THEORIES OF OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE AND CAREER

DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
The professional interest in how and why an individual chooses a career is relatively new. Before
industrialization and urbanization, vocational choices were limited to what person’s father or
mother did or the availability of certain occupation in the person’s immediate environment.
Since the start of industrial revolution and the subsequent rural-urban migration there is an ever –
increasing range of alternative occupations which require specialization. The resulting confusion
and uncertainty has fostered an accepting climate for career assistance in the form of career
information, selection and placement. Various theoretical rationales have been devised to provide
a framework for those practicing career counseling. However just like in other types of counseling
the sessions depend to a large extent, on the individual counsellor’s personal preference for one
theory or another. Some basic requirements are considered essential whatever theory of career
development is preferred
This form of counselling must be
1. Fluid in order to cater for the changing vocations awareness and attitudes
2. Designed to help the counselor organize and intrgrate clients data
3. Capable of providing the counselor with necessary expertise he needs to help the client
make decisions that will lead to his personal growth and the attainment of his specific
objectives
NEED FOR CAREER COUNSELING
The process of career counseling i\s not that much different from other types of counselling. But
there are notable differences which make it unique
1. The purpose of career counseling is to assist a person in choosing and adjusting to the
world of work
2. A counsellor must be familiar with current occupational information; therefore career
counselling is more concrete than other types of counseling
3. Career problems are seen by clients as “safe” and more socially acceptable problems than
psychotherapy and other types of counseling
4. Career counseling focuses on planning and decision making about occupations and
education, with more emphasis on providing factual information on data than other types
of counseling
5. Career counselors should recognize the fact that they cannot help an individual with career
problems if they ignore other characteristics of that individual including his needs,
conflicts and his relationship with others.

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The theories of career development are grouped into four main categories and each category has
its proponents
We will discuss
1. The developmental theories
2. The trait-factor theories
3. The structural theories
4. The decision making theories
1. The developmental theories:
The early leaders in the developmental theories of career development were Ginzberg and
associates who stressed that occupational choice was an irreversible development process that
involved a series of decisions made over many years

a) Ginzberg, Axelrad and Therma Theory

In Ginzberg's theory, the central idea is that vocational choice is a process which extends from late
childhood to the end of adolescence. Nevertheless, it has been extended to be lifelong. The theory
gives some guidelines as to how an individual develops, and may explore, crystallize, specify, and
achieve, goals at different stages of his/her life. Thus, the counselor notes the stages of
development and helps the individual to achieve his/her goals.
According to the theory, a career is a long-term process. That requires education, vision, values,
goals, skills, and interests. Due to this, Ginzberg also mentions that vocational choices of
individuals are divided into 3 stages namely:
1. Childhood or infancy
2. Adolescence
3. Adulthood or maturity
Stage one – Childhood (2 to 11 years)
In this first stage, the child does a playful imitation. He role-plays and mimics many roles.
Similarly, the roles include fire-fighter, policeman, doctor, racer, and many more. According to
Ginzberg, children evolve from playful reproduction. In addition, they work simulation near the
end of this stage.
Stage two – Adolescence (11-17 years)
In this second stage, kids start to become aware of their surroundings. Which help them start
developing skills, abilities, and talents. Apart from that, they are characterized by their interests
and values. This stage is characterized by four main points
• Interest: Their fondness and dislikes.
• Capacity: The things they are better at. Compared to the ones at which they aren’t.

