PHARMACOGNOSY

Pharmacognosy

For the students of

Pharmacy Technicians
(Category-B)

Compiled By
Syed Bilal Hussain
Lecturer
Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences

Under Supervision of

Dr. Shehla Akbar

M.Phil (Pharmacognosy)
Assistant Professor
Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences

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Dedication

To

Prof. Dr. Naim Anwar Muzaffar “The Father of Pharmacy”

Whose Dedications Toward Pharmacy Education Are Priceless.

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Acknowledgement
I am very grateful to Ch. Muhammad Shamoon, Secretary, Punjab Pharmacy Council, Lahore, who give

me honor to compile PHARMACOGNOSY Book for the students of Pharmacy Technician.

I am very thankful to my teachers Dr. Shehla Akbar who generously contributed their time and efforts to

help me make this book as accurate and useful as possible.

Special thanks to Hafiz Muhammad Zubair & Haroon Shahzad and Dr. Sara for providing help in

composing and proof reading of the text.

Syed Bilal Hussain

Lecturer
Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences

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Contents

PHARMACOGNOSY 9
INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY 9
SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY 9
CRUDE DRUGS 11
CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS 11
Alphabetical Method 11
Morphological Method 11
Taxonomical Method 11
Pharmacological Method 12
Chemical Method 12
TERMINANOLOGY AND DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANT 12
Leaves 12
Leaflets 13
Stems 13
Flowers 13
Fruit 14
Pulp 14
Seeds 14
Roots 15
Bark 15
Wood 15
Bulb 16
Rhizomes 16
Herb 16
Medicinal Herb 16
Essential Oil (volatile oils) 17
Fatty Oil (non-volatile vegetable oils) 17
Gum 17
Resins 17
EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS 18
Organoleptic Evaluation or Morphological Evaluation 18
Microscopic Evaluation 18
Chemical Evaluation 19
Physical Evaluation 19

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Biological Evaluation 19
INTRODUCTION, CASE HISTORY, SKIN TEST, TREATMENT AND MECHANISM OF ALLERGY 20
ALLERGY 20
Definition 20
Allergen 21
Types of Allergen 21
Inhalants 21
Contactants 21
Ingestants 21
Injectants 21
Sings & Symptoms of Allergy 22
TYPES OF ALLERGY 22
Environmental Allergy 22
Airborne particles 22
Pollen Allergy 23
Insect bites and Stings 23
Physical & Psychometric Allergy 23
Anaphylactic Allergy (Anaphylaxis) 23
Cytotoxic Allergy 23
Delayed Hypersensitivity Allergy 23
MEDICAL CASE HISTORY 23
General Examination Includes… 23
Vital Signs 24
Clinical Examination Includes… 24
Investigation 24
SKIN TEST FOR ALLERGY 24
Scratch Test for Allergy 25
Patch Tests (contact allergy testing) 25
Intradermal Test 25
THE MECHANISM OF AN ALLERGIC REACTION 25
GENERAL MECHANISM OF ALLERGIC RESPONSE 25
METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY 26
Avoidance 26
Vaccinations 27
Pharmacological Methods of Treatment in Allergy 27
ENZYMES OBTAINED FROM PLANT SOURCE (PHYTO-ENZYMES) 28
Definitions 28

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Difference Between Enzymes & Catalyst 28

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES 28
Catalytic Property 29
Enzymatic Property 29
Solubility 29
pH 29
Temperature 29
Specificity 29
Protein Nature 30
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES 30
Oxidoreductases 30
Transferases 30
Hydrolases 31
Lyases 31
Isomerases 31
Ligases 31
FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES 31
BROMELAIN 33
PAPAIN 34
SEPARATION AND ISOLATION OF PLANT CONSTITUENTS 35
Difference Between Extraction and Chromatography 35
CHROMATOGRAPHY 35
Applications of Chromatography 35
Stationary phase 36
Mobile Phase 36
Rf value 36
STYLE OR TECHNIQUES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 36
Ascending Chromatography 37
Descending Chromatography 37
Circular or Radial Chromatography 37
TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 37
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY 37
Stationary Phase in Paper Chromatography 37
Mobile Phase in Paper Chromatography 37
Procedure of Paper Chromatography 37
Styles of Paper Chromatography 38
Application of Paper Chromatography 38

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THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC) 38

Stationary Phase in Thin Layer Chromatography 38
Mobile Phase in Thin Layer Chromatography 38
Procedure of Thin layer Chromatography 39
Styles of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) 39
Application of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) 39
COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY 40
Stationary Phase in Column Chromatography 40
Mobile Phase Column Chromatography 40
Procedure of Column Chromatography 40
Application of Column Chromatography 40
EXTRACTION 41
Extraction Definition 41
Theory of Extraction 41
Manstrum 41
Marc 41
EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES/ METHODS 42
Infusion 42
Procedure for Infusion Extraction 42
Decoction 42
Procedure for Decoction Extraction 43
Maceration 43
Procedure for Maceration Extraction 43
Multiple Maceration 43
Procedure for Double Maceration 43
Percolation 44
Procedure for Percolation Extraction 44
Continuous Hot Extraction 44
POISONOUS PLANTS 45
PLANTS CAUSING GIT TOXICITY 45
Mouth or Oral Cavity Toxic Plants 45
Plants Toxic to Gastric Mucosa 46
Plants Causing Dryness of Mouth 47
Plants Causing intestinal Motility 49
PLANTS CAUSING CVS DISTURBANCES 50
PLANTS CAUSING CNS DISTURBANCES 51
CYANOGENETIC PLANTS 53

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION, CLASSIFICATION AND MEDICINAL USES OF IMPORTANT PLANTS

54
Glycosides Containing Plant 54
Alkaloids 54
Volatile Oils (essential oils) 54
Resins and Resin Combination 54
Carbohydrates 54
Tannins 54
Lipids (Fixed oils, fats and related compounds waxes) 54
GLYCOSIDES 54
Medically Important Glycoside Containing Plants 55
ALKALOIDS 56
Medically Important Alkaloids Containing Plants 56
VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS) 57
Medically Important Volatile Containing Plants 57
RESINS 58
Medically Important Resins Producing Plants 58
CARBOHYDRATES 59
Medically Important Carbohydrates Containing Plants 59
TANNINS 59
Medically Important Tannins Containing Plants 60
FIXED OILS 60
Medically Important Fixed Oils Containing Plants 60

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural

sources.

The American Society of Pharmacognosy defines

Pharmacognosy as “the study of the physical, chemical,
biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug
substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources.”

INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY
The word “Pharmacognosy” is derived from the Greek words Pharmakon (drug) and gnosis or
(knowledge). The term Pharmacognosy was used for the first time by the Austrian physician
Schmidt in 1811. Originally during the 19 th century and the beginning of the 20 th century
“Pharmacognosy” was used to define the branch of medicine which deals with drugs in their
crude, or unprepared, form.

Crude drugs are the dried, unprepared material of plant, animal or mineral origin used for
medicine. Although most Pharmacognostic studies focus on plants and medicines derived from
plants other types of organisms are also regarded as Pharmacognostically interesting in
particular various types of microbes (bacteria, fungi, etc.) and recently various marine
organisms.

SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY
The Pharmacognosy has played an important role in the
development of various departments of the science.
Pharmacognosy gives a sound knowledge of the vegetable
drugs under botany and animal drugs under zoology.

It also includes plant taxonomy, plant breeding, plant

pathology, and plant genetics, by this knowledge one can
improve the cultivation methods for both medicinal and aromatic plants.
Nowadays phytochemistry (plant chemistry) has undergone the significant improvement. This
includes a variety of substances that are accumulated by plants and synthesized by plants.

