apple daily.
Here the word Sheela is a noun and the word eats is a verb. The verb in this
sentence expresses the action done by the noun.
There are different types of verbs namely,
1. Action Verb
2. Dynamic and Static Verb
3. Linking Verb
4. Regular and Irregular Verb
5. Finite and Non-finite Verb
6. Modal Verb
7. Auxiliary Verb
8. State Verb
1. Action Verb:
Verb which talks about the action of the subject or object is known as action verb.
Example:
 Sachin plays cricket.
Here Sachin is the subject and the word plays denote the action performed by the
subject. Hence, it is called an action verb.

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An action verb answers the question “What is the subject or object doing?”
There are two types of action verbs namely,
a) Transitive Verb
b) Intransitive Verb
a) Transitive Verb:
Have a look at this sentence,

 Pranav and Rohit are watering roses in the garden.
Here Pranav and Rohit are subject, the word watering is an action verb and the
word roses is the object. If a verb denotes the action performed by the subject on
an object then it is known as transitive verb.
So ask this question, what is the subject doing?
The subject is watering roses. So the subject is performing an action on the object.
b) Intransitive Verb:
Example:
 Keerthi is reading right now.
Here Keerthi is the subject and reading is the verb. In this sentence, the object is
not specified. Hence the verb which is used to define the action of the subject in a
sentence in which specific details about the object is not given is known as
intransitive verb.
2. Dynamic and Static Verb:
Verbs which are used to denote the state or action of the subject and are not concerned
about the object fall under this category.

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Dynamic Verb:
Verb which denotes the action or expression or process done by the subject is known
as dynamic verb. Example,
 Sheela dresses well daily.

Here the word Sheela is the subject and the word dresses is the verb. The verb
defines an action performed by the subject. Hence it is known as dynamic verb.
Static Verb:
Verb which is used to express the state or situation of the subject is known as static
verb. These verbs help us understand the state of mind of the subject or the relation
between the subject and the object. Example,
 Venkat prefers coffee over tea.

Here the word Venkat is the subject and the word prefers is the verb. The verb
describes the relationship between the subject and the object in this sentence.
Hence it is known as Static verb.
3. Linking Verb:
This verb does not tell or denote anything about the subject or object. It is simply used
to link the subject o noun with an adjective or helps in providing additional
information about the subject in the sentence. Example,
 Bhuvanesh is very particular about his work.

Here Bhuvanesh is the subject and the word is is the verb. Here the verb is used to
link the adjective and to give additional information about the subject.

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4. Regular & irregular verbs
Regular Verbs
Those verbs that form their past participle with‘d’ or ‘ed’ are regular verbs. These
verbs do not undergo substantial changes while changing forms between tenses.
If the verb ends with a vowel, only‘d’ is added. For example,
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE
Share Shared
Scare Scared
Dare Dared
If the verb ends with a consonant, ‘ed’ is added. For example,
Want Wanted
Shout Shouted
Kill Killed
Irregular Verbs
Those verbs that undergo substantial changes when changing forms between tenses
are irregular verbs. The changed forms of these verbs are often unrecognizably
different from the originals. For example:

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Go Went
Run Ran
Think Thought
5. Finite & non-finite verbs
Finite Verbs
Finite Verbs are those verbs that have a definite relation with the subject or noun.
These verbs are usually the main verb of a clause or sentence and can be changed
according to the noun. They are used only in present and past tense. They can be
indicative of passive or active voice and also of number (singular or plural).
 She walks home - Here we see that the finite verb is walks and the pronoun is
'she'.
 She walked home - Here we can see how the verb changed/modified to change
the tense of the sentence.
Non-Finite Verbs
These verbs cannot be the main verb of a clause or sentence as they do not talk about
the action that is being performed by the subject or noun. They do not indicate any
tense, mood or gender. They are used as nouns, adverbs and adjectives. They are also
used to form non-finite clauses which are simply dependent clauses that use non-finite
verbs.
 He loves camping in the woods. - Here the non-finite verb is camping and it is
used as a noun. These kind of non-finite verbs are called Gerunds.
 I need to go to sleep. - Here the non- finite verb phrase is to sleep; it is acting as
a noun. Non-finite verbs that use ‘to’ before them are called Infinitives.
 The sleeping dog caused a delay. - The nonfinite verbs that have ‘-ing’ or ‘-ed’
as suffixes and cause the verb to come an adjective are called Participles.

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6. Modal verbs
The main modal verbs are:

Modal verbs have meanings that are connected with degrees of certainty and
necessity:
 I will be there at the meeting tomorrow by 10:30. (speaker is certain)
 It might rain today.(speaker is less certain)
 I must tell her that tomorrow is a holiday. (speaker considers this very
necessary)
7. Auxiliary verbs
Another type of verbs includes auxiliary verbs. There are three auxiliary verbs in
English that are: be, do and have. Auxiliary verbs generally come before the main
verb.
1. Be
The auxiliary be is used to indicate the continuous and the passive voice:
I’m waiting for him since an hour (continuous)
My money was stolen from my purse. (Passive)
2. Do
The auxiliary do is used in interrogative, negative and emphasized structures:
Does Mr. Robin live here? (Interrogative)
I didn’t know there was a test today. (Negative)
Oh no, I do appreciate your efforts! (Emphatic, with spoken stress on do)
3. Have
The auxiliary have is used to indicate any perfect tense:1. I’ve lost my car
keys. Have you seen them anywhere? (Present perfect) 2. She had seen my bike
outside the hospital. (Past perfect)

