HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN:

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The vertical alignment of a road consists of gradients (straight lines in a vertical
plane) and vertical curves. The vertical profile is typically displayed as a graph with elevation
on the vertical axis, and horizontal alignment distance on the horizontal axis. Just as a
circular curve is used to connect horizontal straight stretches of road, vertical curves connect
two gradients. When these two curves meet, they form either convex or concave. The
former is called a summit curve, while the latter is called a valley curve (sag curve). Vertical
alignment specifies the elevation of points along the roadway. The elevation of these
roadway points are usually determined by the need to provide an acceptable level of driver
safety, driver comfort, cut to fill, and proper drainage.
Topography of the land to be traversed plays a major role in the alignment of roadways;
particularly the vertical profile. The terrain can be classified by its variations into the following
categories:
1. Level: Sight distances are generally lengthy or accomplished without difficulty or expense.
2. Rolling: Natural slopes rise or fall below the road grade with occasional steep slopes and
some alignment restriction. Typically a rolling terrain generates steeper grades than level
terrain which causes significant reduction in truck speeds.
3. Mountainous: They are characterized by abrupt changes in ground elevation with respect
to the roadway. Benching and excavation are typically used for sight distance. Truck speed
reduction is more drastic.

Vertical alignment of highways are consist of:

• Gradients
• Vertical Curves (summit/crest curve, valley/sag curve)
Gradients
Gradient is defined as the rise or fall corresponding to some horizontal distance. Raise
with respect to horizontal distance is called Upward gradient (+g %) Fall with respect to
Horizontal distance is called Downward Gradient (-g %).

Types of Gradients
Many studies have shown that gradient upto seven percent can have considerable
effect on the speeds of the passenger cars. On the contrary, the speeds of the heavy vehicles
are considerably reduced when long gradients as flat as two percent is adopted. Although,
flatter gradients are desirable, it is evident that the cost of construction will also be very high.
• Ruling Gradient
• Limiting Gradient
• Exceptional Gradient
• Minimum Gradient
1. Ruling Gradient
This is the maximum gradient which is generally used to design the vertical profile of
highway.
So it is also called as designer gradient. Ruling gradient depends on the terrain, length of the
grade, speed, pulling power of the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve. It is
adopted by considering a particular speed as the design speed and for a design vehicle with
standard dimensions. In flat terrains it is possible to provide flat gradients and in hilly
terrains it is very costly and sometimes it is difficult to provide ruling gradient in hilly
terrains.

2. Limiting Gradient
This gradient is provided as shorter stretches in highways. Whenever ruling gradients
costs high for the hilly terrains then limiting gradient is provided which will reduce the cost.
This gradient is adopted frequently in terrains with limited stretches.

3. Exceptional Gradient
These are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations and they are
adopted for stretches not exceeding 100m of length.
4. Minimum Gradient
To drain of rain water from the road minimum gradient is needed. Generally for
lateral drainage Camber is provided. But for the longitudinal drainage along the side drains
require some slope for smooth flow of water. For concrete drains minimum gradient of 1 in
500 and open soil drains gradient of 1 in 200 is suitable.

Vertical Curves
Generally two types of vertical curves are there to adopt for the vertical alignment.
They are:
1. Summit curve is a vertical curve adopted mainly when the gradient is upwards. In case
of summit curve simple parabola is considered as best curve shape.
2. Valley curve is a vertical curve provided when the gradient is downwards. Generally
when the vehicle meets downward gradient it accelerates more and discomfort arises.
So, in the design of valley curve in vertical alignment comfort is considered along with
sight distance.
 Summit curves are vertical curves with
gradient upwards. They are formed when two
gradients meet as in any of the following four ways:
1. when a positive gradient meets another positive
gradient.
2. when positive gradient meets a flat gradient.
3. when an ascending gradient meets a descending
gradient.
4. when a descending gradient meets another
descending gradient
Valley curve or sag curves are vertical curves
with convexity downwards. They are formed when
two gradients meet as illustrated in figure 1 in any of
the following four ways:
1. when a descending gradient meets another
descending gradient.
2. when a descending gradient meets a flat gradient
3. when a descending gradient meets an ascending
gradient
4. when an ascending gradient meets another
ascending gradient.
 Vertical curves are used to provide gradual change between two adjacent vertical
grade lines. The curve used to connect the two adjacent grades is parabola. Parabola offers
smooth transition because its second derivative is constant.