A vital contribution to the advancement of natural and physical science

This has done by the advanced technologies of cultivation, purification, identification
(characterization) of pharmaceuticals from nature. Concepts of biochemistry and chemical

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engineering help in the improvement of collection, processing and storage technologies of

pharmaceuticals. It also gives knowledge of chemotaxonomy, biogenic pathways for the
formation of acute ingredients.

A vital link between pharmacology and medicinal chemistry

Newly detected plant drugs are converting into medicine as purified Phytochemicals.
Pharmacognosy is essential for the evolution of new medicines because crude drugs are used
for the preparation of sources of therapeutically active metabolites.

In short Pharmacognosy is an important link between pharmaceuticals and basic science as well
as ayurvedic and allopathic system of medicines. So Pharmacognosy is a science of active
principles of crude drugs and which can be help in dispensing, formulating, and manufacturing
of dosage forms.
In other way the complete knowledge of Pharmacognosy will help in the recent trend that is in
industries, as a research tools and in new drug delivery systems, and all the departments of
pharmaceuticals and one can improve the healthcare facilities across the world.

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CRUDE DRUGS
A crude drug is any naturally, occurring, unrefined substance derived from organic or inorganic
sources such as plant, animal, bacteria, organs or whole organisms intended for use in the
diagnosis, cure treatment or prevention of disease in man or other animals. Or

Crude drugs are vegetable or animal drugs that consist of natural substances that have
undergone only the process of collection & drying.

CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

Crude Drugs can be classified in following ways.

1. Alphabetical Method
2. Morphological Method
3. Taxonomical Method
4. Pharmacological Method
5. Chemical Method

ALPHABETICAL METHOD
In this method drugs are classified according to initial letter of their names e.g.

Acacia Belladonna Camphor

Datura Ephedra Fennel

Books follow this method

 European Pharmacopoeia (EP)
 British Pharmacopoeia (BP)

MORPHOLOGICAL METHOD
In this method drugs are classified according to their part used e.g.

Roots Drugs Leaf Drugs Bark Drugs Seeds Drugs

Glycyrriza Senna Cinchona Coffee Beens

Books follow this method

 Pharmacognosy by Wallis

TAXONOMICAL METHOD
In this method, drugs are classified according to their distinguishing characteristics (i.e.
Families) e.g.
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Family Umbelliferae: Funnel, Caraway

Family Labiatae: Thyme, Peppermint.

Books follow this method

Pharmacognosy by Trease &Evans

PHARMACOLOGICAL METHOD
In this method drugs are classified according to their therapeutic effects e.g.

Analgesic Drugs: Aconite, opium

Diuretic Drugs: Salvia, Ocimum

Books follow this method

 Pharmacology by Lippincott

CHEMICAL METHOD
In this method drugs are classified according to their principle constituents e.g.

Members of Family Umbelliferae contain Volatile Oils

Members of Family Solanaceae contain Alkaloids

Books follow this method

 Pharmacognosy by Tyler

TERMINANOLOGY AND DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANT

LEAVES
Flattened structures of a higher plant, typically green and blade-like, that are attached to a stem

are called leaves.

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LEAFLETS
One segment of a compound leaf is called leaflet

STEMS
Stems do many things. Support the upper parts of plants, They act like the plant's plumbing
system, conducting water and nutrients from the roots and food in the form of glucose from the
leaves to other plant parts. All plants have stems. Stems grow up into the air and towards the

light. The leaves and flowers are on the stems.

FLOWERS
A flower is the reproductive structure found in plants. The flowers of plants have always been

popular in traditional medicine. Examples include clove and chamomile flowers.

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FRUIT
A "fruit" is the seed-bearing part of a plant; Fruits have been heavily used for medicinal
purposes. Dried whole fruits or portions of fruits can be used. Many members of the carrot family

have fruits that are used in medicine including fennel fruit and anise.

PULP
The soft, juicy, edible part of a fruit is called pulp.

SEEDS
A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with
some stored food. The seeds of many plants are used for their medicinal properties. Seeds may

be contained within a fruit or are sometimes used on their own.

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ROOTS
The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support, typically underground,
conveying water and nourishment to the rest of the plant via numerous branches and fibers. The
fleshy or woody roots are used for medicinal purposes. Roots may be solid (ginseng), fibrous

(stinging nettle), or fleshy (devil’s claw).

BARK
The protective outer layer of a tree trunk that is formed by layers of living cells above the wood.
Active ingredients are often found in higher concentrations in the bark. Examples of bark used

for medicinal properties are quinine bark, oak bark.

WOOD
The hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the plant is called wood. Thick stems

or the wood of trees or shrubs are used for medicinal properties.

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BULB
A bulb is defined as a fleshy structure comprised of numerous layers of leaf bases otherwise
known as bulb scales. Onion species and garlic bulbs are popular for medicinal uses.

RHIZOMES
A rhizome is defined as a fleshy or woody elongated stem that usually grows horizontally below
the ground. Rhizomes often produce leaves above the ground and roots into the ground.

Several medicinal plants are used primarily for their rhizomes including: ginger, wild columbine,
and bloodroot.

HERB
Herb, in botany, is a plant that does not form a woody stem, and in temperate climates usually
dies, either completely (annual herb) or back to the roots (perennial herb) by the end of the
growing season.

MEDICINAL HERB
A medicinal herb is different from botanic term “herb”. It refers to any plants used for medicinal
purposes.
For example, a medicinal herb can be a real herbal plant, a shrub (bush), other woody plant, or
a fungus. The used part may be the seeds, berries, leaves, barks, roots, fruits, or other parts of
a plants, or mushroom, which may be considered "herbs" in medicinal use.

ESSENTIAL OIL (VOLATILE OILS)

These are defined as volatile oils that are generally extracted from plants using a steam
distillation process and have essence (smell). Examples include camphor and peppermint oil.
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FATTY OIL (NON-VOLATILE VEGETABLE OILS)

These are defined as non-volatile vegetable oils that are pressed from the seeds or fruits of
plants and are insoluble in water and leave a spot on paper after drying. Examples of fatty oils
used in medicine are castor oil, olive oil, and safflower oil.

GUM
Gums are solids that are mixtures of polysaccharides (sugars). They are water-soluble and are
in part digestible by humans.

RESINS
Resins are a mixture of essential oils and terpenes that are usually not soluble in water. They
are excreted by specialized cells or in ducts of plants. Examples include frankincense, myrrh,
and mastic.

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EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

Identification of drug and determination of its quality and purity is called Evaluation of Drug.

Following method are frequently employed for the determination of quality and purity of Crude
Drugs.

1. Organoleptic Evaluation or Morphological Evaluation

2. Microscopic Evaluation
3. Chemical Evaluation
4. Physical Evaluation
5. Biological Evaluation

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION OR MORPHOLOGICAL EVALUATION

It means evaluation of drug by the organs of sense (skin, eye, tongue,
nose and ear) or macroscopic evaluation and it includes evaluation of
drugs by color, odour, taste, size, shape and special feature, like
touch, texture etc.

For example
 Color means external color which varies from white to
brownish black are important diagnostic characters.
 General appearance (external marking) of the weight of a crude drug often indicates
whether it is likely to comply with prescribed standard
 Taste is specific type of sensation felt by epithelial layer of tongue. It may be acidic
(sour), saline (salt like), saccharin (sweetish), bitter or tasteless (possessing no taste).
 Aromatic odor of umbelliferous fruits and sweet taste of liquorices are the examples of
this type of evaluation
 Odor of drug depends upon the type and quality of odorous principles (volatile oils)
present.

MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION
It involves detailed examination of the drug and it can be used to identify
the organized drugs by their known histological characters. It is mostly used
for qualitative evaluation of organized crude drugs in entire and powder
forms with help of microscope.

