Work done and potential energy ...

a + r
CHAPTER 23 r
δl δl
b +
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL r r r r
F = mg F = qE
r r
g E
• Potential difference and electric field
- -
• Potential difference between two - - - -
- - - - - -
parallel plates

• Potential due to a single point charge
• Potential due to a collection of charges
† Work done bringing charges together
• Potential for continuous charge
distributions
† Charged, hollow sphere
† Uniformly charged ring
• Equipotential surfaces (You study using
the handout together with section 23-5 in
the textbook.)
Let’s look at the similarity between electric
and gravitational fields. The work done by the
g-field in moving the mass from a → b is:
br r
δW = ∫ F • dl = mgδl ( > 0 ), i.e., positive work .
a
The change in potential energy of the mass in
the gravitational field in moving from a → b is:
δU = U b − U a = − mgδl ( < 0 ), i.e., a loss.
∴ δW = −δU = −(U b − U a ).
Note: the work done by the g-field ( δW ) in
moving the mass from a → b is the same as the
work you do in raising the mass from b → a.

1
 If a charge moves through a We will work problems in Cartesian (x,y,z) and
r b
r
δl r polar (r , θ, φ) coordinate systems.
r displacement δl in a field E, the
F
+ a work done by the E-field in
+qo moving the charge from a → b is [1] Cartesian coordinates:
r r
δW = F • δl = −δU , r r
E ⇒ (Ex , Ey , Ez ) and δl ⇒ (δx, δy, δz)
where δU is the change in potential energy of
r r r r r
the charge in the E-field. But F = q oE, so the δV = − E • δl = −(Ex i√ + Ey √j + Ez k
√) • (δxi√ + δyj√ + δzk
√)

change in potential energy is: i.e., δV = −(Ex .δx + Ey .δy + Ez .δz).

r r r r
δU = (U b − U a ) = − F • δl = − q oE • δl .
We define the electric potential (V) as the dV dV dV
∴ Ex = − , Ey = − , Ez = −
potential energy per unit charge, dx dy dz
U
i.e., V = .
qo r  dV √ dV √ dV √
i.e., E = − i+ j+ k .
So the potential difference between b and a  dx dy dz 
δV = Vb − Va = Vba
is given by: These are the basic relationships between the
δU r r r
δV = = − E • δl . electric field, E, and the electric potential, V, in
qo
Cartesian coordinates.

2
 DISCUSSION PROBLEM [23.1]:
UNITS:
If E ⇒ N/C and r ⇒ m
then: V ⇒ volts (V)

But, by definition: ~10,000V 110V

dV
Ex = − , etc., When you charge a balloon by friction, its
dx
electric potential is ~10,000V, but it is safe to
then: E ⇒ V/m,
handle! And yet, a typical socket operates at
a potential of 110V but will give you a
which means that N/C ≡ V/m.
(potentially!) fatal shock.

(It is more usual to use V/m as the unit of

* What’s the difference?
electric field.)
* Why is the socket more “shocking”?

3
 Example using Cartesian coordinates ...
Conventional definition of work done in an
Potential between two parallel charges plates
electric field ... r
The work done by the field E = Ex i√
r b 1 2 1 2
δl in moving the charge from
r − ∆V +
F a → b is b
+ a r d
+qo δW = −δU = −(U b − U a ) l
a
= −(q o Vb − q o Va ) = q o ( Va − Vb ). d
(Remember, by definition ⇒ V = U q o ) √j Find the potential
r
Conventionally, when a charge moves from l = xi√ + yj√ difference between a and b
r
a → b we write the work done by the field as: i√ (a displacement l) in a field
r
δW = q o ( Va − Vb ) = q o Vab, E = Ex i√ produced between
where Vab is the potential difference between two parallel, infinitely large charged plates,
the start point (a) and the end point (b). (Note spaced a distance d apart. Along the
also if the charge was released and free to displacement, the change in potential is:
r r
move in the field, δK = δW .) dV = − E • dl = − Ex i√ • (dxi√ + dyj√) = − Ex dx .
σ
∴ Vb − Va = ∫abdV = − Ex ∫abdx = − Ex x = − x
∴ The work done by you in moving a charge εo
from a → b is:
σ
δW = − q o Vab = − q o ( Va − Vb ). ∴ Vb = Va − x
εo