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Auxiliary verb with no main verb
The only possibility when an auxiliary verb appears alone is when the whole sentence
is understood in a particular context. For example:
A: Does he play cricket?
B: Oh Yes, he does. (Yes, he plays cricket.)
8. State and action verbs
These are the verbs that refer to an action, event or state.
1. Action Verbs
The simple of continuous form of action verbs can be used:
1. I rushed to the market as quickly as possible.
2. I am working on the laptop.
2. Event
The simple or continuous form can be used:
1. Do you know? Five people were injured in that accident.
2. It’s snowing outside.
3. State
In this, usually the simple form of verb is used.
“I don’t know anything about mathematics.”
ADVERBS
Adverbs are simply known as words that describe an action. Hence, the words that
describe how a particular action has taken place are known as adverbs. Adverbs are of
five types, these are:
1. Adverb of time:
(Afterwards, already, immediately, recently, now, then, yesterday)

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When you want to know or tell about the time when something is done, use adverb of
time. An adverb of time informs you about ‘when’ something is done. This adverb
is generally used at the start or end of a sentence. Example:-
 I will tell you the story tomorrow.
 Recently, I went to see a match.
2. Adverb of place:
(Above, here, there, outside)
As the name suggests, an adverb of place informs about ‘where’ something has been
done. It is generally used after the verb or the direct object. It can also be used when
the sentence ends. Example:-
 I did not see him here.
3. Adverb of manner:
(Badly, sadly, slowly, carefully, awfully)
An adverb of manner will describe ‘how’ something is done; it describes the manner
in which a particular action is carried out.
These adverbs are put behind the direct object (or behind the verb if there's no direct
object).Example,
 He drove the car carefully.
4. Adverb of Degree:
This adverb informs about the extent to which something is done. Almost, nearly,
quite and so on are all adverbs of degree.
5. Adverb of Frequency:
(Always, never, seldom, usually, Again, almost, frequently)

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An adverb of frequency, as the name tells you, informs about how often something is
done.
Adverbs of frequency are put directly before the main verb. If 'be' is the main verb and
there is no auxiliary verb, adverbs of frequency are put behind 'be'. Example,
 I often go swimming.
 We have never been abroad.
 He does not always play tennis.
PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are short words that are placed before a noun. They are generally used to
tell about time and place. Prepositions, all by themselves are hard to understand, the
words “it, in, under, at” etc. are difficult to understand independently, but when placed
in a sentence, they are of great importance as they describe the relation of other
words. Example,
I found a chocolate on the desk. - The preposition is ‘on’ as it shows the relationship
between chocolate and desk.
She went to sleep late at night. - The preposition is to as it shows the direction where
the girl is going to.
I am watching a movie in the theater. - The preposition is ‘in’ as it denotes the place
which is the theater.
The types of prepositions are:
1. Simple Prepositions
2. Compound Prepositions
3. Phrase Prepositions
4. Participle Prepositions
5. Double Prepositions

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1. Simple prepositions:
These prepositions are used in simple sentences. In includes prepositions such as In,
on, at, to, from, with, by etc. Example,
 I want to go to the movie with you.
 She must be in the mall near the lake.
 We will be going to the book fair tomorrow.
2. Compound prepositions:
Compound prepositions are those when we join two connect nouns, pronouns and
phrases. They contain words such as inside, outside, within, between, before etc.
Example:
 We are between two countries.
 I will leave before she reaches.
3. Phrase Prepositions
According to, in spite of, an account of, in front of, in order to, for the sake of, by
means of, with reference to, in addition to, due to etc. all of these are phrase
prepositions. Phrase prepositions are those which use phrases. Examples,
 According to me, this is the plan to boost the sales of our company.
 In order to win, one must practice
4. Participle Prepositions:
Participle preposition words are concerning, pending, and considering etc. Examples,
 Considering my experience, I should be able to get this job.
 I have written this letter concerning the various health issues in our society.
5. Double Prepositions
Double prepositions generally have two words. These prepositions contain words like
by outside of, out of, from behind and because of etc. Example:

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 We have to solve any three questions out of 5.

 It was just because of Sachin that we lost the match.
Apart from these types of prepositions, there are various other types. The other types
of prepositions include:
1. Prepositions of time
2. Prepositions of location or place
3. Preposition of direction
1. Prepositions of Time:
Prepositions of time, as the name suggests, are used to tell about the time when
something is done. ‘at’ is used for a particular time period, ‘in’ is used for months,
years, centuries and long periods and ‘on’ is used for a particular day or date. For
example: He told me to wait for him at 3 o clock in January on Monday. Other
prepositions of time include: since, for, ago, by, before, to, past and so on. It answers
the question ‘When?’ Examples:
 I have a meeting at 8:00 am tomorrow.
 The time is ten past seven.
 I met her three years ago.
 I haven’t been here for the past three years.