Using microscope detecting various cellular tissues, trichomes, stomata,

starch granules, calcium oxalate crystals and aleurone grains are some of important parameters
which play important role in identification of certain crude drug.
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CHEMICAL EVALUATION
Most of drugs have definite chemical constituents to which their biological or pharmacological
activity is attributed. Qualitative chemical test are used to identify certain
drug or to test their purity.

The isolation, purification, identification of active constituents is based on

chemical methods of evaluation. These qualitative chemical tests are useful in identification of
chemical constituents and detection of adulteration.

PHYSICAL EVALUATION
Physical constants are sometimes taken into consideration to evaluate certain drugs. These
include moisture content, specific gravity, optical rotation, refractive, melting point, viscosity and
solubility in different solvents. All these physical properties are useful in identification and
detection of constituents present in plant.

BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION
Some drugs have specific biological and pharmacological activity which is utilized for their
evaluation. Actually this activity is due to specific type of constituents present in the plant
extract.

For evaluation the experiments were carried out on both intact and isolated organs of living
animals. With the help of bioassays (testing the drugs on living animals), strength of drug in its
preparation can also be evaluated.

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INTRODUCTION, CASE HISTORY, SKIN TEST, TREATMENT AND MECHANISM OF ALLERGY

ALLERGY

DEFINITION
According to British immunological society the allergy can be
defined as…

“Allergy is a specific hypersensitivity of an individual to foreign

particles usually a protein to which a specific individual is
exposed.” OR

“An allergy is sensitivity to a normally harmless substance one that does not bother most
people.

Allergies are abnormal immune system reactions to things that are typically harmless to most
people. When you're allergic to something, your immune system mistakenly believes that this
substance is harmful to your body. (Substances that cause allergic reactions, such as certain
foods, dust, plant pollen, or medicines, are known as allergens.)

In an attempt to protect the body, the immune system produces IgE antibodies to that allergen.
Those antibodies then cause certain cells in the body to release chemicals into the bloodstream,
one of which is histamine.

The histamine then acts on the eyes, nose, throat, lungs, skin, or gastrointestinal tract and
causes the symptoms of the allergic reaction. Future exposure to that same allergen will trigger
this antibody response again. This means that every time you come into contact with that
allergen, you'll have an allergic reaction.

Allergic reactions can be mild, like a runny nose, or they can be severe, like difficulty breathing.
An asthma attack, for example, is often an allergic reaction to something that is breathed into
the lungs by a person who is susceptible.

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ALLERGEN
An allergen is any substance (antigen) that is recognized harmful
by the immune system and causes an allergic reaction. The
allergen can be a food, dust particles, drug, insect venom, or mold
spores, as well as pollen. Allergic people often have sensitivity to
more than one substance”.

TYPES OF ALLERGEN

There are four categories of allergens

1. Inhalants
2. Contactants
3. Ingestants
4. Injectants

INHALANTS
These allergens affect the body when they come in contact with the lungs or membranes of the
nostrils. Pollen is the most common inhaled allergen, including such substances as dust, pollen,
feathers, and animal dander.

CONTACTANTS
Allergens that come in contact with your skin and produce a reaction, such as the rash and
itching are called contactant allergens e.g. cosmetics, detergents, fabrics, and dyes.

INGESTANTS
Ingestant allergens are those that are swallowed. A variety of foods and medications can act as
ingestant allergens. Common ingestant allergens are milk, eggs, peanuts, chocolate etc.

INJECTANTS
Injectant allergens are substances that penetrate the skin, such as insect venom and drugs that
are injected.

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SINGS & SYMPTOMS OF ALLERGY

Common Symptoms
Affected Organ Symptom
Nose Swelling of the nasal mucosa (allergic rhinitis)
Sinuses Allergic sinusitis
Eyes redness and itching of the conjunctiva (allergic conjunctivitis)
Sneezing, coughing, bronchoconstriction, wheezing and dyspnea,
Airways sometimes outright attacks of asthma, in severe cases the airway
constricts due to swelling known as laryngeal edema
Feeling of fullness, possibly pain, and impaired hearing due to the lack
Ears
of eustachian tube drainage.
Skin Rashes, eczema and hives (urticaria)
Gastrointestinal
Abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, diarrhea
tract

TYPES OF ALLERGY

 Environmental Allergy
 Physical & Psychometric Allergy
 Anaphylactic Allergy (Anaphylaxis)
 Cytotoxic Allergy
 Delayed Hypersensitivity Reaction

ENVIRONMENTAL ALLERGY
Environmental allergy refers to any allergy to pollen, dust, animal dander, smoke etc. Allergic
rhinitis, asthma are common types of reactions to these allergens.
Environmental allergies happen when your body's immune system overreacts to a substance in
the environment. Antibodies in your immune system identify the substance as dangerous even
though it's often not.

AIRBORNE PARTICLES
These are the most common allergens. Examples of airborne particles that can cause allergies
are dust, animal dander and pollen from grass, ragweed, and trees.

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POLLEN ALLERGY
Pollen (male sex cells of the plant) is small, light, dry protein particles produced by trees,
grasses, flowers etc that may be spread by the wind. Pollen is a potent stimulator of allergic
responses. It enters into the nose and in other parts of the respiratory tract causing irritation and
histamine reactions.

INSECT BITES AND STINGS

The venom (poison) in insect bites and stings can cause allergic reactions, and can be severe

PHYSICAL & PSYCHOMETRIC ALLERGY

The primary cause of physical & psychometric allergy is problematic shocks of tissue, cold
water, high or low temperature, extreme anger, sorrow, jealousy, depression, mania & anxiety
are mainly.

ANAPHYLACTIC ALLERGY (ANAPHYLAXIS)

Anaphylaxis is a serious, life-threatening allergic response that is marked by swelling, rashes,
lowered blood pressure, and dilated blood vessels. In severe cases, a person will go into shock.
If it is not treated immediately, it can be fatal. Common causes include insect bites, stings,
foods, and medications.

CYTOTOXIC ALLERGY
This is due to toxic material of allergen when it is ingested by our body. It produces lgG in
response to allergen.

DELAYED HYPERSENSITIVITY ALLERGY

Delayed hypersensitivity is a major mechanism of defense against various intracellular
pathogens. Delayed Hypersensitivity Allergy reaction takes two to three days to develop. Unlike
the other types, it is not antibody mediated but rather is a type of cell-mediated response. In
these types of Allergy T-Lymphocytes releases which trigger a series of inflammation reactions.

MEDICAL CASE HISTORY

To determine the circumstances surrounding the patient’s allergy,
doctor must record all details regarding the allergic attacks,
including data on the type of occupation and the familial
background.

GENERAL EXAMINATION INCLUDES…

 Name and sex  Chief complaint
 Marital status  Present illness
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 Age  Mode of onset

 Date of first attack  Seasonal Variation
 Place  Duration
 Time

VITAL SIGNS
Some scientific tools are applied to prove the disease. By using following tools the severity of
allergy can be diagnose.
 B.P  Pulse Rate
 Temperature  Cardiac output
 Breathing Rate  Heart Rate

CLINICAL EXAMINATION INCLUDES…

 Respiratory tract  Urinary Tract
 Cardiovascular System  Reproductive Systems
 GIT

INVESTIGATION
Investigational tests includes scratch test, patch test, intradermal test etc

SKIN TEST FOR ALLERGY

Skin testing for allergies is used to identify the substances that are causing your allergy
symptoms. It is often performed by applying an extract of an allergen to your skin, scratching or
pricking the skin to allow exposure, and then evaluating the skin's reaction. It may also be done
by injecting the allergen under the skin, or by applying it to a patch that is worn on the skin for a
specified period of time.