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• Value: What’s important to them and what’s not?
• Changeover: The person takes for granted, his responsibilities, for his own dealings.
Stage Three – Adulthood (Above 17 years)
In this last stage, the actual career begins to appear apparently. The kid becomes aware of college
life and different paths. Firstly, they begin to recognize vocation alternatives. Secondly, they make
backup plans in case the original does not work. Thirdly and lastly, this Stage is characterized by
three sub stages that are listed below:
 Exploration stage: In this first part, the individual decides his trail. But remains untied to
other choices.
 Crystallization: In this second part, the individual becomes dedicated to one option.
Alongside, he focuses on other options.
 Specification: In this last part, the individual build-up fondness. Similarly, he takes precise
interest for part of the profession.
From this theory, Ginsberg drew out the following conclusions:
a. The process of career choice is limited to adolescence and adulthood stage.
b. Due to crisis and many other reasons, people change their occupation.
c. After retirement, their occupation changes.
This theory is also known as Developmental Theory. After this theory published. Many new and
improved theories were proposed by various scientists. But, the vocational theory still serves as
the base theory for career progress.

b) SUPER DONALD’S SELF – IMAGE THEORY

Among the developmental theories super Donald’s theory received the greatest attention. In
Super's theory, defining a vocational preference means making an occupational choice consistent
with one's image of oneself. He proposed that the individual’s self-concept influenced his career
choice and the ultimate satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the choice. In this view therefore the
jobs that an individual hold throughout his lifetime reflect his self-concept as expressed in the
world of work. Therefore, the counselor is no longer an expert in the accurate assessment of
vocational choice. The counselor is rather the person who helps the individual to discover who
he/she is, and what he/she can become.

Donald Super Developmental self-concept

Donald Super’s career model is based on the belief that self-concept changes over time
and develops as a result of experience.

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One of Donald Super’s greatest contributions to career development has been his emphasis
on the importance of the development of self-concept. According to Super, self-concept
changes over time and develops as a result of experience. As such, career development is
lifelong.

Super’s five life and career development stages

Super developed the theories and work of colleague Eli Ginzberg. Super felt that
Ginzberg’s work had weaknesses, which he wanted to address. Super extended
Ginzberg’s work on life and career development stages from three to five, and included
different sub-stages.

Stage 1: Growth Age 0–14 Characteristics: Development of self-concept,

attitudes, needs and general world of work

Stage 2: Exploration Age 15–24 Characteristics: “Trying out” through classes,

work experience, hobbies. Tentative choice
and skill development

Stage 3: Age 25–44 Characteristics: Entry-level skill building and

Establishment stabilisation through work experience

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 Stage 4: Maintenance Age 45-64 Characteristics: Continual adjustment process to
improve position

Stage 5: Decline Age 65+ Characteristics: Reduced output, prepare for retirement

Developmental tasks at the different stages

Super argues that occupational preferences and competencies, along with an individual’s life
situations all change with time and experience. Super developed the concept of vocational
maturity, which may or may not correspond to chronological age: people cycle through each
of these stages when they go through career transitions.

Decline
In adolescence: In early adulthood: In middle In late adulthood:
adulthood:
Giving less time Reducing Reducing working hours
to hobbies sports Focusing on
participation essentials
Maintenance
In adolescence: In early adulthood: In middle In late adulthood:
Verifying current Making adulthood: Keeping what one enjoys
occupational occupational Holding one's
choice position secure own against
competition
Establishment

In adolescence: In early adulthood: In middle In late adulthood:

Getting started in Settling down in adulthood: Doing things one
a chosen field a suitable Developing new has wanted to do
position skills
Exploration
In adolescence: In early adulthood: In middle In late adulthood:
adulthood:
Learning more Finding Finding a good
about opportunities desired Identifying new retirement place
opportunity tasks to work on
Growth
In adolescence: In early adulthood: In middle In late adulthood:
adulthood:
Developing a Learning to relate Developing and
realistic self- to others Accepting one's valuing non-
concept own limitations occupational roles

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Super’s five life and career development stages
Stage Age        Characteristics
Growth birth-14 Development of self-concept, attitudes, needs and general world of work
"Trying out" through classes, work hobbies. Tentative choice and skill
Exploration 15-24
development
Establishmen
25-44 Entry-level skill building and stabilization through work experience
t
Maintenance 45-64 Continual adjustment process to improve position
Decline 65+ Reduced output, prepare for retirement

