CHAPTER – MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Magnetic Pole: A region of a magnet which has maximum capacity to attract

magnetic substance is called the magnetic pole.

A single pole never exists in the magnet because magnetic lines of forces
are always in closed loop.

Pole Strength: The capacity of pole to attract the magnetic substance is called the
pole strength. It is denoted by ‘m’. Its unit is Am( Ampere meter) in SI system and
cgs unit in CGS system.

Magnetic dipole: If N- pole and S-pole of a magnet are separated by a certain

distance then that system is called magnetic dipole.

Magnetic dipole moment: The product of strength of one pole and distance
between two poles of a magnet is called magnetic dipole moment. It is denoted
by ‘M’. Mathematically,

M = m×2l

2l is effective length of the magnet. (Distance between two poles). The unit of
magnetic moment is A.m2 or joule per Tesla in SI system.

Magnetic axis: A straight line passing through two poles of a freely suspended
magnet is called magnetic axis.

Magnetic meridian: An imaginary vertical plane passing through two poles of a

freely suspended magnet is called the magnetic meridian.

Coulomb's law

It states that "The force of attraction or repulsion between two poles is directly
proportional to the product of the strengths of two poles and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between two poles."

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 N r S

Figure: - Force between two plates

Let us consider two poles of two bar magnet having pole strength m1 and m2
separated by a distance r. Then, from coulomb's law,

F α m1m2 ---------------------- (i)

Fα --------------------------- (ii)

Combining equation (i) and (ii), we get,

FαK -------------------- (iii)

Where K is proportionality constant, its value is in SI system and μ0 = 4π×10-7

N/A2. The value of K in CGS system is 1.

If m1 = 1= m2 and r = 1 then,

F= = = 10-7 N

Hence, unit pole is a strength of magnetic pole which can repel an identical pole
at a distance of 1m by a force of 10 -7 N.

Magnetic Field

The space around the magnet where it can exert a force on other magnet or
magnetic materials is called the magnetic field.

Magnetic lines of Force (magnetic field lines)

The imaginary continuous curves starting from North Pole that terminates to
South Pole externally and South Pole to North Pole internally are called magnetic
lines of force. The tangent drawn at a point on magnetic lines of forces gives the
direction of magnetic field at that point.

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Characteristics of magnetic lines of force

1. The magnetic field lines are continuous curves.

2. The tangent drawn at a point on magnetic line gives the direction of
magnetic field at that point.
3. Two magnetic lines of force never intersect each other. If two lines
intersect at a point, there exist two directions of magnetic field which is not
possible.
4. In uniform magnetic field, magnetic lines are parallel, equidistance from
each other.
5. In non-uniform magnetic field, magnetic lines are curved. They are crowded
near poles.

Magnetic lines of force

Tangent

Fig: - Magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet

Magnetic flux

The number of magnetic lines of force crossing per unit area of the surface
held perpendicular to its path is called magnetic flux. It is denoted by ϕ.

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 Consider a small surface area A through which a magnetic lines of force are
passing as shown in the figure. If θ be the angle between normal to the surface
and uninform magnetic field then magnetic flux ϕ through the surface is

Φ = ⃗ . = BAcosθ = BcosθA ………….. (i)

Where, Bcosθ is the component of the magnetic field normal to the plane of
the surface.

Magnetic field intensity (Magnetic field strength)

The magnetic field intensity at a point inside the magnetic field is defined as the
force experienced by the unit North Pole placed at that point.

●S ●N r P
mN

Let us consider a north pole mN is placed at a distance r from the north pole of a
magnet having pole strength m.

The force experienced by a North Pole mN due to the magnet is,

F= ………………………. (i)

The force experienced by unit North Pole at point P is denoted by B is then given
by,

B=

Substituting the value of F from (i), we get,

Or, B =

Or, B = …………………………… (ii)

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 This is an expression for magnetic field strength (intensity) due to the Bar magnet
inside the magnetic field. The unit of magnetic field intensity is Newton per
ampere meter (N/Am) or Tesla (T) in SI system.