Types of skin tests for allergy

The procedure varies depending on what type of allergy skin test you are having. The three
main types of skin tests are

1. Scratch Test
2. Intradermal Test
3. Patch Test

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SCRATCH TEST FOR ALLERGY

This test involves placing a small amount of suspected allergy
causing substance on the skin (usually fore-arm, upper arm or the
back) and scratching or pricking the skin so that the allergen is
introduced under the skin surface. The skin is observed closely for
signs of a reaction, which are usually swelling and redness. The
results of this test can be obtained with in 20 minutes.

PATCH TESTS (CONTACT ALLERGY TESTING)

In patch test, an allergen is applied to a patch, which is then placed
on your skin. This type of test can detect delayed allergic reactions.
It's generally done to see whether a particular substance is causing
allergic skin irritation or not.

INTRADERMAL TEST
Intradermal allergy testing is another method of skin testing to help
determine whether an individual is allergic to a specific allergen.
The test involves injection of a small amount of the suspected
allergen under the surface of the skin. After about 20 minutes the
area is examined for a reaction at the site of injection. A typical
reaction looks like a small rash with swelling and redness.

THE MECHANISM OF AN ALLERGIC REACTION

Normally, a person's immune system clearly distinguishes between harmful and harmless
foreign bodies and it reacts only to harmful bodies like various pathogenic bacteria and virus.
When immune system fails to recognize harmless bodies as "harmless" it reacts to them and
produces various symptoms in the form of allergic manifestations.

GENERAL MECHANISM OF ALLERGIC RESPONSE

 When an allergen enters our body, the IgE are produced.

 Then IgE & Mast cell form a complex.
 On re-exposure Allergen binds with this complex.
 As a result the mast cell bursts and releases histamine.
 This histamine produces allergic symptoms such as redness, swelling, heat, itching etc.

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METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY

AVOIDANCE
In some cases, like food allergies, avoiding the allergen is a life-saving necessity. That's
because, unlike allergies to airborne particles that can be treated with shots or medications, the
only way to treat food allergies is to avoid the allergen entirely. For example, people who are
allergic to peanuts should avoid not only peanuts, but also any food that might contain even tiny
traces of them.

Avoidance can help protect people against non-food or chemical allergens, too. In fact, for some
people, eliminating exposure to an allergen is enough to prevent allergy symptoms and they
don't need to take medicines or go through other allergy treatments.

Here are some things that can help you avoid airborne allergens:

 Keep family pets out of certain rooms, like your bedroom, and bathe them if necessary.

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 Remove carpets from your room (hard floor surfaces don't collect dust as much as
carpets do).
 Clean frequently
 Use special covers to seal pillows and mattresses if you're allergic to dust mites.
 If you're allergic to pollen, keep windows closed when pollen season's at its peak,
change your clothing after being outdoors and don't mow (plant cutting or grass cutting)
lawns.
 If you're allergic to mold, avoid damp areas, such as basements, and keep bathrooms
and other mold-prone areas clean and dry.

VACCINATIONS
After the confirmation of specific Allergy type & kind of allergen a specific vaccine is injested to
the patient & he/she remain save from the attack of this particular allergy for specific period of
time.

PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY

In pharmacological interventions usually Histamine blocking agents e.g. cetrizine Levocetrizine
etc are used. If the Allergy is infectious than suitable antibiotic can be added.

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ENZYMES OBTAINED FROM PLANT SOURCE (PHYTO-ENZYMES)

DEFINITIONS
Enzymes are organic catalysts produced by living organisms.

Enzymes are important group of bio-molecules synthesized by the

living cells. They are catalysts of biological systems, colloidal,
thermo-labile and protein in nature.

Catalysts
A catalyst is an agent, which in minute amount increases the velocity of a reaction without
appearing in the final product of the reaction.

Substrates
Substances on which enzymes act to convert them into products are called substrates.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENZYMES & CATALYST

Enzymes
 All the enzymes are organic
substances
 Enzymes mostly destroyed
during the reaction
 Enzymes are more specific in
Nature
 Enzymes are very complex in
Nature
 Speed of the enzyme reaction
does not depend on the
concentration
Catalysts
 All the catalysts are inorganic
substances
 Catalysts are not destroyed in the
chemical reaction
 Catalysts are non-specific in
Nature
 Catalysts are very simple
compounds or substances
 Speed of catalyst reaction will
depends upon the concentration
of catalyst

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

 Catalytic property
 Enzymatic property
 Solubility
 pH

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 Temperature
 Specificity
 Protein nature

CATALYTIC PROPERTY
Small amount of enzyme can catalyzed the large amount of substrate in biological reactions.

ENZYMATIC PROPERTY
The velocity of the enzymatic reaction increase as the concentration of the substrate increases
up to certain maximum. But after certain period of time it decreases.

SOLUBILITY
Enzymes are mostly soluble in water and diluted alcohol solution. The enzymes ca precipitate in
concentrated Alcohol, Ammonium Sulphate, Tricholoro Acitic Acid.

PH

Acid:
Acid deactivates those enzymes that act at alkaline pH, e.g Trypsin. At acidic pH, it will destroy,
(Trypsin is very important enzyme that secreted by Pancreas and very important for proper
digestion of food).

Base:
Base deactivates the enzymes that act at acidic pH, e.g. Pepsin, at alkaline pH, it will destroy.

TEMPERATURE
Optimum temperature for enzymatic activity is 35 o C to 40o C.
At 0 o C inactive
At 10 o C to 20 o C very little active
At 35 o C to 40 o C max. Active
o
At 50 C inactive
At 60 C o
destroy

In solid condition, it may be stable up to 100 o C.

SPECIFICITY
Enzymes are usually very specific as to which reactions they catalyze and the substrates that
are involved in these reactions.

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

PROTEIN NATURE
In general with the exception of “Riboizymes, which are few RNA molecules with enzymatic
activities” all enzymes are protein in nature with large molecular weight.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
Enzymes are generally named after adding the suffix “ase” to the name of the substrate, e.g.
enzymes acting on “nucleic acid” are known as “nuclease”. Even-though few exceptions such as
Trypsin, Pepsin, and Chymotrypsin are still in use. Further, few enzymes exist in their inactive
forms and called as Proenzymes or Zymogens e.g. Pepsin has Pepsinogen as its zymogen.

There are six main classes of enzymes

1. Oxidoreductases
2. Transferases
3. Hydrolases
4. Lyases
5. Isomerases
6. Ligases

(Catch word to remember the classes of enzymes: OTH-LIL)

OXIDOREDUCTASES
These enzymes catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions, e.g. Alcohol dehydrogenase, Lactate
dehydrogenase.

Examples…
 Oxidases
 Reductases

TRANSFERASES
Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a functional group (e.g., a methyl or phosphate group)
from one molecule (called the donor) to another (called the acceptor).

For example, an enzyme that catalyzed this reaction would be a transferase.

AX + B → A + BX

In this example, A would be the donor, and B would be the acceptor. The donor is often a
coenzyme.
There are many types of transferases, some important are
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 Transaminases
 Phosphotransferases
 Transmethylases
 Transpeptideases

HYDROLASES
These enzymes catalyze hydrolysis, e.g Pepsin, Trypsin
They have many subgroups some important are
 Carbohydrases
 Aminohydrolases
 Lipids Hydrolyzing Enzymes

LYASES
Enzymes that facilitate removal of small molecules from a large substrate, e.g. Histidine
Decarboxylase, Carbonic Anhydrase.

ISOMERASES
Enzymes involved in isomerization of substrate, e.g. Retinal Isomerase.

LIGASES
Enzymes involved in joining together two substrates, e.g. RNA synthetase, Glutamine
Synthetase.

FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES
Enzyme plays a vital role in our daily life. They perform following important functions.