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2. Prepositions of Location (or place):

Prepositions of location indicate the location of a particular thing. You use
prepositions of place in your everyday speech, words such as here, there, under, at,
below, above, in, out etc. are all prepositions of location.

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Example: I am playing hide and seek with my sister, she must be hiding somewhere in
the house. Oh! There she is! Under the bed! Oh no, that’s not her, it’s a doll. She may
be hiding behind the curtains or in the wardrobe!)
Here under and behind are the prepositions of location. It answers the question
‘where?’
Examples:
 I hid all my chocolates under the bed sheet.
 There is a ghost in my wardrobe.
 They asked me to come at the mall for the meeting.
 May I come in?

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3. Preposition of Direction:
As evident from the name itself, prepositions of direction are used to denote motion,
they tell you where to put something or where to go i.e. they express movement.
Examples:
 She ran across the road.
 The kids are playing around the park.
 The train passed through the tunnel.
 I was getting late, so I ran towards the bus stand.

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Some common prepositions:

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CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words that connect two or more sentences. The words such as and,
but, because, so and so on are all conjunctions. They are used to frame long
meaningful sentences and help in maintaining the flow of the sentence. Examples,
 I met Rajesh yesterday and we went out to have some coffee.
 Do you want chocolate or do you want vanilla?
 She couldn’t complete her work on time because she had to attend a party.
 My favorite fruit is Mango, but I also like apple.
Conjunctions are of three types:
1. Coordinating conjunctions
2. Subordinating conjunctions
3. Correlative conjunctions
Let us understand them one by one:
1. Coordinating conjunctions:
These are small, simple conjunctions that are used regularly. There are seven
coordinating conjunctions:
and, but, or, yet, for, nor, so
Exceptions– ‘Then’ and ‘now’ are also conjunctions but they are NOT coordinating
conjunctions; therefore, the rules of coordinating conjunctions will not apply to ‘then’
and ‘now’.
The word “FANBOYS” (F= for, A= and, N= nor, B=but, O=or, Y=yet, S=so) can be
remembered in order to memorize coordinating conjunctions.
Rules for using coordinating conjunctions:
1. You must always remember to put a comma before a coordinating conjunction

when it is connecting two independent clauses.

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A clause is a group of words having a subject and a verb.

An independent clause (also known as main clause) generally expresses a complete
thought; it can be used as a single sentence. For example, “I like to paint.”
A dependent clause does not express a complete thought; it is incomplete and cannot
be used as a separate sentence. For example, “because I have some work.”
You can combine independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction but you must
use a comma before the conjunction. For example:
Incorrect: I want to go to the market but my mother has my car.
Correct: I want to go to the market, but my mother has my car.
Incorrect: Lisa I love dogs yet I cannot have one as a pet.
Correct: I love dogs, yet I cannot have one as a pet.
2. Don’t use comma while connecting two items

You never use a comma while connecting two items, for example:
Incorrect: I love to draw, and paint.
Correct: I love to draw and paint.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions:
These are those which are used at the start of a Dependent Clause and are also used
to establish the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence.
For example:
 As long as we are a team, nothing can stop us.
 I would prefer to stay at home rather than going out for a party.
3. Correlative Conjunctions
These are those conjunctions that combine with other words to form what are termed
as ‘correlative conjunctions’. They always occur in pairs and join various sentence
elements.

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For example:
 You should neither be worried nor be overconfident.
 I am both excited and nervous.
INTERJECTIONS
The words that are used to exclaim, protest or command are called interjections. They
can stand independently but are often part of a larger sentence. For example:
 Wow! I won the competition.

 Oh! That’s so sad.
 No, that’s not right, you can’t do that.
Some interjections which are mild, are used in the beginning of the sentence and
followed by the use of comma, other ones which are more powerful are followed by
an exclamation mark. Interjections are not used in formal or academic writings.
***********

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CHAPTER 3 SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT
Basic Principle: Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need
plural verbs. My brother is a nutritionist. My sisters are mathematicians.
See the section on Plurals for additional help with subject-verb

agreement.
The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are

always singular and, therefore, require singular verbs.
 Everyone has done his or her homework.

 Somebody has left her purse.
Some indefinite pronouns — such as all, some — are singular or plural depending on
what they're referring to. (Is the thing referred to countable or not?) Be careful
choosing a verb to accompany such pronouns.
 Some of the beads are missing.

 Some of the water is gone.
On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or
plural; it often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb — unless
something else in the sentence determines its number. (Writers generally think
of none as meaning not any and will choose a plural verb, as in "None of the engines
are working," but when something else makes us regard none as meaning not one, we
want a singular verb, as in "None of the food is fresh.")
 None of you claims responsibility for this incident?

 None of you claim responsibility for this incident?
 None of the students have done their homework. (In this last example, the
word their precludes the use of the singular verb.
Some indefinite pronouns are particularly

troublesome Everyone and everybody (listed above, also) certainly feel like
more than one person and, therefore, students are sometimes tempted to use a plural
verb with them. They are always singular, though. Each is often followed by a
prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the cars), thus confusing the
verb choice. Each, too, is always singular and requires a singular verb.