(Note: Topics with blue color are not in the syllabus but are worth reading)

Magnetic field intensity due to a bar magnet at any point

(1) End-on Position (axial line)

Q. Derive an expression for the magnetic intensity at a point on the axial line of a
bar magnet
2l
●S ● ●N B2 P B1

l l d

Fig :- Magnetic field intensity at a point on axial line

Consider a bar magnet of effective length '2l' and pole strength of each pole 'm'.
Let 'P' be the point at a distance ‘s’ from center of magnet where magnetic field
intensity is to be determined.

The magnetic field intensity at point P due to the North Pole of a bar
magnet is,

B1 = ……………….. (i) directed away from north pole

The magnetic field intensity at a point P due to the South Pole of a bar
magnet is,

B2 = ……………….. (ii) directed towards south pole

The resultant magnetic field intensity at P is,

B = B1 – B2 {(B1 + (-B2)) = B1 – B2}

= -

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 = ( - )

= { }

= ( )

= ×

= ……………………… (iii)

Where M = m×2l is magnetic moment of a bar magnet. Equation (iii) is an

expression for magnetic field intensity at a point due to the bar magnet in axial
line (end-on position).

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(2) Broadside – on position (equatorial line, perpendicular bisector)

B1

B P

B2

r d r

θ θ
S● ● ●N

l l

Fig: - Magnetic field intensity at a point on equatorial line

Consider a bar magnet of effective length 2l and pole strength of each pole m. Let
P be the point on equatorial line where magnetic field intensity is to be
determined.

The magnetic field intensity at a point P due to the North Pole of a bar magnet is,
B1 =

From figure, r2 = d2 + l2 Or, r = √

 B1 = ……………………. (i) directed away from north pole

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 Similarly, the magnetic field intensity at a point P due to the south pole of a bar
magnet is,

B2 = = ………………… (ii) directed towards South Pole

From equation (i) and (ii), B1 = B2. The angle between B1 and B2 is 2θ.

Now, The resultant magnetic field intensity at P due to B1 and B2 is,

B=√

Or, B2 =

Or, B2 =

Or, B2 = (1+ cos2θ)

 B2 = 2cos 2θ……………………………….. (iii) (1+cos2θ = 2cos 2θ)

From figure,

cosθ = =
√

From (iii),

B2 = 4 cos 2θ

Or, B = 2B1cosθ

= 2× ×
√

 B = ……………………. (iv)

This is required expression of magnetic field intensity on equatorial line.

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 Neutral Points

A point in the magnetic field of a bar magnet at which the resultant field intensity
is zero is called the Neutral point. At neutral point, the field due to a bar magnet is
completely neutralized by the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field.

Earth's Magnetism or Terrestrial Magnetism

The quantities needed to specify the Earth's magnetic field at a place completely
are called the elements of terrestrial magnetism. These elements are discussed
below.

1) Declination
The angle between the magnetic meridian and geographic meridian of the earth is
called Declination. It is denoted by θ. Its value varies from place to place on the
surface of earth. It arises because of the earth’s magnetic axis not coinciding with
its geographic axis.
Magnetic Meridian
The vertical plane at a place that passes through the magnetic axis of earth is
called magnetic meridian.
Geographic Meridian
The vertical plane at a place that passes through the axis of rotation of the earth
(geographic axis) is called geographic meridian.

Fig:- Declination, Inclination and Horizontal component of earth's magnetic field.

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 2) Inclination or angle of dip
The angle of dip or inclination at a place is defined as the angle between the
earth's magnetic field and the horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian. It is
denoted by δ and its value varies from place to place. Its value is zero on the
earth’s equator and 90 0 at poles. On other places its value lies from 00 to 900.
3) Horizontal component of earth's magnetic field
The component of earth's magnetic field along the horizontal direction is called
horizontal component of earth magnetic field. It is denoted by H or BH.
Q. What are the elements of earth magnetic field? Develop the relation
R= √
Answer:-

Consider the earth's magnetic field strength B at a place and H (BH) and V (BV) be
its horizontal and vertical components as shown in the figure.
Now, from figure,
H = Bcosδ ……………………………… (i) and
V = Bsinδ ………………………………. (ii)
Squaring and adding equation (i) and (ii), we get
= cos 2δ + sin2δ
Or, = (cos 2δ + sin2δ)
Or, =
 B =√ ……………………. (iii) ( you can also write R or I in place of B)
Or, R =√ or, I = √
Again, dividing equation (ii) by (i), we get,
=

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 Tanδ = …………………………………… (iv)
Here, δ gives the angle of dip at a place.