Elements of Vertical Curve

PC = point of curvature, also known as BVC (beginning of vertical curve)
PT = point of tangency, also known as EVC (end of vertical curve)
PI = point of intersection of the tangents, also called PVI (point of vertical intersection)
L = length of parabolic curve, it is the projection of the curve onto a horizontal surface which
corresponds to the plan distance.
S1 = horizontal distance from PC to the highest (lowest) point of the summit (sag) curve
S2 = horizontal distance from PT to the highest (lowest) point of the summit (sag) curve
h1 = vertical distance between PC and the highest (lowest) point of the summit (sag) curve
h2 = vertical distance between PT and the highest (lowest) point of the summit (sag) curve
g1 = grade (in percent) of back tangent (tangent through PC)
g2 = grade (in percent) of forward tangent (tangent through PT)
A = change in grade from PC to PT
a = vertical distance between PC and PI
b = vertical distance between PT and PI
H = vertical distance between PI and the curve

Symmetrical Parabolic Curve

In this section, symmetrical parabolic curve does not necessarily mean the curve is
symmetrical at L/2, it simply means that the curve is made up of single vertical parabolic
curve. Using two or more parabolic curves placed adjacent to each other is called
unsymmetrical parabolic curve. The figure shown below is a vertical summit curve. Note that
the same elements holds true for vertical sag curve.
Properties of Parabolic Curve and its Grade
Diagram

1. The length of parabolic curve L is the

horizontal distance between PI and PT.
PI is midway between PC and PT.

2. The curve is midway between PI and the

midpoint of the chord from PC to PT.

3. The vertical distance between any two points

on the curve is equal to area under the grade
diagram. The vertical distance c = Area.

4. The grade of the curve at a specific point is

equal to the offset distance in the grade
diagram under that point. The grade at point Q
is equal to gQ.
Formulas for Symmetrical Parabolic Curve 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝐿 𝐿
The figure shown above illustrates the 𝑎 = 𝑔1 𝑏 = 𝑔2
2 2
following geometric properties of parabolic
curve. Note that the principles and formulas 𝐵𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚:
can be applied to both summit and sag curves. 𝑆1 𝐿
= 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔2
𝑔1 𝑔1 + 𝑔2
𝑔1 𝐿
𝑆1 =
𝑔1 + 𝑔2
𝑔2 𝐿
𝑆2 =
𝑔1 + 𝑔2

𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

1
ℎ1 = 𝑔 𝑆
2 1 1
1
ℎ2 = 𝑔 𝑆
2 2 2
𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑠:
𝐿
𝐻 = (𝑔1 + 𝑔2 )
8
2
1
𝑥 2 𝐿
= 2 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎
𝑦 𝐻
Example 1:
The back tangent with grade of +3.4 % and forward tangent with grade of -4.8 % intersects at
station 14+750 and elevation 76.3m. The two tangents are connected by a 320 m parabolic
curve.
a. Find the location of the highest point from PC.
b. Compute the stationing of the highest point of the curve.
c. Determine the elevation of the highest point

Example 2:
A grade of -3% is followed by a grade of +2% which intersects at station 10+250 and elevation
of 100m. If the maximum change in grade per 20 m station is 0.20%, determine the following
a. Length of parabolic curve that shall connect these two gradelines.
b. Stationing of PC.
c. Elevation of PC.
Design Considerations for a Summit Curve
In determining the type and length of the vertical curve, the design considerations
are comfort and security of the driver, and the appearance of the profile alignment. Among
these, sight distance requirements for the safety is most important on summit curves. The
stopping sight distance or absolute minimum sight distance should be provided on these
curves and where overtaking is not prohibited, overtaking sight distance or intermediate
sight distance should be provided as far as possible.

When a fast moving vehicle travels along a summit curve, there is less discomfort to
the passengers. This is because the centrifugal force will be acting upwards while the vehicle
negotiates a summit curve which is against the gravity and hence a part of the tyre pressure
is relieved. Also if the curve is provided with adequate sight distance, the length would be
sufficient to ease the shock due to change in gradient.

Parabolic curves is easy for computation and also it had been found out that it
provides good riding comfort to the drivers. It is also easy for field implementation. Due to all
these reasons, a simple parabolic curve is preferred as summit curve.
 The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of the length of
the curve which is parabolic. As noted earlier, the length of the curve is guided by the sight
distance consideration. That is, a driver should be able to stop his vehicle safely if there is an
obstruction on the other side of the road.