 Decrease in activation energy  For cancer treatment

 Digestion  Curing of diseases
 Cheese making  Blood clotting
 Sweetener  Alcoholic beverages
 As detergent  Meat tenderizing
 As drug

Decrease in Activation Energy

Enzymes decrease activation energy.

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Digestion
Enzymes play important role in digestion for the conversion of large complex and non-diffusible
molecules into smaller, simple and diffusible molecules, e.g. Trypsin, Lipase, Amylase.

Cheese Making
Enzymes are also used in the manufacturing of cheese.

Sweetener
Some enzymes are used as sweetener,
e.g. Sucrose (glucosidase enzyme) Glucose + Fructose
Glucose is 72% sweeter while fructose is 132% sweeter than sucrose.

As Detergent
Carbohydrate and protein breaking enzymes are heat stabilizer and are used as detergent, e.g.
Proteases

As Drug
Some enzymes are used as drugs if there is any disturbance in the digestive system.

For cancer Treatment

Some enzymes are used for cancer treatment, e.g. L. Asparginase

Curing of Diseases
Enzymes are also play important role in curing of diseases such as rickets and jaundice, for
heart problem Lactate Dehydrogenase, and for liver problem certain Kinases are used.

Blood Clotting
Enzymes also cause blood clotting by protein thrombin.

Alcoholic Beverages
Amylase is used in manufacturing of alcoholic beverages.

Meat Tenderizing
Trypsin, Pepsin and Papain are meat tenderizing to facilitate the process of digestion.

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

BROMELAIN
Bromelain belongs to a group of a protein digesting enzymes obtained
commercially from the fruit or stem of pineapple plant that helps digest
protein when taken with food.  However, When taken without food (that
is, with plain water on an otherwise empty stomach), bromelain have
natural antihistamine properties and as such is believed to help support
the normal function of the respiratory tract.

Sources of Bromelain
Bromelain is an enzyme derived from the stems of pineapples

Color
Yellowish-white to tan powder

Solubility
Readily soluble in water, insoluble in most organic solvents such as acetone, ether, ethanol and
methanol.

Molecular Weight
Approximately 33,000

Uses
 Bromelain a potential anti-inflammatory agent
 It is used as a supporting agent in the treatment of inflammation and edema
 It is widely used in leather factory
 It is used in the production of protein
 Along with papain, bromelain is one of the most popular substances to use for meat
tenderizing.
 Bromelain can prevent aggregation of human blood platelets in vivo and in vitro.

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PAPAIN
Papain, enzyme present in the leaves, roots, and fruit of the papaya
plant that catalyzes the breakdown of proteins by hydrolysis (addition
of a water molecule).

Source
It is obtained from the leaves, roots, and fruit of the papaya plant

Color
It has amorphous light whitish color powder

Solubility
It is easily soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol, ether and acetone

Molecular Weight
The pure crystalline enzyme, papain, has a molecular weight of 21000

Uses
 Papain is used in biochemical research involving the analysis of proteins
 Tenderizing of meat
 Clarification of beverages (soft and hard drinks)
 Papain is used in enzyme-action cleansing agents for soft contact lenses
 It is used to remove the protein molecules
 It is also used in toothpastes and cosmetics and in preparations of various remedies for
indigestion, ulcers, fever, and swelling

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SEPARATION AND ISOLATION OF PLANT CONSTITUENTS

Medicinal plant contains number of constituents located in different concentration in different

parts of it. The plants are also very complex in nature and method for separation and isolation
depending on it. Various steps are involved in the isolation of chemical constituents.

Extraction is the most important first step for isolation of any compound. The solvent used for
the extraction is based on the polarity of the active constituent. Different solvent systems are
available to extract the bioactive compound from natural products.

Once extract is prepared, separation techniques e.g. chromatography is used for further
separation of the active constituents.

Chromatography and extraction are two most common processes used to isolate or separate
the plant constituents; we will discuss these two processes in detail.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTRACTION AND CHROMATOGRAPHY

Extraction
The compounds are separated on the basis of relative solubility.

Chromatography
The compounds are separated on the basis of polarity.

CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatography is a process of chemistry in which mixture of different compounds is separated
on the basis of their relative polarity difference.

APPLICATIONS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
The fundamental applications of Chromatography are following.
 It is involve in the separation of different protein molecule.
 It is also involve in the separation of different pharmaceutical chemicals.
 Chromatography is also used to separate different tissue and biological fluids.
 It is also an important techniques used in analysis of medicines.
 Environmental Protection Agencies use chromatography to test drinking water and to
monitor air quality
 Ion exchange chromatography separates compounds based on net surface charge

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STATIONARY PHASE
The phase or components of Chromatographic procedure that are non-mobile phase or fixed is
known as stationary phase.

For example
 Chromatography paper
 Tale
 Mg-oxide
 Al-oxide
 Activated charcoal

MOBILE PHASE
This is the phase or components of Chromatography procedure which has ability to move e.g.
solvent used in paper Chromatography.

The most popular mobile phase is used Chromatography are…

 Petroleum ether
 Propanol
 Ethanol
 Acetone

RF VALUE
The retention factor, Rf, is a quantitative indication of how far a particular compound travels in a
particular solvent. If the Rf value for the unknown compound is close or the same as the Rf
value for the known compound then the two compounds are most likely similar or identical.

We can say that, Rf value is the ratio between the distance covered by any substances to the
distance covered by the Mobile Phase/ Solvent

Rf = Distance covered by substance / Distance covered by solvent

STYLE OR TECHNIQUES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

1. Ascending Chromatography
2. Descending Chromatography
3. Circular or Radial Chromatography

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ASCENDING CHROMATOGRAPHY
In ascending Chromatography the solvent are tends to move upward and the components of
mixture are separated in the form of spot.

DESCENDING CHROMATOGRAPHY
In descending Chromatography the solvent tends to move downward. The compounds of
mixture separated in the form of spots.

CIRCULAR OR RADIAL CHROMATOGRAPHY

In circular Chromatography the solvent tends to move in circular form and the different
compounds of mixture are separated in the form of rings.

TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

1. Paper Chromatography
2. Thin Layer Chromatography
3. Column Chromatography

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Paper Chromatography is one of the most common types of
chromatography. It uses a strip of paper as the stationary phase.
Capillary action is used to pull the solvents up through the paper and
separate the solutes.

STATIONARY PHASE IN PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Chromatographic paper is used as stationary phase in paper
Chromatography.

MOBILE PHASE IN PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.

PROCEDURE OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

1. First of all we will take Chromatographic paper and cut it down according to the style of
Chromatography e.g. redial , ascending, or descending
2. In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom sides in case of descending
the line is drown on upper of Chromatographic paper. The line is called baseline. The
distance of this baseline from the final edge is 1.5 cm.

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3. The sample is applied in the center of baseline and the paper is applied into mobile
phase in a Chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time the components of sample
will separate and finally Rf value of each component is calculated.
4. In case of radial Chromatography the sample is applied in the center and thread has
been passed in through the center the mobile phase will move under the papillary action
and components of sample will separate in the form or rings finally Rf value of all the
components is calculated.

STYLES OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Paper Chromatography can be done by following styles

 Ascending Chromatography
 Descending Chromatography
 Redial Chromatography

APPLICATION OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

 It is used in pharmaceutical industries to separate different kinds of (API)

 It is used to determine the polarity and evaporation power of any given compound
 It is used in the identification of poison
 It is used in the analysis of different medicine
 It is used in the separation of different body tissue
 It is used in forensic medicine for investigational purpose

THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)

Thin-layer Chromatography uses an absorbent material on
flat glass or plastic plates.

STATIONARY PHASE IN THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY

The layer of adsorbent is known as the stationary phase.

MOBILE PHASE IN THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.