Dip circle: It is a device used to measure the angle of dip at a place.

Real Dip: The angle of dip in the magnetic meridian is called real dip or true dip.
Apparent Dip: The angle of dip in the other planes except magnetic meridian is
called apparent dip.
Relation between true dip and apparent dip

BH 𝞪

BV

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BH 𝞪

90-𝞪

BV

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 Let be the angle made by the dip circle with the magnetic meridian. The
effective horizontal component in the plane of dip circle is
Bl H = BHcos
The vertical component BV does not change. If 1 is apparent dip in this plane
then,
tan 1 =

Or, Cot 1 = = Cot ×Cos …………………………. i

If the dip circle is rotated through 90 0 from its initial position then the circle
makes an angle of (90- ) with the magnetic meridian. In this plane,
= BHcos(90-
The vertical component BV does not change. If 2 is apparent dip in this plane
then,
tan 2 =

Or, cot 2 = = cot × cos(90- ) = cot × sin ……………………. ii

Squaring and adding equation (i) and (ii), we get
Cot2 1 + cot2 2 = Cot2 ×Cos2 + cot2 × sin2
Cot2 1 + cot2 2 = Cot2 ( Cos 2 sin2
Cot2 1 + cot2 2 = Cot2
Knowing the values of apparent dip 1 and 2, value of true dip can be
calculated.
Three magnetic vectors
1) Intensity of magnetization
The magnetic moment per unit volume of the material is called intensity of
magnetization. In fact, it is a measure of the extent to which the material is
magnetized. It depends on the nature of material and is denoted by I.
 I= = =

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 It is a vector quantity and its unit is ampere per metre (A/m).
2) Magnetizing field vector

The magnetic field which produces induced magnetism in a magnetic substance

placed inside it is called magnetizing field. The strength of the magnetizing field at
a particular direction is called magnetizing field strength. It is also called
magnetizing field vector and is denoted by H.

3) Magnetic induction vector

The net magnetic field strength produced in a magnetic substance when placed
inside a magnetic field is called magnetic induction vector. It is the sum of applied
magnetizing field and induced magnetic field. It is denoted by B.

Magnetic Permeability
The degrees to which magnetic field lines can be penetrate or permeable a given
medium is called its magnetic permeability. It is experimentally found that, the
magnetic induction B is directly proportional to the magnetizing field vector. i.e.
BαH
Or, B = μH
 μ=
Where μ is constant which is called magnetic permeability. The ratio of magnetic
induction and magnetizing field vector is called magnetic permeability.

Relative Permeability
The ratio of permeability of a material to that of free space is called the relative
permeability. It is denoted by . Thus,
=

It is a unit less quantity

Magnetic Susceptibility

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 The ease with which a specimen of a magnetic material can be magnetized is
called its magnetic susceptibility. It is found that, the intensity of magnetization ‘I’
is directly proportional to the magnetizing field vector ‘H’ i.e.
I H
Or, I = χH

Here χ is constant called magnetic susceptibility. The ratio of intensity of

magnetization and magnetizing field vector is called susceptibility of a magnetic
material. It is unit less quantity.
Relation between Permeability and Susceptibility
The magnetic induction in the material is given by,
B = μH ……………… (i)
When the magnetizing field H is applied to a volume of free space or air then the
magnetic induction in the material surrounded by air is,
B0 = μ0H …………….. (ii)
The magnetic induction developed in the material is the sum of applied field B0
and induced magnetism Bm in the material. i.e.
B = B0 + Bm
Where Bm =μ0I is the magnetic induction due to polarization of medium.
B = μ0H + μ0I
Or, B = μ0(H + I)
Or, μH = μ0(H + χH)
Or, μH = μ0H(1 + χ)
Or, μ = μ0(1 + χ)
This equation gives the relation between permeability and susceptibility.