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 Everyone has finished his or her homework.
You would always say, "Everybody is here." This means that the word is singular and
nothing will change that.
 Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the
library.
Don't let the word "students" confuse you; the subject is each and each is always
singular — Each is responsible.
Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same
as and. The phrase introduced by as well as or along with will modify the
earlier word (mayor in this case), but it does not compound the subjects (as
the word and would do).
 The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.

 The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.
The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even
though they seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things.
 Neither of the two traffic lights is working.

 Which shirt do you want for Christmas?
Either is fine with me.
In informal writing, neither and either sometimes take a plural verb when these
pronouns are followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with of. This is particularly
true of interrogative constructions: "Have either of you two clowns read the
assignment?" "Are either of you taking this seriously?" Burchfield calls this "a clash
between notional and actual agreement."*
The conjunction or does not conjoin (as and does): when nor or or is used
the subject closer to the verb determines the number of the verb. Whether
the subject comes before or after the verb doesn't matter; the proximity
determines the number.
 Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.

 Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.

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 Are either my brothers or my father responsible?

 Is either my father or my brothers responsible?
Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house"
sounds peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer to the verb
whenever that is possible.
The words there and here are never subjects.
 There are two reasons [plural subject] for this.

 There is no reason for this.
 Here are two apples.
With these constructions (called expletive constructions), the subject follows the verb
but still determines the number of the verb.
Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it and
anything those words can stand for) have s-endings. Other verbs do not
add s-endings.
 He loves and she loves and they love_ and . . . .
Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its verb, but these
modifiers must not confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb.
 The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four
counts of various crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several
political lives, is finally going to jail.
Sometimes nouns take weird forms and can fool us into thinking they're
plural when they're really singular and vice-versa. Words such as glasses,
pants, pliers, and scissors are regarded as plural (and require plural verbs)
unless they're preceded the phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the
subject).
 My glasses were on the bed.

 My pants were torn.
 Where are my spectacles?
 A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.

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Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and
require singular verbs.
 The news from the front is bad.

 Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are nonetheless
plural and require a plural verb.
 My assets were wiped out in the depression.

 The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.
 Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.
The names of sports teams that do not end in "s" will take a plural verb:
 The Miami Heat have been looking.

 The Connecticut Sun are hoping that new talent .
Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority
of are sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning.
(The same is true, of course, when all, any, more, most and some act as
subjects.) Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as
singular and require singular verbs. The expression "more than one" (oddly enough)
takes a singular verb: "More than one student has tried this."
 Some of the voters are still angry.

 A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.
 Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.
 Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.
 Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.
 Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy.
 Two and two is four.
If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is

plural, the other singular, the verb should agree with the positive subject.
 The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on
Valentine's Day.

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 It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue.
 It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot.
***********

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CHAPTER 4 PARALLEL STRUCTURE
Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more
ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or
clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of
coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."
Words and Phrases
 With the -ing form (gerund) of words:
Parallel:
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.
 With infinitive phrases:
Parallel:
Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.
OR
Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.
(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)
Do not mix forms.
 Example 1
Not Parallel:
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.
Parallel:
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.

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 Example 2
Not Parallel:
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a
detailed manner.
Parallel:
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and
thoroughly.
 Example 3
Not Parallel:
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute
to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his
motivation was low.
Parallel:
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute
to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and
lacked motivation.
Clauses
A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to
another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa)
will break the parallelism.
 Example 1
Not Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should
not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.

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Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should
not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the
game.
— or —
Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eattoo much,
and do some warm-up exercises before the game.
 Example 2
Not Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that
there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions
would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive)
Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that
there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective
buyers would ask him questions.
Lists after a Colon
Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.
 Example 1
Not Parallel:
The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings,

pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.

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Parallel:
The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.
Proofreading Strategies to Try:
 Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of
these words to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them
parallel.
 If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are
parallel.
 Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you
hear the same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words
beginning each item? Or do you hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is
breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made
parallel
***********

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CHAPTER 5 TENSES
PRESENT TENSES
Simple present tense

Rule:
Singular Subject + V1 +s/es – (He, She, It ) She works in London.
Plural Subject + V1 – (I, You, They, And We) I work in London.

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How to use: The simple tenses are used to show permanent characteristics of people
and events or what happens regularly, habitually or in a single completed action.
 Something that is true in the present:
I’m nineteen years old.

He lives in London.
 Something that happens again and again in the present:
I play football every weekend.
We use words like sometimes, often. always, and never (adverbs of frequency)
with the present tense:
I sometimes go to the cinema.
 Something that is always true:
The adult human body contains 206 bones.

Light travels at almost 300,000 kilometers per second.
 Something that is fixed in the future.
The school term starts next week.

The train leaves at 1945 this evening.
We fly to Paris next week.
 Questions and negatives
Do you play the piano?
I like tennis, but I don’t like football
Angela doesn’t drive to work. She goes by bus.
Present Continuous tense

Rule:

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Singular is+ V1 +ing – (He, She, It ) She is drinking coffee.
Plural are + V1 +ing – (You, They, We) You are writing notes. /They are
playing.
I am watching T.V
How to use:
 For something that is happening at the moment of speaking:
I’m just leaving work. I’ll be home in an hour.