4
 +σ −σ
1 Problem 23.22, page 743:
2
+σ −σ (a) Since the field would move a
V1 r
E = Ex i√ V2 + ve charge from the + σ plate
σ
Vb = Va − x e− 2 to the − σ plate, the + σ plate is
εo 1
d σ at the higher potential.
∴ ( V2 − V1) = ∆V = − d,
V εo ∆V = ( V1 − V2 ) = 500 V = − E.d ,
V1 i.e., V1 > V2. 10 cm ∴ E = ∆V d = 500 0.1 = 5000 V/m .
∆V d
x (b) Work done by the field is W2→1 = qV21,
V2 But V21 = ( V2 − V1) = −500 V .
• ∆V is independent of y , it depends only on σ ∴ W2→1 = −1.6 × 10−19 × (−500) = 8.0 × 10−17 J .
and d. Thus, ∆V is the same between any point (c) The change in potential energy of the
on plate 1 and any point on plate 2 . This electron: ∆U = U 1 − U 2 = qV1 − qV2 = q( V1 − V2 )
means that the potential is constant over an = −1.6 × 10−19 × 500 = −8.0 × 10−17 J .
infinitely charged plate. Mechanical energy is conserved:
∴ ∆K = − ∆U = 8.0 × 10−17 J .
• The work done by the field in moving a 0
1 2 2 ∆K
charge q from a → b is:
2
∆K = m(v − vo ). ∴ v = = 1.33 × 107 m/s .
2 m
δW = q( V1 − V2 ) > 0 ,
Note also: ∆K = W2→1 = qV21.
so a + ve charge moves from a position of higher
(Work - energy theorem).
potential ( V1) to lower potential ( V2 ).

5
 Example ... electric potential for a point charge:
[2] Polar coordinates

The electric field of a point

If the electric field has radial symmetry, i.e., it
r charge is:
depends only on r , e.g., a point charge, then
r Q
r Q
a
b E(r) = k 2 r√.
r√ E (r) ⇒ Er r√ = k 2 r√. r√ r
r r
dr r r
+ For a radial displacement dr For a small displacement dr in the radial
(in the r√ direction): direction ( r√), the change in potential is:
r r r r
dV(r) = − E(r) • dr = − Er r√ • dr . r Q r Q
dV(r) = − E(r) • dr = − k 2 r√ • dr = − k 2 dr .
r r r
But dr // r√, =1
r r Q Q
∴ r√ • dr = r√ dr cos 0 = dr . ∴ V(r) = − k ∫ 2 dr = k + Vo ,
r r
∴ potential difference between radii r2 and r1:
r2 where Vo is an integration constant. If we
V21 = V(r2 ) − V(r1) = − ∫ Er dr . define the electric potential at infinity as zero,
r1
i.e., V(r → ∞) = 0 , then Vo = 0 . So,
But dV(r) = − Er dr , so the radial electric field is Q
V (r ) = k ,
dV(r) r
Er = − .
dr is the absolute electric potential at the point r.
Again, we have simple relations between the 1 1
∴ Vb − Va = kQ  −  ( < 0 if Q is + ve)
electric field Er and the electric potential V(r).  rb ra 

6
 Go from a → b by different routes. The
potential at any point a
“equipotentials” distance r from a point
charge is:
Electric a x Q
V (r ) = k .
potential (V) b r
Since ra = rx , Va = Vx
so, the potential difference
Vab = Vxb ,
y i.e., the potential difference between two points
does not depend on the path between them only
x the potentials at the end points.
Q
V=k The work done by you in moving a charge q
r
from a → b by the two different routes is:
The electric potential for a positive charge. If [1] Wa → b = − q( Va − Vb ) = − qVab .
the charge is negative, the potential looks like [2] Wa → x → b = [ − q( Va − Vx )] + [ − q( Vx − Vb )]
a “hole” rather than a “hill”. = − q( Vx − Vb ) = − qVxb .
But Vab = Vxb . ∴ Wa → b = Wa → x → b .
Note that as x (and y) → ±∞ , V → 0 . So, the work done by you ( = − q∆V ) in moving a
charge from one point to another does not
depend on the path ... only on ∆V .

7
 Potential due to a spherical shell of charge
Problem 23.30, page 743: (on a hollow or solid conducting sphere) ...
+2µC + +R + Q
a
3m 3m Q + + σ⇒
4 πR 2
V=k +
r +
b 3m c Es = k
Q
=
σ +
+2µC 2 εo
R E(r)
(a) Potential at c is due to both Qa and Q b Q
−6 −6 E=k 2
(+2 × 10 ) (+2 × 10 ) r
Vc = k +k
3 3 E=0
r
= 1.2 × 104 V dV
From earlier: E=− so dV = − E.dr ,
(b) Work done by you in bringing a charge dr
q o from ∞ to the point c is: Q Q
∴ V(r > R ) = − ∫ E.dr = − k ∫ 2 dr = k .
r >R r r
=0
W = − q o ∆V = − q o ( V∞ − Vc ) = q o Vc V (r )
−6 4
= 5 × 10 × 1.2 × 10
Q
= 6 × 10−2 J Vs = k Q
R V=k
r
(c) µC then Vc = 0 and W = 0 .
if Q b = −2µ r
But what about inside the sphere?

