1

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Paper is widely used in different parts of the world. In History,

Literature, Science and other field of knowledge, papers play a huge role
in it, mostly in data gathering as well as in preserving data, in expressing
people’s idea and making research study. Paper is a bridge between past
and future events also an essential tool for communication through
letters, print ads, etc... Papers become one of the most in demand
products where ever in the world. In paper production one of the essential
components needed are wood pulps from trees. Trees are the most
prevalent source of wood pulps used in manufacturing papers. Wood
pulps are woods that has been cut into small pieces and crushed.
However, due to environmental effects of cutting trees for paper
production many people tried to use alternative source of wood pulps
being used in paper production. One alternative source is the use of
animal manure. The used of different kind animal manure is now rampant
in making it as one of many sources of paper (Alexander Bismarck, 2018).
The researchers viewed cow manure as a potential source of paper.
Cow manure contains mostly similar components of wood pulps. Cows are
herbivores an organism that the only sources of food are plants. Mostly all
types of grasses, weeds, and even small sticks from trees which are
composed of cellulose fibers that is similar to wood pulps. Celluloses are
a polysaccharide sugar that can be only found in plants. Cow manure is a
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good alternative source of pulp for paper production but the problem is
the durability of pulp in cow manure. In regards with this, the researchers
intend to enhance the durability and the use of binding agent (Starch) to

make the paper more durable and compact (Chen & Xie, 2000).
This study aims to test the durability of Cow manure paper with the
use of two types of starches which are the corn starch and cassava starch.
Corn starch and Cassava starch are known to its uses in cooking as a
thickener of liquids. Both the dry and wet bonding strengths of cassava
starch adhesive were higher than that of corn starch (Yanhua Zhang and
others 2016).
Moreover the researchers will use the same quantity and different
kinds of starch to come up at the exact measurement in order to test the
durability to Cow paper manure.
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Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to determine the sustainable

alternative source of cow manure as raw material for the production of
handmade paper. Specifically, it aims:

1. Assess the sustainability of cow manure for handmade paper making

2. Assess the quality of the produced handmade paper

3. Develop a low-cost handmade paper out of cow manure

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Significance of the Study

This study is a great significance in the field of manufacturing

industry. Because, a waste cow manure can now be recycled in some
other ways. Thus, it will help our environment minimize waste and smelly
foul odour in the environment.
For the Farmers, Disposal of cow manure as organic fertilizer is
not only the remediation that can help them divulge to other sources of
theome for the reason that they can make paper out of cow manure.
For the Environment, Deforestation could be minimized, and
preservation and conservation of trees can now be in the spirit of
community.
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Scope and Limitations of the Study

This study is limited to production of paper out of cow

manure.The researcher aims to find out the effectiveness of producing
paper out of cow manure and to test its durability in terms of paper
production.
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Definition of Terms

The terms below are defined operationally which are significant or

the highlight to our study.
Cow manure - the term is defined as a waste excreted from the
cow feces. In this study, it serves as the primary source for the production
of paper. Cow manure is combined with two kinds of starches corn and
cassava for the durability of the paper.
Paper Production - this is defined as a process of creating a
paper from cow manure with the used of corn and cassava starch as
binding agent to increased paper durability.
Starch – starch is a common additive used as binding agent to
increased paper durability in the papermaking industry, the functions
ranging from enhancement in dry strength and surface properties to
retention of fillers, pigment and fines. Starch is a carbohydrate consisting
of glucose polymers.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Paper making manufacture and its uses to e-commerce

The development of online shopping and e-commerce, the demand

for packaging papers and cardboard has increased (Liu et.al, 2015).
Meanwhile, due to a shortage of wood pulp, extensive research has
focused on finding a suitable substitute for conventional forest-based
materials used in papermaking manufacture (Fatehi et.al, 2009). Among
the possible alternatives, recycled paper is currently at the center of
attention (Ghasemian et al, 2012). However, the strength of recycled
paper is gradually reduced by repeated used, which is mainly caused by
the decreased in fiber bonding strength due to hornification phenomenon
(Hamzeh et al, 2012). Therefore it is also not sufficient to meet the
industry’s demand, and its application is restricted. The used of paper
reinforcing agents provides an effective solution that problem (Laleg and
Pikulik 1993; Kitaoka and Tanaka, 2001; Yamauchi and Hatanaka, 2002).