Please be quiet. The children are sleeping.
 For something which we think is temporary:
Michael is at university. He’s studying history.
 For something which is new and contrasts with a previous state:
These days most people are using email instead of writing letters.
What sort of clothes are teenagers wearing nowadays? What sort of music are
they listening to?
 To show that something is changing, growing or developing:
The children are growing quickly.

The climate is changing rapidly.
Your English is improving.
 Questions and negatives
Are you watching a movie?
Is she playing basketball?
Present Perfect tense

Rule:
Singular HAS+ V3 – (He, she, it ) She has completed her work..

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Plural HAVE + V3 – (You, They, We ) They have completed their work.
How to use:
 For something we have done several times in the past and continue to do:
I’ve played the guitar ever since I was a teenager.

He has written three books and he is working on another one.
 When we are talking about our experience up to the present:
Note: We often use the adverb ever to talk about experience up to the present:
My last birthday was the worst day I have ever had.
Note: and we use never for the negative form:
Have you ever met George?

Yes, but I’ve never met his wife.
 For something that happened in the past but is important at the time of
speaking:
I can’t get in the house. I’ve lost my keys.

Teresa isn’t at home. I think she has gone shopping.
 With so far; until now; up to now; yet (in questions and negatives)
Have you ever seen a ghost?

Where have you been up to now?
Have you finished your homework yet?
No, so far I’ve only done my history.

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WARNING:
 We do not use the present perfect with an adverbial which refers to past
time which is finished:
I have seen that film yesterday.

We have just bought a new car last week.
When we were children we have been to California.
But we can use it to refer to a time which is not yet finished:
Have you seen Helen today?

We have bought a new car this week.
Present Perfect Continuous tense

Rule:
Singular HAS+BEEN+ V1+ing – (He, she, it ) The phone has been ringing
since morning.
Plural HAVE + BEEN+V1+ing– (You, They, We ) They have been playing
since afternoon.
How to use:
We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and
has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday"
are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous.
Examples:
They have been talking for the last hour.
She has been working at that company for three years.
What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?
James has been teaching at the university since June.

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PAST TENSES
Simple Past tense

Rule: V2 She went to a party.
How to use:
We use the past tense to talk about:
 Something that happened once in the past:
I met my wife in 1983.

We went to Spain for our holidays.
They got home very late last night.
 Something that happened again and again in the past:
When I was a boy I walked a mile to school every day.

We swam a lot while we were on holiday.
They always enjoyed visiting their friends.
 Something that was true for some time in the past:
I lived abroad for ten years..

She played a lot of tennis when she was younger.
 We often use phrases with ago with the past tense:
I met my wife a long time ago.
 Questions and negatives :We use did to make questions with the past tense:
When did you meet your wife?
Past Continuous tense

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Rule:
Singular WAS+ V1+ing – (He, she, it, I) The phone was ringing when I reached
home.
Plural WERE+V1+ing – (You, They, We ) They were playing basketball when I
saw them.
How to use:
 to describe an unfinished action that was interrupted by another event or action:
e.g. "I was having a beautiful dream when the alarm clock rang."
 to express a change of mind:

e.g. "I was going to spend the day at the beach but I've decided to get my
homework done instead."
 We use the Past Continuous to express a long action. And we use the Past
Simple to express a short action that happens in the middle of the long action.
We can join the two ideas with ‘when’ or ‘while’.
In the following example, we have two actions:
1. long action (watching TV), expressed with Past Continuous

2. short action (telephoned), expressed with Past Simple
We can join these two actions with when:
I was watching TV when you telephoned.
Notice that "when you telephoned" is also a way of defining the

time (8pm).
We use:
when + short action (Past Simple)
while + long action (Past Continuous)

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There are four basic combinations:
I was walking past the when it exploded.

car
When the car exploded I was walking past

it.
The car exploded while I was walking past

it.
While I was walking past the it exploded.

car
Notice that the long action and short action are relative.
"Watching TV" took two hours. "Telephoned" took a few

seconds.
"Walking past the car" took a few seconds. "Exploded" took

milliseconds.
 It is also used for two activities of similar duration that were going on in
parallel.
I was washing the car while my wife was cleaning the house.
Past Perfect tense

Rule: had+V3 She had reached office before we called her.
How to use:
 Completed Action Before Something in the Past

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Examples:
I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.
I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.
She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with
them in 1996.
Note
She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct
She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct
Past Perfect Continuous tense

Rule: HAD+BEEN+V1+ING She had reached office before we called her.
How to use:
 The Past Perfect Continuous tense is like the Past Perfect tense, but it expresses
longer actions in the past before another action in the past. For example:
Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had been
waiting for two hours.
 This form is also used in reported speech. It is the equivalent of the past
continuous and the present perfect continuous in direct speech:
Jane said, "I have been gardening all afternoon." = Jane said that she had been
gardening all afternoon.
FUTURE TENSES
Simple future tense

Rule: WILL+V1 She will come next Monday.

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How to use:
 For actions that will happen in the future.
The police will conclude their investigation of the computer fraud next week.
 Say something that we are certain will occur in the future.
A meeting will be held next Monday at 2 p.m.
 Express willingness to do something in the future.
I will help you clear the rat-infested storeroom in a moment.
 Make a sudden decision at the moment of speaking.
There's a noise outside. I will just go and check.