Developmental tasks at these different stages

Early adulthood Middle adulthood
Life stage Adolescence 14-25 Late adulthood 65+
25-45 45-65
Giving less time to Reducing sports Focusing on Reducing working
Decline
hobbies participation essentials hours
Making
Verifying current Holding one's own Keeping what one
Maintenance occupational
occupational choice against competition enjoys
position secure
Establishmen Getting started in a Settling down in a Developing new Doing things one has
t chosen field suitable position skills wanted to do
Learning more Finding desired Identifying new Finding a good
Exploration
about opportunities opportunity tasks to work on retirement place
Developing and
Developing a Learning to relate Accepting one's
Growth valuing non-
realistic self-conceptto others own limitations
occupational roles

2. THEORIES (Holland’s Theory)

In Holland's theory, individuals and occupations are categorized according to the same scale of
attributes. Vocational choice consists of choosing an environment which corresponds to one of the
defined personality patterns emerging from the scale. Therefore, the counselor's role is to help the
individual make the best use of his/her skills, express his/her values, and take on roles which are
gratifying.

Holland’s theory is based on some basic assumptions

i. Individuals look for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities,
environments that allow them to express their attitudes and values and lastly environments
which are agreeable to their problems and roles
ii. In emphasizing the person – situation correspondence Hollard makes it explicit that
occupations are ways of life, they help in defining ones social status, life style and standard
of living
iii. An individual’s behavior is determined by the interaction of his personality and the
environment
Holland’s theory is centred on the notion that most people fit into one of six personality types:
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  Realistic
 Investigative
 Artistic
 Social
 Enterprising
 Conventional.
Realistic
some occupations with Realistic Subjects you could study
Some key skills
components to give you the skills
Using and operating tools,
Pilot, farmer, horticulturalist, English, Maths, Science,
equipment and machinery,
builder, engineer, armed services Workshop, Technology,
designing, building, repairing,
personnel, mechanic, upholsterer, Computing, Business
maintaining, working manually,
electrician, computer Studies, Agriculture,
measuring, working in detail,
technologist, park ranger, Horticulture, Physical
driving, moving, caring for animals,
sportsperson Education
working with plants
Investigative
Subjects you
Description of Some occupations with could study to
Some key skills
interest area Investigative components give you the
skills
Thinking analytically and Science, research, medical
Likes to discover and
logically, computing, and health occupations,
research ideas, English, Maths,
communicating by writing and chemist, marine scientist,
observe, investigate Science,
speaking, designing, forestry technician, medical
and experiment, ask Computing,
formulating, calculating, or agricultural laboratory
questions and solve Technology
diagnosing, experimenting, technician, zoologist, dentist,
problems
investigating doctor
Artistic
Subjects you could
Description of interest Some occupations with
Some key skills study to give you the
area Artistic components
skills
Artist, illustrator,
Expressing artistically
photographer, signwriter, English, Social
Likes to use words, art, or physically, speaking,
composer, singer, Studies, Music,
music or drama to writing, singing,
instrument player, dancer, Drama, Art, Graphic
communicate, perform, performing, designing,
actor, reporter, writer, Design, Computing,
or express themselves, presenting, planning,
editor, advertiser, Business Studies,
create and design things composing, playing,
hairdresser, fashion Languages
dancing
designer
Social
Some occupations Subjects you could
Description of interest
Some key skills with Social study to give you the
area
components skills
Likes to work with English, Social
Communicating orally or in Teacher, nurse, nurse
people to teach, train Studies, Maths,
writing, caring and aide, counsellor, police
and inform, help, treat, Science, Health,
supporting, training, officer, social worker,
heal and cure, serve and Physical Education,
meeting, greeting, assisting, salesperson, customer
greet, concerned for the Art, Computing,
teaching, informing, service officer, waiter,
wellbeing and welfare of Business Studies,
interviewing, coaching secretary
others Languages
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Enterprising
Some occupations with
Description of Subjects you could study
Some key skills Enterprising
interest area to give you the skills
components
English, Maths, Business
Likes meeting Selling, promoting and Salesperson, lawyer,
Studies, Accounting,
people, leading, persuading, developing politician, accountant,
Economics, Social
talking to and ideas, public speaking, business owner,
Studies, Drama,
influencing others, managing, organising, executive or manager,
Computing, Text
encouraging others, leading and captaining, travel agent, music or
Information Management,
working in business computing, planning sports promoter
Languages
Conventional
Some occupations Subjects you could
Description of interest
Some key skills with Conventional study to give you
area
components the skills
Likes working indoors
Computing and keyboarding, English, Maths,
and at tasks that involve Secretary,
recording and keeping Business Studies,
organising and being receptionist, office
records, paying attention to Accounting,
accurate, following worker, librarian,
detail, meeting and greeting, Economics,
procedures, working bank clerk, computer
doing calculations, handling Computing, Text
with data or numbers, operator, stores and
money, organising, arranging, Information
planning work and dispatch clerk
working independently Management
events
Holland asserts that people of the same personality type working together in a job create an
environment that fits and rewards their type.
Within this theory there are six basic types of work environment, which correlate directly to
the personality types. Holland emphasises that people who choose to work in an environment
similar to their personality type are more likely to be successful and satisfied. This idea is
important as it shows Holland’s theory can be flexible, incorporating combination types.
Holland’s theory takes a problem-solving and cognitive approach to career planning. His
model has been very influential in career counselling. It has been employed through popular
assessment tools such as the Self-Directed Search, Vocational Preference Inventory and the Strong
Interest Inventory
3.TRAIT -FACTOR THEORY
It was initially a theory of individual differences based on the assumption that:
1. Each person has a uniquely organized pattern of personality traits i.e. interest,
abilities etc which are relatively stable after adolescence
2. These traits can be identified by using psychological tests or inventories which are
then profiled to represent the individual’s potential
3. Occupations can also be profiled in terms of the various individual traits required
4. When the two profiles are matched then the degree of fit between person and job
can be identified
A theorist who uses the trait -factor approach is E.G. Williamson. In postulating his theory, he
assumed that:
1. Vocational development is a cognitive process and therefore one uses reasoning and logic
to arrive at a decision
2. Vocational choice is a single event that emphases choice rather than development
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 3. There is a single “right” vocation for everyone with no recognition that an individual may
fit into any occupation
4. Vocational choice is available for everyone
Therefore, the trait factor approach is a vigorously scientific and highly personalized method of
matching individual’s patterns and occupations