Two situations can arise depending on the uphill and downhill gradients when the
length of the curve is greater than the sight distance and the length of the curve is less than
the sight distance.

Where: A – the deviation angle

A = g1 – g2 in %
L – the projection of the curve onto a horizontal surface which corresponds to
the plan distance.
S – Sight Distance
h1 – driver’s eye height
h2 – height of the obstruction
Case 1. Length of summit curve is greater than Case 2. Length of summit curve is less than
sight distance (L>S) sight distance (L<S)

𝐴𝑆 2 200 ℎ1 + ℎ2
2
𝐿= 2 𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
100 2ℎ1 + 2ℎ2 𝐴

L = KA
K = length of vertical curve in meters for 1% change in grade.
A = g1 – g2 in %
R = 100K
R = Radius of parabolic curve
Design standards used in the Philippines
Sight Distance Type Driver Eye Height (m) Object Height (m)
Car Stopping Sight Distance 1.08 0.6
Truck Stopping Sight Distance 2.33 0.6
Maneuver Sight Distance 1.08 0.6
Passing Sight Distance 1.08 1.08
Car Headlight to Road Surface 0.6 0
Sight Distance
Truck to Car Tail Sight Distance 2.33 0.6

California standards length of vertical curves "L"

a) When design speed V < 60 kph Use L = 60 m
b) When grade breaks A = g1 - g2 is less than 2% Use L = 60 m
c) When V > 60 kph and grade break > 2% Use L = 2V
d) When V > 60 kph but grade break < 2% Use L = 60 m
Design Considerations for a Sag Curve
There is no restriction to sight distance at valley curves during day time. But visibility
is reduced during night. In the absence or inadequacy of street light, the only source for
visibility is with the help of headlights. Hence valley curves are designed taking into account
of headlight distance. In valley curves, the centrifugal force will be acting downwards along
with the weight of the vehicle, and hence impact to the vehicle will be more. This will result
in jerking of the vehicle and cause discomfort to the passengers. Thus the most important
design factors considered in valley curves are: (1) impact-free movement of vehicles at
design speed and (2) availability of stopping sight distance under headlight of vehicles for
night driving.

For gradually introducing and increasing the centrifugal force acting downwards, the
best shape that could be given for a valley curve is a transition curve. Cubic parabola is
generally preferred in vertical valley curves. During night, under headlight driving condition,
sight distance reduces and availability of stopping sight distance under head light is very
important. The head light sight distance should be at least equal to the stopping sight
distance. There is no problem of overtaking sight distance at night since the other vehicles
with headlights could be seen from a considerable distance.
 Design standards for stopping sight distance or sight distance for sag vertical curves
are based on an assumed headlight height of 600 mm and an upward divergence of the
headlight beam of 1°.
Case 1. Length of summit curve is greater than sight distance (L>S)
𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿=
120 + 3.5𝑆
Case 2. Length of summit curve is less than sight distance (L<S)
120 + 3.5𝑆
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝐴
Where:
L= length of sag curve
S = the distance between the vertical and point where the one degree upward single of the
light beam intersects the surface of the roadway or stopping sight distance.
A = algebraic difference in grades in (%)
Example 3: A 5% grade intersects a - 3.4% grade at station 1 + 990 of elevation 42.30 m.
Design a vertical summit parabolic curve connecting the two tangent grades to conform with
the following safe stopping sight distance specifications.
Design velocity = 60 kph
Height of driver's eye from the road pavement = 1.37 m.
Height of an object over the pavement ahead = 100 mm.
Perception-reaction time = ¾ sec.
Coefficient of friction between the road pavement and the tires = 0.15.
a. Determine the stopping sight distance.
b. Determine the length of curve.
c. Determine the elevation of highest point on curve.

Example 4: A vertical summit (crest) curve has tangent grade of +0.5% and a -1.0% grade for a
road which will provide a stopping sight distance of 190 m. Height driver's eye above the
pavement is 1.07 m and the height of the object ahead is 0.15 m. Compute the minimum
length of a crest vertical curve for a design speed of 100 kph.
Example 5: Compute the minimum length of vertical sag curve that will provide 130 m.
stopping sight distance for a design speed of 80 kph at the intersection of a -2.30% and a
+4.8% grade.