Hold on. I'll get a pen.
 Give a command.
You will report to me at eight o'clock tomorrow.
 Ask questions or promise.
Will you phone your mother-in-law to apologize, please?

I will try not to be late again.
Future Continuous tense
Rule: WILL+V1+ing She will be watching TV
How to use: We use the simple future tense
 To express an action that will be in progress at a certain or specified time in the

future.
We will/shall be sleeping by the time you return.

At this time next week, I shall/will be playing poker.

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Future Perfect tense

Rule: WILL+HAVE+V3 She will have finished her homework by the
time we reach home.
How to use:
 The Future Perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the
future. This is the past in the future.
(The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am.)
When you arrive, the train will have left.
By next November, I will have received my promotion.
Future Perfect Continuous tense

The future perfect continuous tense is used much like the future perfect, but one of the
actions is likely to continue beyond the other. It can also be used when one action will
be continuing at a certain time in the future. Look for key words like in and by.
Rule: WILL+HAVE+BEEN+V1+ing She will have finished her homework

by 1 P.M
How to use:
 We use this tense to express situations that will last for a specified period of
time at a definite moment in the future. It is important that we expect these
situations to last longer.
By the end of this month, she will have been working long enough to get
benefits.
In three months, they will have been seeing each other for a year.

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Remember not to use the future perfect continuous tense with non-action
verbs like be, seem and know. These verbs should use the future perfect.
Tomorrow, I will have been being here for a week. Not Correct
Tomorrow, I will have been here for a week. Correct
Common Time Expressions
Time expressions that are commonly used with the Future Perfect Continuous:
 By tomorrow / 8 o'clock
 This year / month / week
 Next year / month / week
 English speakers also use this tense when they want to express certainty about
the cause of some future situation.
We will be making a rest stop in half an hour, because you will have been
driving the car for 6 hours by then.
By this time, he will have been working for 12 hours, so he will be very tired.

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TENSES TABLE IN SHORT
***********

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CHAPTER 6 ACTIVE PASSIVE
Sentences can be active or passive. Therefore, tenses also have "active forms" and
"passive forms." You must learn to recognize the difference to successfully speak
English.
Active Form
In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the
thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.
[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]
Examples:
Passive Form
In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and
the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can
use the passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important
or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not know who
is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the action.
[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]
Examples:

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Active / Passive Overview
Active Passive
Simple Present Once a week, Tom cleans the Once a week, the house is
house. cleaned by Tom.
Present Right now, Sarah is Right now, the letter is being

Continuous writing the letter. written by Sarah.
Simple Past Sam repaired the car. The car was repaired by Sam.
Past The salesman was helping the The customer was being
Continuous customer when the thief came helped by the salesman when
into the store. the thief came into the store.
Present Perfect Many tourists have visited that That castle has been visited by
castle. many tourists.
Present Perfect Recently, John has been Recently, the work has been
Continuous doing the work. being done by John.
Past Perfect George had repaired many Many cars had been
cars before he received his repaired by George before he
mechanic's license. received his mechanic's license.
Past Perfect Chef Jones had been The restaurant's fantastic

Continuous preparing the restaurant's dinners had been being
fantastic dinners for two years prepared by Chef Jones for two
before he moved to Paris. years before he moved to Paris.
Simple Future Someone will finish the work The work will be finished by
WILL by 5:00 PM. 5:00 PM.
Simple Future Sally is going to make a A beautiful dinner is going to be

BE GOING TO beautiful dinner tonight. made by Sally tonight.
Future At 8:00 PM tonight, John will At 8:00 PM tonight, the

Continuous be washing the dishes. dishes will be being washed by
WILL John.

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Future At 8:00 PM tonight, John is At 8:00 PM tonight, the

Continuous going to be washing the dishes are going to be being
BE GOING TO dishes. washed by John.
Future Perfect They will have completed the The project will have been
WILL project before the deadline. completed before the deadline.
Future Perfect They are going to have The project is going to have
BE GOING TO completed the project before been completed before the
the deadline. deadline.
Future Perfect The famous artist will have The mural will have been being
Continuous been painting the mural for painted by the famous artist for
WILL over six months by the time it over six months by the time it is
is finished. finished.
Future Perfect The famous artist is going to The mural is going to have been
Continuous have been painting the mural being painted by the famous
BE GOING TO for over six months by the time artist for over six months by the
it is finished. time it is finished.
Used to Jerry used to pay the bills. The bills used to be paid by
Jerry.
Would Always My mother would always The pies would always be

make the pies. made by my mother.
Future in the I knew John would finish the I knew the work would be
Past work by 5:00 PM. finished by 5:00 PM.
WOULD
Future in the I thought Sally was going to I thought a beautiful dinner was
Past make a beautiful dinner going to be made by Sally
WAS GOING TO tonight. tonight.
Modals-Can I can do this work. This work can be done by me.

,Could, May,
Might, Should,

Page 67
Additional usages:
 In imperatives:
Sentences which express request, order, advice, suggestion, prohibition etc., are
called imperative sentences.
The imperative sentence in the passive voice has the following structure:
Rule: Let + object + be + past participle
NOTE: When the active voice begins with do not, the passive voice has
the following structure:
Rule: Let not + object + be + past participle
How to use:
 RULE 1: Sometimes the passive form has to begin with you, when the
object of the verb in the active voice is not given.
Examples
Active: Please lend me some money.
Passive: You are requested to lend me some money.
Active: Kindly do this work.