4.DECISION MAKING THEORIES

The major concept in the decision- making theories is that each person has several alternatives
from which to choose an occupation and each alternative has identifiable consequences or
outcomes.
The theories also point out that each alternative has a specific value for that individual and
therefore these values can be arranged in a hierarchy
The value of each alternative can therefore, be multiplied by the probability of its occurrence to
determine the decision which an individual should take.
BERGLAND’S THEORY
Bargland one of the decision – making theorists, has proposed a sequence of events which occur
or should occur in career counseling. These are
1. Defining the problem- this is done by providing answers to questions such as: What is the
problem?
Why is it difficult to solve?
When and what circumstances does it occur?
2. Generating alternatives- a list of alternatives is prepared. Many references materials can be
used e.g books, experienced people, other counselors, so that the client has a wide choice
of alternatives
3. Gathering information- the client can go about doing this by visiting various institutions
which offer what he is interested in or maybe through reading vocational job descriptions
so that he can explore what he is interested in
4. Processing information- at this stage the information collected should enable the client to
make estimates about probability of his success. He is able to see the advantages and disad
vantages of each alternative and weigh them on the basis of factual information such as
amount of money involved
5. Making plans and selecting goals- the client now makes a tentative decision and if he is
unsure about the choice, the decision may be first tested then further information can be
gained and fed back into the decision – making process.