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PROCEDURE OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY

 First of all we will take special thin layer chromatographic paper coated with the
absorbent and cut it down according to the style of chromatography e.g. radial, circular
ascending descending
 In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom side which case of
descending the line is drawn on upper of chromatographic paper. The line is called
baseline. The distance of this baseline from the final edge is 1.5 cm.
 After drying the plate, the sample is applied in the center of baseline and the plate
enclosed into mobile phase in a chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time, the
components of sample will separate and finally Rf value of each component is
calculated.

STYLES OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)

Paper Chromatography can be done by following styles

 Ascending Chromatography
 Descending Chromatography
 Redial Chromatography

APPLICATION OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)

 This is a simple and rapid method to check the purity of an organic compound
 Thin-layer chromatography is also used in forensics to analyze the dye composition of
fibers.
 Determination of the components a plant contains
 Detection of pesticides or insecticides in food and water
 Analyzing the dye composition of fibers in forensics sciences
 Identifying compounds present in a given substance
 Assaying the radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals

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COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
In column chromatography, the stationary phase, a
solid adsorbent, is placed in a vertical glass
(usually) column. The mobile phase, a liquid, is
added to the top and flows down through the
column by either gravity or external pressure.

STATIONARY PHASE IN COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY

The stationary phase or adsorbent in column
chromatography is a solid. The most common stationary phase for column chromatography is
silica gel, alumina, cellulose powder has often been used.

MOBILE PHASE COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY

Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.

PROCEDURE OF COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY

The classical preparative chromatography column is a glass tube with a diameter from 50mm
and a height of 50cm to 1m with a tap at the bottom. The stationary phase is a powdered
adsorbent which is placed in a vertical glass column. The mixture to be analyzed is loaded on
top of this column.

The mobile phase is a solvent poured on top of the leaded column. The solvent flows down the
column causing the components of the mixture to distribute between the powdered adsorbent
and the solvent thus separating the components of the mixture so that as the solvent flows out
of the bottom of the column some components elute with early collections and other
components elute with late fractions.

APPLICATION OF COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY

 It is used in the separation of benzodiazepines

 It is used in the Analysis of medicine
 It is used for the purification of water & other organic solvents in pharmaceutical industry
 It is used in the separation of different body tissue

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EXTRACTION
Extraction is a very common laboratory procedure used when isolating or purifying a product.
Plants contain a broad range of bioactive compounds such as lipids; Phytochemicals,
pharmaceutics, flavors, fragrances and pigments.

Extraction Techniques are used to obtain such valuable natural compounds from plants for
commercialization.

EXTRACTION DEFINITION
Separation of medicinally active portions of plant or animal tissues from the inactive or inert
components by using selective solvents is called extraction procedures. Or

It is the specialized type procedure that involves the separation of different compounds on the
basis of their relative solubility in two different immiscible solvent. OR

The extraction is a complex pharmaceutical procedure in which the active pharmaceutical

ingredient (API) is removed from crude drug (animal or plant origin).

THEORY OF EXTRACTION
Any extraction procedure depends upon some fundamental principles and these are very much
common on all types of extraction.

 Suitable size reduction of crude drug

 Selection of suitable solvent
 Penetration of solvent into the crude drug
 The cell should be at right position to collect to solution
 Supply of appropriate heat
 Separation of solvent from marc
 Evaporation technique is applied to get purified solid drug

MANSTRUM
Any liquid that is used for extractions procedure is called manstrum.

MARC
The waste material that left after extraction is called marc.

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EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES/ METHODS

1. Infusion
2. Decoction
3. Maceration
4. Percolation
5. Digestion
6. Continuous Hot Extraction

INFUSION
Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavors from plant material in a
solvent such as water, oil or alcohol, by allowing the material to remain suspended in the solvent
over time.

This process or technique is usually used for soft nature of drug. The extracts that are
formulated through infusion process have shelf life of only 24 hours, so it is recommended to
use these kinds of extracts freshly.

A common example of an infusion is tea, and many tisanes (herbal tea) are prepared in the
same way. Herbal infusions in water and oil are both commonly used as herbal remedies.
Coffee can also be made through infusion, but is more often made through percolation.

PROCEDURE FOR INFUSION EXTRACTION

 First of all the nature of the drug is checked

 If the nature of the drug is soft, no need to cut or crush it into pieces
 if drug has little harder, then cut or crush it in to pieces
 place the drug into the infusion pot
 Now heat the manstrum up to 200c to 250c
 Pour the hot manstrum on the drug and allow to settle for 15 minutes or according to the
requirement
 Finally filter it and the extract is ready to use

DECOCTION
It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the form of powder or coarse
particles. Drugs are together boiled with water for certain are given period of time then cooled
and filtered. Decoction preparation always used freshly because their half life is about 24 hours.

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Decoctions are suitable for roots, barks, large seeds & berries, and other dense material, or for
lighter materials where maximum extraction is required of constituents (such as tannins) that are
stable to heat.

PROCEDURE FOR DECOCTION EXTRACTION

 Decoction is the technique of extraction in which water is used as manstrum.

 The drug that is selected for decoction procedure should be hard.
 The drug should be in powder or coarse particles form
 Put the entire drug in large beaker (1000ml) and poured the manstrum on the drug.
 Heat the drug and manstrum mixture to boil.
 After the definite period of time the burner should be closed and allow the mixture to cool
down.
 After the cooling phase filter the mixture.
 The filter mixture is now ready to use as an extract.

MACERATION
This method requires prolong time. In this method drug is powdered and cover up in the porous
cloth then it is dipped in the manstrum for 2 to 14 days as required.

PROCEDURE FOR MACERATION EXTRACTION

 Drugs are triturate to fine powders

 Cover up the drug in the porous cloth or pouch.
 Select suitable manstrum
 After this the pouch containing drug powder is suspended in to the manstrum for 2 to 14
days.
 The pouch is removed after the definite time
 Finally adjust the volume of extraction as required.

MULTIPLE MACERATION
Multiple maceration is very important and effective procedure as far as its accuracy is concern.
The basic aim of this procedure is to remove the remaining (API) in to manstrum.
In multiple maceration, we prefer the alcohol as manstrum on other manstrum like wise water.

PROCEDURE FOR DOUBLE MACERATION

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 Drugs are triturate to fine powders

 Cover up the drug in the porous cloth or pouch.
 Select suitable manstrum
 The manstrum is divided into two portions A and B
 The crude drug pouch is dipped into manstrum A for specific period of time. After that
time the manstrum A is separated and preserved the marc.
 The marc is again dipped into the manstrum B for specific period of time
 After that time the marc is pressed and manstrum B is separated
 Mixed the manstrum A and B and adjust the volume.

PERCOLATION
It is an extraction technique in which a communicated drug is enclosed in a porous vessel
known as percolator and manstrum is allowed to pass through the communicated drug. The
extract that we obtained from the percolation and procedure is called percolate. The percolation
procedure can be properly explained under following heading.

PROCEDURE FOR PERCOLATION EXTRACTION

 The drug should be of suitable size, it will enhance the surface area of drug and the
movement of manstrum becomes slow.
 The solid ingredients are moistened with an appropriate amount of the specified
manstrum and allowed to stand for approximately 4 h in a well closed container
 Then drug is packed in percolator and the top of the percolator is closed
 Additional manstrum is added to form a shallow layer above the mass
 mixture is allowed to macerate (soften or become softened by soaking in a liquid) in the
closed percolator for 24 h
 The outlet of the percolator then is opened and collect the extraction
 Sufficient menstruum is added to produce the required volume

CONTINUOUS HOT EXTRACTION

In continuous hot extraction the drug is enclosed in a drug chamber and Manstrum is placed in
lower flask. A reflex condenser is placed at the upper portion. When heat is applied to the
manstrum it converts itself into vapors. These vapors are condensed by reflux condenser. The
drops of manstrum tickle down in the drug chamber and purified extract is obtained from
collection point.