Passive: You are requested to do this work.
Active: Get me a glass of water.

Passive: You are ordered to get me a glass of water.
 RULE 2: For imperatives use Let + be form. In some sentences it is

possible to put not after the object or be.
Examples
Active: Bring it home.
Passive: Let it be brought home.

Page 68
Active: Do it at once.
Passive: Let it be done at once.
Active: Do not beat the dog.

Passive: Let the dog not be beaten.
Active: Let me do it.

Passive: Let it be done by me. OR Let me be allowed to do it.
Note: If the sentence starts with LET US
Active: Let us go for a walk.

Passive: It is suggested that we should go out for a walk.
 With Modals:
Active: You ought to respect your parents.

Passive: Your parents ought to be respected by you.
Active: You should learn your lessons.

Passive: Your lessons should be learned by you.
 In sentences where God is invoked the passive voice will be as follows:
Active: May God bless you!

Passive: May you be blessed by God!
NOTE: A sentence cast in the passive voice will not always include an agent of the
action. For instance if a gorilla crushes a tin can, we could say "The tin can was
crushed by the gorilla." But a perfectly good sentence would leave out the gorilla:
"The tin can was crushed." Also, when an active sentence with an indirect object is
recast in the passive, the indirect object can take on the role of subject in the passive
sentence:
Active Professor Villa gave Jorge an A.

Passive An A was given to Jorge by Professor Villa.
Passive Jorge was given an A.

Page 69
Only transitive verbs (those that take objects, for example: eat –apple) can be
transformed into passive constructions. Furthermore, active sentences containing
certain verbs cannot be transformed into passive structures. To have is the most
important of these verbs. We can say "He has a new car," but we cannot say "A new
car is had by him." We can say "Josefina lacked finesse," but we cannot say "Finesse
was lacked." Here is a brief list of such verbs*:
resemble look like equal agree with

mean contain hold comprise
lack suit fit become
***********

Page 70
CHAPTER 7 NARRATION
DIRECT SPEECH
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech
in writing, we place the words spoken between quotation marks (" ") and there is no
change in these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for
example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a previous
conversation.
EXAMPLE: She says, "What time will you be home?"
INDIRECT SPEECH
Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally
change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask',
and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are
not used.
She said, "I saw him." (direct speech) = She said that she had seen him. (indirect
speech)
'SAY' AND 'TELL'
Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:

He said that he was tired.
Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect
object):
He told me that he was tired.
How to use:
 When the reporting verb is in the past tense, all present tenses in the direct
speech will change into the corresponding past tenses.
For example, the simple present will become simple past.

Page 71
He said, ‘I want to go.’

He said that he wanted to go.
 If the reporting verb is in the present tense, the tenses in the direct speech do
not change.
He says, ‘He is leaving.’

He says that he is leaving.
 When we report questions, the indirect speech is introduced by verbs such

as asked, inquired etc.
He said to me, ‘What are you doing there?’

He asked me what I was doing there.
 To report a Yes/No question, we use if or whether.
He said to me, ‘Are you interested?’

He asked me if I was interested.
He said to them, ‘Will you listen to such a man?’

He asked them whether they would listen to such a man.
 When we report commands and requests, the indirect speech is introduced by

verbs expressing a command or request. Examples are: ordered, requested,
commanded, shouted etc.
The master said to the servant, ‘Go away.’

The master ordered the servant to go away.
He said to them, ‘Please wait here till I return.’

He requested them to wait there till he returned.

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 To report conditionals
If the sentence suggests unreal/unlikely situations, tense doesn’t change but if

the sentence suggests real & likely situations, the sentence changes as usual.
Example:
Sean said,” If you had told me sooner about your birthday, we could have had
a party”
Sean said that if I had told him sooner about my birthday, we could have had
a party.
Sean said,”If I were a better cook, I would make dinner for you myself.”
Sean said that if he were a better cook, he would make dinner for me himself.
Sean said,” If you want, we will go out for dinner.”

Sean said that if I wanted, we would go out for dinner.” (present->past)

Page 73
Changes in Reported speech

Page 74
Narration rules table
***********

Page 75
CHAPTER 8 CONDITIONALS
Conditionals are sentences that describe hypothetical scenarios. They come in many
flavours the most common of all are: first, second and third.
All conditionals are built from one independent clause and one subordinate clause
that starts with “if” or “when”. The if-clause defines a condition, and the main
clause describes an outcome that can happen only if the condition is fulfilled. For
example:
Subordinate clause: If DG had not insisted on exploring the caves at Finaqua,
main clause: the O.Z. would never have fallen into turmoil.
Now that that’s sorted, let’s get to the specifics.
The First Conditional: If you give a mouse a cookie...
First conditionals describe the outcomes of conditional scenarios that are likely to
occur in the future. They’re constructed as follows:
Rule: IF + present verb, (then) + future verb If I pass, I will get a car.
How to use:
For example:
“Glitch!” cried DG. “If Cain finds out what you’ve done to his hat, he’ll throw a
fit!”
The Second Conditional: "If I had a million dollars...”
The second conditional is the conditional of wishful thinking: it’s used to describe
the hypothetical outcome of conditions that are untrue in the present or unlikely in
the future, but not impossible. Even though they refer to events occurring (or rather,
not occurring) at the time of the narrative, second conditionals are constructed only
in the past tense. They don't change their tense when they appear in past tense
narratives, because if they did, they would be structurally indistinguishable