Paper

Paper is typically made from cellulose fibers derived from wood, and
wood isn't plentiful in places where there aren't many trees. In the near
future, however, that may not be a problem, as scientists have devised a
method of making paper from cow and even elephant manure. A team of
 8

scientists from the University of Vienna, however, thinks that poop can be
turned into paper. Their process, which involves extracting grass and hay
fibers, called cellulose, from manure is simple, inexpensive, and uses less
energy and fewer chemicals than the top-down method of grinding wood
into pulp (Bismarck, 2018). With 94 million head of cattle, farmers face a
staggering 2 billion tons of manure a year. Methane and ammonia gases
pollute the air, and phosphorous and nitrogen runoff contaminates rivers,
lakes, and oceans. It's likely not the first thing you think of when you see
elephant dung, but this material turns out to be an excellent source of
cellulose for paper manufacturing in countries where trees are scarce. And
in regions with plenty of farm animals such as cows, up cycling manure
into paper products could be a cheap and environmentally sound method
to get rid of this pervasive agricultural waste.

Manure

Cows produce large amounts of manure. In fact, if the manure

produced from one cow were allowed to pile up in a 12-foot-by-12-foot
box stall for one year, it would accumulate to a height of six feet. On any
given day, the average 1,000-pound cow will produce approximately 50
pounds of manure. This amounts to about eight and a half tons per year.
Animals eat low-grade biomass containing cellulose, chew it and expose it
to enzymes and acid in their stomach, and then produce manure.
Depending on the animal, up to 40 percent of that manure is cellulose,
which is then easily accessible. This realization prompted Bismarck and
colleagues to start experimenting with horse, cow and elephant dung.
 9

They developed an inexpensive process in which the manure is first

treated with a sodium hydroxide solution in order partially remove the
organic polymer lignin, along with other impurities such as proteins and
dead cells (Bismarck, 2018). Plant fibres must go through a number of
processes before reaching the pulp stage needed for paper-making. First
they must be collected: it can take a surprisingly long time to gather
enough to be useful. They must be chopped up, then rotted and/or
cooked in a caustic solution. The chopping is hard on the hands, and both
the rotting and cooking processes can be slow and unpleasantly smelly.
The resulting pulp must be thoroughly rinsed, then beaten to separate the
individual fibres. The resulting pulp is subsequently bleached with sodium
hypochlorite to remove the rest of the lignin, and to give the pulp a white
color. It is then used to make paper which can be written on, or used in
applications such as reinforcing polymer composites, or filtering
wastewater before it's released into the environment (Bismarck et.al,
2018). Not only does the process make use of a waste product, but it also
requires less energy and fewer chemicals than wood-based paper
production, as the animals have already ground up and partially digested
the raw material. Additionally, the lignin that's removed can be used as
fertilizer or fuel, plus it's possible that before being used to make paper,
the manure could first be utilized to produce biogas. The ability to turn
manure into a marketable product could offer livestock farmers another
source of revenue from the abundant heaps of waste they must deal with
on a regular basis. As the researchers refine their papermaking process,
they’re also working to develop a two-step system that captures methane
 10

from manure in a bioreactor and then converts what remains into paper
(Bismarck et.al, 2018).

Starch

Starch is a carbohydrate consisting of glucose polymers. In

solution, the monomeric unit of glucose is predominantly present in one of
its cyclic form, called D-glucopyranose. Pyranose is a term used to
describe six-membered rings consisting of five carbon atoms and one
oxygen atom. The prefix D is used to differentiate the molecule from the,
not as common, L-glucose which is an optical isomer (i.e. mirror image) of
D-glucose. Polymers of D-glucopyranose are present in starch as the
macromolecules amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is essentially linear
where the D-glucopyranose mainly are linked together through α-1,4
covalent bonds. The molecular weight of amylose is typically less than 500
000 Da. The span is however large and in terms of polymer chain length,
it ranges between 1000 – 4000 glucose units (de Clerk, 2009). In
amylopectin, the monomers are linked together by α-1,4 bonds as well,
but have the additional α-1,6 bonding that results in a branched structure.

Paper Industries

Food and paper making industries are the largest consumers of

starch (Grommers & Vander Krogt, 2009). Corn and potato starch are the
types that predominates in wet-end applications in the paper industry
(Maurer, 2009).The conversion of native starch into cationic starch can be
 11

performed batchwise in aqueous or semi-dry processes. Continuous

production can be achieved by using reactive extrusion. The aqueous
processes can be performed with starch in granular or non-granular form.
The processes can be carried out differently with regards to conditions
such as concentration, temperature etc. depending on the reagent used
(de Clerk, 2009; Bertolini, 2009).
The starch produce in the semi-dry process also require more
energy to solubilize in water (de Clerk, 2009). In the paper industry,
cationic starch is commonly added to the stock preparation of the paper
mill, with the primary objective often being to increase the dry strength of
paper. Dry strength is primarily determined by the bonding strength
between fibres. Breaking individual fibres tend to require more energy
than to break interfibre bonds in a sheet of paper.