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 6. In implementing and evaluating the plans. as a result of collecting information clients
sometimes revise their values and goals, New ideas occur; values change, evaluation
should be a continual process. However, the process stops after a decision is made. A
counsellor should be interested in the evaluative process and therefore should make his
findings available to researchers who review outcomes and provide assistance to the client
when change of direction is sought

Factors Influencing Vocational Choice/career development

The choices of individual that influence vocational choices are as follows:
1. Diverse life responsibilities: Every person has to play different responsibilities at home and
office. He decides and chooses the best role which is more significant to him.
2. Traits and interests: Every person is unique in his own way. Therefore, every aspect of
personal life is different from others.
3. Cultural Background: The principles and the regional area also affect the personal choice for
work preferences. The surrounding and the people around us also affect our choices of work.
4. Economic and social circumstances: It’s natural that our choices get affected according to
economic and social circumstances. The social and economic life plays an important role in
changing your choices.
5. Financial stability: Money is one of the main reasons for some to change future choices. You
make the correct and reasonable choices. You finalize your choices according to your financial
status.
6. Career guidance: Some individuals do not receive proper career guidance which causes them
to choose the wrong one. That leads them to a non-inspirational and boring career choice
7.Intellectual ability: those who choose career where there intellectual abilities does not match
other workers find it a competitive disadvantage. It is also important as an entry requirement to an
occupation
8.Family: local community child rearing practices and socio –economic level of the family itself
9.Environmental influence: the occupational and economic levels of any home do influence the
aspirations of the youth

Social factors that influence student’s vocational development

1. Social class membership: this includes occupation and income of parents, educ ation,
place of residence and the ethnic background
2. Home influence: such as parental goals for the individual, the influence of siblings as well
as the values that the family holds
3. School: this includes scholastic achievement, peer relationships, attitudes towards faculty
members and the values that the school holds
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 4. Community: the community as a factor includes the things that an individual does within
the community. Again this involves the values and goals of the group as well as the
specific opportunities within the community that are available to the members
5. Pressure groups: this is in reference to any amount of pressure that one feels from the
surrounding community to value a particular occupation over another
6. Role perception: role perception refers to how an individual perceives herself either as a
leader or a follower and whether this perception of himself is in accord with how others
perceive him/her

c.) Occupational Guidance

Occupational Information in Guidance
The dissemination of occupational information in guidance is carried out in the following ways:
1. General group guidance: The counselor collects information and makes it available to
groups of students. The students also collect information on various occupations for
themselves.
2. Teaching of occupations: The counselor meets a class and teaches them about different
occupations.
3. Career day/week activities: Lectures on different careers, career demonstrations, debates,
and film shows, are provided by the school.
4. Trips and excursions to industrial establishments: Students go out of school/college to
workplaces, to see things for themselves.
5. Career clubs: The clubs can show films relating to careers, organize career quizzes,
competitions, career conferences, dramas, and invite lecturers/employers to provide
information on various careers.
6. Vacation jobs and work-study: The school can assist students to obtain vacation jobs
during the long vacation or provide work-study programmes.
7. Bulletin boards: The school can display vocational, educational, and social information, on
bulletin boards.
8. School subjects: Teachers can relate their teaching of subjects to careers for which they are
useful or applicable.
Kinds of Occupational Information Which Students Should Know
1. Employment prospects: Are the employment prospects for this occupation expanding or
diminishing?
2. Nature of Work: What are the pleasant or unpleasant things workers have to do? What
tools, equipment, or materials, are used? What are the hours of work? Are there any shifts?
3. Work Environment: Is it hot, cold, humid, dry, wet, dirty, noisy, etc.?
4. Qualifications: What are the academic and/or physical qualifications?
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5. Aptitudes: What is the I.Q. and other special aptitudes needed?
6. Interests: What are the interests of people who succeed in this particular occupation?
7. Legal and professional: Is a license or certificate required?
8. Preparation: What kind of education and training is needed?
9. Entrance: Is it by examination, by application and interview, or by capital investment?
10. Likes or dislikes: What are the likes and dislikes of the job?
11. Advancement: What proportion of worker’s advance? And to what positions?
12. Earnings: What are the earnings per month and year? How are wages paid?

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