Page 76
from third conditionals (hold that thought), leading to confusion of their meaning.
The construction is as follows:
Rule: If + simple past verb, (then) + future in past (would) verb
How to use:
Present: Though the Witch is secretive about her search, Azkadellia knows that
she has not found the Emerald yet. If she had it, she would gloat.
Past: Though the Witch was secretive about her search, Azkadellia knew that
she had not found the Emerald yet. If she had it, she would gloat.
Consider these second conditional sentences:
“If I were your husband, I would be very afraid for your well-being right now,”
sneered Zero.
“If you were my husband,” said Adora coldly, “they wouldn’t call you ‘Zero’.”
Since the second conditional describes something that's not true, its verb takes
the subjunctive mood, which describes possibility, unlike the first conditional,
which describes something true or likely, and takes the indicative mood, which
describes the concrete. This distinction is often overlooked, because the subjunctive
mood is almost invisible in English—most verbs are no longer conjugated
differently in the subjunctive than in the indicative mood 1. When it comes to
conditional clauses, “to be” is the only verb you’re likely to encounter with a visible
difference in conjugation.
Third Conditional: “I could have been a contender!”
The third conditional is the conditional of might-have-been’s. It describes the

outcome of a scenario that did not happen in the past. Since it's constructed in the
past perfect, which is as past as they can get, the third conditional also doesn't
change its tense when constructed in past tense narrative. Its construction is as
follows:

Page 77
Rule: If + past perfect (had + past participle) verb, (then) + would + have + past
participle
How to use:
Ambrose stared glumly at his chemistry exam. If only he had memorized the the
LDX theory, he would have gotten an “astonishing” instead of an “exceptional” on
his mid-term.
*********************

Page 78
References:
https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/word-order/adverb-position
http://www.ibpsexamadda.org.in/english-grammar-lessons-2-types-of-noun-7132/
http://lacstrainingblog.com/2012/01/08/prepositions-small-but-tricky-little-things/
http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/noun.htm
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/sv_agr.htm
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/623/01/
http://www.englishleap.com/grammar/finite-and-non-finite-verbs
http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/presentperfectcontinuous.html (tenses)
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/past-tense

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ANC-Verbal Grammar Notes For All Competitive Exams

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ANC - VERBAL GRAMMAR NOTES

Anil Nair Classes :: 7795734445

Anil Nair Classes :: 7795734445

Articles are a type of determiner and they go before a noun.

Shiva: Do you have a car?

Julie: No, actually, I live in an apartment.

When do we use articles?

With countable nouns

Example 1: I have a sister and a brother.

Example 2: That was an excellent meal.

 We can use the with singular and plural countable nouns:

With uncountable nouns

Example 1: Could I have rice instead of potatoes with my fish?

Example 2: I hope we have nice weather.

Anil Nair Classes :: 7795734445

Example 1: The rice we bought in the Thai shop is much better.

Example 2: The weather was awful last summer.

 To talk about an individual quantity or more than one quantity of an

Example 1: That’s an amazing bit of news.

Example 2 : Could I have a litre of milk, please?

Books are so important in my life. I mean all books in general.

The life of a soldier is full of

Anil Nair Classes :: 7795734445

without the definite article with the definite article – the

 names of persons on the singular,

 Historical buildings, holy books,

 names of countries in the singular,

 Single islands  groups of islands

Bermuda eg. the British Isles

 name with of-phrase, oceans, seas,

Anil Nair Classes :: 7795734445

without the definite article with the definite article – the

 months, days of the week (definite)

Observe these examples:-

1. My brother’s learning how to play the violin.

 I’d buy a piano if we had a big enough house.

2. My sister’s learning how to play golf.

 I’d like a basketball for my birthday.

3. I like to spend my holidays at the sea, lying on the beach.

4. My brother’s a sailor. He’s been at sea for three months now.

Anil Nair Classes :: 7795734445

6. What’s for lunch today?

 I’ll always remember the first dinner we had together.

7. I need to clean the carpet. It’s filthy!

9. Boys will be boys!

10. My brother is a doctor.

For statements of someone’s profession we always use the indefinite article.

12. Sometimes life is hard.

Anil Nair Classes :: 7795734445

When referring to measurements or containers in this way, we usually use the

 This pork costs €15 a kilo.

15. I like watching TV better than listening to the radio.

16. I always travel to England at night.

17. She fell ill in the night.

18. There are billions of stars in space.

Anil Nair Classes :: 7795734445

However, when we refer to a nationality without using the word people, we

 Germans love to travel. or The Germans love to travel.

22. The rose is my favourite flower.

 The lion is the proudest of beasts.

 Whales may be extinct by the end of the next century.

24. A computer can only do what it is programmed to do.