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POISONOUS PLANTS
(WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PAKISTAN)

There are many plants available in northern areas & ground areas of Pakistan. Theses plants
have the ability to produce some harmful and long-term effects on the human body.

These poisonous plants can be classified as

 Plants Causing GIT Toxicity

 Plants Causing CNS Toxicity
 Plants Causing CVS Toxicity
 Cyanogenetic Plants

PLANTS CAUSING GIT TOXICITY

1. Mouth or Oral Cavity Toxic Plants

 Arisaema triphyllum
 Colocasia esculenta

2. Plants Toxic to Gastric Mucosa

 Narcissus tazetta
 Amaryllis

3. Plants Causing Dryness of Mouth

 Datura stramonium
 Atropa belladonna

4. Plants Causing Intestinal Motility

 Conium maculatum
 Nicotiana tobaccum

MOUTH OR ORAL CAVITY TOXIC PLANTS

Name of Plants: Arisaema triphyllum, Colocasia esculenta

Family: Araceae

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

Habitat: sindh, Gilgit, Swat, Ayubia and Nathiagli

Toxicology
The fundamental compound due to which mouth or oral cavity toxicity occur is calcium oxalate.

Symptoms
 Intense burning sensation  Blister on tongue
 Mouth less of sensation  Increase salivation
 Dermatitis  Loss of voice is also reported

Colocasia esculenta

Arisaema triphyllum

PLANTS TOXIC TO GASTRIC MUCOSA

Name of Plants: Narcissus tazetta, Amaryllis

Family: Amaryllidaceae

Habitat: Gilgit, Swat Wally Punjab, Sindh

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Toxicology
There are various alkaloids in these plants that cause multiple symptoms

Symptoms

 Inflammation and burning sensation  Headache

of mouth  Increase salivation nasal secretion
 Gastritis

Narcissus tazetta

Amaryllis

PLANTS CAUSING DRYNESS OF MOUTH

Name of Plants: Datura stramonium

Family: Solanaceae

Habitat: swat, Gilgit, chitral, muree and Kashmir.

Toxicology

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

 There are different compound present in Datura stramonium mainly hyoscine and
hyocyamine if any human ingested there raw plants they can cause toxicity
 If leaves and flowers of this plant eaten by some animal and their meat is used by human
can caused toxicity
Symptoms

 Dryness of mouth  Eye sight weakness

 Dyspnea  Muscular weakness
 Fatigue

Datura stramonium

Name of Plants: Atropa belladonna

Family: Solanceae

Habitat: Muree, Hazara, Nansehra, and Chitral

Toxicology
The main chemical compound which is present in Atropa belladonna is atropine.

Symptoms
 Dryness of mouth  Nausea
 Muscular relaxation  Vomiting
 Fever

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Atropa belladonna

PLANTS CAUSING INTESTINAL MOTILITY

Name of Plants: Conium maculatum

Family: Umbelliferae

Habitat: Hazara, Abottabad, and hills of muree and Chitral

Toxicology
There are many alkaloids present in Conium maculatum that cause multiple symptoms

Symptoms
 Increase the intestinal motility  Respiratory Depression
 Paralysis of motor Nerve ending  Drowsiness
 Paralysis of spinal card

Conium maculatum

Name of Plants: Nicotiana tobaccum

Family: Solanaceae

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Habitat: it is widely available in rural sindh, Punjab and N.W.F.P.

Toxicology
There are mainly alkaloids available in Nicotiana tobaccum. But the most effective is nicotine.

Symptoms
 Enhance the motility of intestine
 Diarrhea

Nicotiana tobaccum

PLANTS CAUSING CVS DISTURBANCES

1. Digitalis purpurea
2. Digitalis lanata
3. Nerium indicum

Name of Plants: Digitalis purpurea, Digitalis lanata

Family: Scrophulariaceae

Habitat: Hazara, Azad Kashmir

Toxicology
These are two plants contain many glycosides. In which the most active are Digoxin, Digitoxin
and Gitoxin.

Symptoms
 Ventricular tachycardia  shortness of breath
 Vomiting  Drowsiness
 Sinus arrhythmia  Fatigue

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Digitalis purpurea

Name of Plants: Nerium indicum

Family: Apocynaceae

Habitat: Muree, Chitral and Azad Kashmir

Toxicology
Roots, barks and seeds contain toxins the most active are “nerodine” and karabin.

Symptoms
 Hypertension  Nausea
 Cardiac arrhythmia  Vomiting
 Ventricular tacky cardia  Chest pain
 Increase impulse rate

Nerium indicum

PLANTS CAUSING CNS DISTURBANCES

1. Cannabis sativa
2. Cicuta virosa

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

Name of Plants: Cannabis sativa

Family: Cannabinaceae/ Moraceae

Habitat: it is widely available in NWFP and Punjab

Toxicology
The glandular trichomes of Cannabis sativa is secreted a resin which usually a waste material
called as Narcotic resin.

Symptoms
 Shrinkage of mouth  The addict person will not enjoy the
 Dryness of mouth color of life
 Dry cough  Vomiting

 Constipation  Headache

 Depression  Hallucination

Cannabis sativa

Name of Plants: Cicuta virosa

Family: Umbelliferae

Habitat: hilly area of Azad Kashmir

Toxicology
In Cicuta virosa there is a mixture of toxic substances called cicutoxin is a slightly alcoholic in
nature the barks of the Cicuta virosa is more toxic then the seeds and leaves of this plant.

Symptoms
 Depression  Respiratory depression which
 Tremor ultimately leads to respiratory failure

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 Increase salivation  Vomiting

 Nausea

Cicuta virosa

CYANOGENETIC PLANTS

Name of Plants: Manihot esculenta

Family: Euphorbiaceae

Habitat
It is easily available in the forests of Northern area

Toxicology
There is a toxic substances name cyanogenocyte which can produce harmful effect on the living
systems

Symptoms
 Convulsion
 Muscular weakness
 Liver damage
 Vomiting

Manihot esculenta

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION, CLASSIFICATION AND MEDICINAL USES OF IMPORTANT PLANTS

GLYCOSIDES CONTAINING PLANT

1. Cassia angustifolia
2. Cassia fistula
3. Aloe barbadensis
4. Urginea maritima

ALKALOIDS
1. Rauwolfia serpentina
2. Catharanthus roseus
3. Ephedra sinica

VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS)

1. Foeniculum vulgare
2. Carum carvi
3. Curcuma longa

RESINS AND RESIN COMBINATION

1. Citrullus colocynthis
2. Styrax benzoin

CARBOHYDRATES
1. Acacia senegal
2. Astragalus gummifer

TANNINS
1. Acacia catechu
2. Quercus infectoria

LIPIDS (FIXED OILS, FATS AND RELATED COMPOUNDS WAXES)

1. Prunus amygdalus
2. Aloe barbadensis

GLYCOSIDES
Glycosides are a class of molecules in which, a sugar molecule is bonded to a "non-sugar"
molecule. Glycosides play important role in our lives. Many plants store medicinally important
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chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. The non-sugar portion contains the biochemically
active properties of medical interest. Once the glycoside is split into its two components (sugar
and non-sugar parts), the non-sugar component is now free to exert its chemical effects on the
body.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT GLYCOSIDE CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Cassia angustifolia
2. Cassia fistula
3. Aloe barbadensis
4. Urginea maritima

Botanical Name: Cassia angustifolia

Drug: Senna, Senna is a natural medicine containing Sennosides that are derived from the
leaves of the Senna plant.
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Sennosides
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, Laxative, Senna is also used for weight loss.