8
 TWO POINTS:
Potential due to a spherical shell of charge
(on a hollow or solid conducting sphere) ... [1] V is constant inside a conducting sphere

Q σ (i.e., the same as at the surface).

Es = k = Q Q
R 2 εo E(r) [2] At the surface: Vs = k and Es = k 2 .
R R
Q Vs
E=k 2 ∴ Vs = Es .R or Es = .
r R
E=0 As the charge Q on the sphere increases, so do
r
Q  Q
Inside the sphere, i.e., for r < R , dV = − E.dr = 0 Vs  = k  and Es  = k 2  .
 R   R 
∴ V(r < R ) = constant .
If V is constant inside sphere, no work is done Under “normal conditions” the max electric
in moving a charge anywhere inside the sphere. field obtainable in air before breakdown is
Then W = − q o ∆V = 0 , i.e., ∆V = 0 . Emax ~ 3 × 106 V/m.
Q This sets a maximum potential and a maximum
∴ V(r < R ) = k ⇒ constant
R charge for a spherical conductor (radius R):
V (r ) i.e., Vmax = Emax .R ~ 3 × 106 R volts.

Q 3 × 106 2
Q Since, E = k : Q max ~ R Coulombs.
Vs = k Q R2 k
R V=k
r
Larger R means larger Vmax and Q max before
r breakdown.

9
 Also, we can now show why charges “pile-up”
at sharp points on a charged conductor ...

Region 1 ⇒ Q1 Region 2 ⇒ Q 2
radius R 1 radius R 2

σ2
DISCUSSION PROBLEM [23.2] σ1

The potential inside the conductor is constant

If the electric potential of the Earth is very Q Q
∴k 1 = k 2.
large, how come we aren’t fried to a crisp R1 R2

when standing barefoot on the Earth’s But Q1 ≈ 4 πR 12σ 1 and Q 2 ≈ 4 πR 2 2σ 2

surface? so R 1σ 1 ≈ R 2σ 2
R1
i.e., σ2 ≈ σ 1. ∴ σ 2 > σ 1.
R2
σ σ
Also, E1s = 1 and E2s = 2 . ∴ E2s > E1s .
εo εo
Therefore, the charge density and the surface
electric field are greater at “points”.

10
Take two charged spheres A ( VA ) and B ( VB) Problem 23.64, page 745:
connected by a conducting wire and VA > VB . q2
qo q1
A B 1
Q +
QB 2
VA = k A VB = k
RA RB r2 = 0.12m
r1 = 0.05m
dV
The force on the charge q o is: F = q oE = − q o ,
dl We have:
q
V1 = k 1 = E1s r1.
dV r1
but VA > VB ... ∴ < 0 , so +ve charges move
dl q
V2 = k 2 = E2s r2 .
from A to B, i.e., from high potential ( VA ) to low r2
potential ( VB). But V1 = V2 , so E1s r1 = E2s r2 .
r 0.12
V ∴ Q A and VA decrease ∴ E1s = 2 E2s = × 200 = 480 kV/m.
r1 0.05
+
σ σ
From earlier, E1s = 1 and E2s = 2 .
εo εo

∴ σ 1 = εoE1s = 8.85 × 10−12 × 480 × 103

∴ Q B and VB increase
= 4.25 × 10−6 C/m 2
As charges move from A to B, VA decreases and
and σ 2 = εoE2s = 8.85 × 10−12 × 200 × 103
VB increases. When VA = VB , charges stop
moving, because when ∆V = 0 then F = 0 . = 1.77 × 10−6 C/m 2

11
 Uniformly charged ring:
Uniformly charged ring:
dQ + +
+ + r = x2 + a2 a
Q
a + P V (x) = k
+ P + x x + a2
2

+ x dV
+
+ The potential at the point P due
+
+ to the element of charge dQ is:
V (x)

dQ Q
dV = k . V=k
r a Q
V=k
dQ x
∴ V (x) = ∫ k ,
r
but r = x 2 + a 2 , which is constant. xa
-2 0 2 4 6
k
∴ V (x) = ∫ dQ
x + a2
2
When x = 0 , V (x) = k
Q
Q a
=k Q
x + a2
2
When x >> a , V (x) ⇒ k ,
x
where Q is the total charge on the ring.
i.e., it looks like a point charge.

12