Classification of magnetic materials

All materials are classified in three categories. They are
a) Diamagnetic material (Substance)
Those materials which are feebly magnetized in the direction opposite to the
applied magnetic field are called diamagnetic substance. They are weakly repelled
by magnets. Bismuth, water, alcohol are its examples.
Some important properties of diamagnetic substance

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  They move from a stronger to a weaker field.
 They are repelled by magnets.
 The diamagnetic materials have small value of intensity of magnetization.
 They have always negative value of magnetic susceptibility.
 The relative permeability is slightly less than 1 for them.

b) Paramagnetic material (Substance)

Those materials which are weakly magnetized in the direction of the applied
magnetic field are called paramagnetic materials. Aluminium, Oxygen, manganese
etc are its examples.
Some important properties of paramagnetic substance
 They move from weaker to stronger magnetic field.
 They are feebly attracted by magnets.
 They have small and positive value of intensity of magnetization.
 They have small and positive value of magnetic susceptibility.
 For this material, the relative permeability is nearly unity.
c) Ferromagnetic material (Substance)
Those materials which are strongly magnetized in the direction of the applied
magnetic field are called ferromagnetic materials. Iron, nickel, cobalt etc are its
examples.
Some important properties of ferromagnetic substance
 They move from weaker to stronger magnetic field.
 They are highly attracted by the magnet.
 They have positive and very high value of intensity of magnetization.
 They have very high and positive value of magnetic susceptibility.
 They have high value of relative permeability.

Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism

Ferromagnetic materials contain permanent atomic magnetic moments. The
magnetic moments are aligned parallel in small regions even in the absence of
external field. These regions are called domains. There are many domains in a
material but they are randomly oriented in all directions as shown in the figure a.

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Therefore, net magnetic moment in the material is zero in the absence of external
field. When the material is placed in the magnetic field, the size of domain
directed in the direction of magnetic field grows up while the domains in other
direction shrink as shown in the figure b and c. On removing the external
magnetic field, the size of domain doesn’t decreases or increases in ferromagnetic
materials and hence the material retains a magnetization in the direction of the
applied field. This is how the ferromagnetic substance is magnetized. This theory
is called a domain theory of ferromagnetism.

Figure:- Magnetic domain in Ferromagnetic material

Hysteresis
The phenomenon of lag of magnetic field B behind the magnetizing field H in a
ferromagnetic material taken through a cycle of magnetization is called the
hysteresis. The closed curve or loop obtained during cycle of magnetization is
called hysteresis loop which is shown below.

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 BR

HC

Figure:- Hysteresis loop of ferromagnetic material

To study the hysteresis, let us take a ferromagnetic substance inside the

magnetizing field H. When H is increased from zero, total magnetic field B in the
material increases along the curve OA and becomes maximum (saturation value)
Bs at A. When the field H is brought back to zero, the field B does not retraced
original path but follows the curve AB and the material remains magnetized with
a value of BR at B. At reverse value of HC at C, the value of B becomes zero at point
C. On further increasing and decreasing reverse magnetizing intensity, the
material is again permanently magnetized at E. In this way a hysteresis loop is
formed.
The shape and size of hysteresis loop is characteristics of each material. A broad
hysteresis loop with high values of retentivity and coercivity is characteristics of a
material for a permanent magnet.

Remanance or retentivity
The magnetic field BR that remains in the material even when the
magnetizing field H reduces to zero is called the remanance or retentivity of the
material. Greater the retentivity, stronger is the magnetization of the material.

Coercivity

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 The reverse magnetic field HC needed to reduce magnetic field B in the
material to be zero is called coercivity. It tells how difficult it is to destroy the
magnetization in the material.

Curie law
It states that “The magnetic susceptibility of ferromagnetic and paramagnetic
materials is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature.” Mathematically,
χ=
Where, C is a constant called curie constant whose value is different for different
substances.
Curie temperature: The thermal motion of atoms in magnetic material tends to
disturb the alignment of the magnetic moments and randomize them. As a result,
the intensity of magnetization decreases with increasing temperature. The
temperature at which a ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic is called
Curie temperature. In another words, the particular temperature below which
substance is ferromagnetic and after which substance becomes paramagnetic is
called Curie temperature or Curie point.

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