Botanical Name: Cassia fistula

Drug: Cassia
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Sennosides
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, the fruit pulp is considered a purgative

Botanical Name: Aloe barbadensis

Drug: Aloe
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Family: Liliaceae
Chemical Constituent: Aloin
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, speed up the process of healing to burns and other wounds,
moisturizes and softens your skin

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Botanical Name: Urginea maritima

Drug: Squill
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Family: Liliaceae
Chemical Constituent: Scillaridin-A
Medicinal Uses: Diuretic, Anti-emetic, Squill is a cardio tonic similar to digitalis. It also has been
used in hair tonics to treat dandruff

ALKALOIDS
Alkaloids are naturally occurring chemical compounds containing basic nitrogen atoms. The
name derives from the word alkaline and is used to describe any nitrogen-containing base and
organic compounds.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT ALKALOIDS CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Rauwolfia serpentina
2. Catharanthus roseus
3. Ephedra sinica

Botanical Name: Rauvolfia serpentina

Drug: Rauwolfia
Chemical Class: Alkaloids
Family: Apocynaceae
Chemical Constituent: Reserpine
Medicinal Uses: Alkaloids present in this plant reduce blood pressure, depress activity of the
central nervous system and act as hypnotics and Sedative.

Botanical Name: Catharanthus roseus

Drug: Catharanthus
Chemical Class: Alkaloids
Family: Apocynaceae
Chemical Constituent: Vinblastine and Vincristine
Medicinal Uses: Anti Cancer, the leaf juice or water decoction of Catharanthus roseus is used
for the treatment of diabetes.

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Botanical Name: Ephedra sinica

Drug: Ephedra
Chemical Class: Alkaloids
Family: Ephedraceae
Chemical Constituent: Ephedrine
Medicinal Uses: Anti asthmatic, Bronchodilator. Ephedra is widely used by athletes as a
performance-enhancing drug. Ephedra has been used as a weight-loss aid, sometimes in
combination with aspirin and caffeine.

VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS)

Volatile oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds
(fragrance) from plants. Volatile oils are also known as Essential oils.

Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Essential oils have
been used medicinally in history. Medical applications proposed by those who sell medicinal oils
range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT VOLATILE CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Foeniculum vulgare
2. Carum carvi
3. Curcuma longa

Botanical Name: Foeniculum vulgare

Drug: Fennel
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Umbelliferae
Chemical Constituent: Fenchone
Medicinal Uses: Carminative, Flavoring agent

Botanical Name: Carum carvi

Drug: Caraway
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Umbelliferae
Chemical Constituent: Limonene
Medicinal Uses: Carminative, Flavoring agent

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Botanical Name: Curcuma longa

Drug: Curcuma
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Zingiberaceae
Chemical Constituent: Curcumin
Medicinal Uses: Anti inflammatory, Use in jaundice, Use in gall stones

RESINS
A natural or synthetic organic compound, consisting of non-crystalline, solid, viscous liquid
substance or mixture. Natural resins are usually transparent or translucent yellow to brown and
can melt and burn.
The resin produced by most plants is a viscous liquid, composed mainly of volatile fluid
terpenes, with lesser components of dissolved non-volatile solids which make resin thick and
sticky.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT RESINS PRODUCING PLANTS

1. Citrullus colocynthis
2. Styrax benzoin

Botanical Name: Citrullus colocynthis

Drug: Colocynth
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chemical Constituent: corocynthix, peciten phosphate
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic

Botanical Name: Styrax benzoin

Drug: Benzoin
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Styraceae
Chemical Constituent: Coniferyl benzoate
Medicinal Uses: Antiseptic, Expectorant

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CARBOHYDRATES
A carbohydrate is a large biological molecule, or macromolecule, consisting of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms.

Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve for the
storage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen), and as structural components (e.g., cellulose in
plants).

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT CARBOHYDRATES CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Acacia senegal
2. Astragalus gummifer

Botanical Name: Acacia senegal

Drug: Acacia Gum
Chemical Class: Carbohydrate
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Arabic acid
Medicinal Uses: Acacia gum is used as a demulcent (a substance that relieves irritation of the
mucous membranes in the mouth by forming a protective film). It is used topically for healing
wounds and has been shown to inhibit the growth of some bacteria. It is also used as a binding
agent.

Botanical Name: Astragalus gummifer

Drug: Tragacanth
Chemical Class: carbohydrate
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Tragacanthin
Medicinal Uses: Tragacanth has been used for constipation; Modern pharmaceutical uses
include an adhesive agent for pills and tablets, and for emulsifying oil droplets in lotions, creams
and pastes. Its superior water absorbing qualities make it an excellent thickening agent.

TANNINS
Any of a class of yellowish or brownish solid compounds found in many plants and used as
tanning agents, mordents, or medical astringents.

(Tanning is the process of treating skins of animals to produce leather)

(A mordant is a substance used to set dyes on fabrics or tissue)

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(An astringent substance is a chemical compound that tends to shrink or constrict body tissues)

The tannin compounds are widely distributed in many species of plants, where they play a role
in protection from predation, and perhaps also as pesticides, and in plant growth regulation.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT TANNINS CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Acacia catechu
2. Quercus infectoria

Botanical Name: Acacia catechu

Drug: Catechu
Chemical Class: Tannin
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Catechin
Medicinal Uses: Catechu is used in traditional medicine for sore throats and diarrhea; it is also
used as anti-inflammatory, anti-diuretic. It enhance digestion and curing skin disorders.

Botanical Name: Quercus infectoria

Drug: Nut gall
Chemical Class: Tannin
Family: Fagaceae
Chemical Constituent: Gallic acid
Medicinal Uses: Nut gall extracts are widely used in pharmaceuticals, food and feed additives,
dyes and inks manufacturing.

FIXED OILS
Non-volatile oils especially fatty oils of vegetable origin are called fixed oils. Fixed oils do not
evaporate like essential oil and are often called carrier oils.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT FIXED OILS CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Prunus amygdalus
2. Aloe barbadensis
Drug: Almond
Botanical Name: Prunus amygdalus
Chemical Class: Lipids (Fixed oil)
Family: Rosaceae

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Chemical Constituent: Sphingolipid

Medicinal Uses: Regulation of cholesterol, Immune System Strength, Anti-Inflammation,
Regulation of blood pressure, Prevention of cancer

Botanical Name: Aloe barbadensis

Drug: Aloe vera
Chemical Class: Lipids (fixed oil)
Family: Asphodelaceae
Chemical Constituent: Saponins & salicylic acid
Medicinal Uses: Used for moisturizing skin, it is used in creams & lotions, It is a well known
healing and soothing agent for damaged and dry skin, It is soothing and healing for burns skin
irritations.

Course Outlines

PHARMACOGNOSY (WRITTEN)
Paper 3 Part-1 (100) Marks
1.          Introduction and scope of Pharmacognosy
2.          Classification of crude drugs.
3.          Terminology used in Pharmacognosy.
4.          Evaluation of crude drugs i.e. organoleptic, physical, chemical and biological.
5.          Introduction, case history, skin test, treatment and mechanism of allergy.
6.          Enzymes obtained from plant source (Phyto-enzymes)
7.          General introductions of poisonous plants with special reference to Pakistan.
8.          Separation and isolation of plant constitutions. An introduction to chromatography and
chromatographic techniques e.g.
a)         Column chromatography
b)         Paper chromatography
c)         Thin layer chromatography
9.          Introduction to extraction and extraction techniques.
10.        General introduction, classification and medicinal uses of important plants containing:
a)          Glycosides
b)          Alkaloids
c)          Volatile oils (essential oils)
d)          Resins and Resin combination
e)          Carbohydrates
f)           Tannins
g)          Lipids (Fixed oils, fats and related compounds waxes)
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