Paper Properties

The most significant contribution to the interfibre strength in dry

paper is ascribed to hydrogen bonds as well as van der Waals forces. The
formation of these interfibre bonds occur for distances shorter than 0,35
nm. This short distance required for hydrogen bond formation limits the
number of bonds as a result of surface roughness of the fibres (Fornue,
Allan, Quinones, Gonzalez, & Saucedo, 2011). An additive such as cationic
starch can improve the inter fibre strength. The mechanisms by which
starch improves dry strength parameters are somewhat conflicting in the
literature. It is suggested that the strength development yielded from
starch addition is explained by either increased bonding area or increased
 12

specific bond strength. An increased specific bonding strength would be

explained by existing bonds between cellulosic fibres being reinforced by
starch molecules.
There are studies showing that an increased bonding area is the
sole mechanism of strength development. Increased bonding area occurs
through “bridging” of starch polymers between fibres. More precisely by
hydrogen bond formation between hydroxyl groups on starch and
cellulose (Lindström, Wågberg, & Larsson, 2005; Hubbe M. A.,
2006).Thus, starch can increase the bonding area by bridging between
fibres where the surface roughness will not allow interfibre bonds to form.
An early study explained strength development from the starch containing
additive locust bean gum, as a combination of increased bonding area as
well as specific bond strength (Leech, 1954).

Starch Properties

The waxy starches contain no amylose fraction. Amylomaize starch

might contain up to 80% amylose. Amylose is anhydrous and may type
wonderful films that are necessary characteristics for industrial
applications. Films shaped by amylose are terribly sturdy, colorless,
inodorous and tasteless (Campos et al., 2011). Researchers have
highlighted the role of amylose within the initial resistance of granules to
swelling and solubility, as swelling take quickly when action of amylose
molecules. The capability of amylose molecules of type supermolecule
complexes prevents their natural action and consequently the swelling
capability (Singh et al., 2003). The amount of amylose found within the
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grain considerably affects the chemistry and practical properties of starch.

The amylose content will vary within the identical biological selection
because of the variations in geographic origin and culture conditions (Gao
et al., 2014). Amylose covers a variety of degrees of chemical action,
relying upon the supply of the starch. The amylose molecules of potato
and foodstuff starch have a well higher mass than maize and wheat starch
amylose. The amylose fraction of potato starch features a degree of
chemical process starting from 840 to 22,000 aldohexose units. The
amylose fraction of maize starch includes a DP-range of concerning 400 to
15,000 aldohexose units.
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Conceptual Framework

This study is anchored on the theory of Adebayo and Itiola (1998),

which theorized that starches from different sources have been evaluated
and used as excellent binders in either mucilage or the dry powdered
form.
It is supported by Bismarck, A. 2018, which recycling manure into
paper products could be an economically and environmentally sound
method to get strip of this pervasive agricultural waste. This material
turns out to be an idea of making papers or an exceptional source of
cellulose for paper manufacturing in countries where trees are meagre, as
we observed nowadays in our surroundings.
Also, supported by Mautner, A. (2018), the process of purified
cellulose requires or it needs a lot of energy in grinding to break it down
into nanocellulose or nanofibers in preparation for use in paper
production, the cow manure, as a starting material in which it lessen the
steps that you would take because it is already chewed by the cow and it
has an even better properties compared to a wood. Moreover, for the
durability and the compact of the paper, the starch played an important
component of many paper grades. The consumption of starch is used as
the flocculants and retention aids, as a bonding agent, as a surface seizer
and as a binder for coatings based on (Hans Maurer, 2009).
 15

Paper Experimental
Study
- Characteristics
z
- Durability

Cow Manure

Starch

Corn Cassava

Figure1. Schematic Diagram Showing the Process of Papermaking

The diagram above represents the flow of process in making paper

from cow manure and starch followed by the researchers in the study.

Hypotheses of the Study

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The amount of different kinds of starches in grams will affect the

durability of a constant 250 grams of cow manure.

CHAPTER III
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METHODOLOGY

Research Design and Treatments

The study will make use of an experimental design with nine

experimental groups and one control groups. The control group is the
product paper from sterling. The experimental groups only varied in their
organic components which either a corn starch or cassava starch cellulose.
Starch as we all know is derived from sweet potato or cassava. Cellulose
is present in the coconut husk extracts. The paper organic components
ratios are 1:1, 1:3, and 3:1 all experimental groups observe 2 ml of xylene
for every 1 gram of cow manure. The combine mass of the organic of the
organic components (cassava starch) is 25 grams. Each experimental
group is to be replicate one for the purpose of determining the physical
and chemical properties of the product through subjection of different
treatments. The performance of these tests is to be compared to that of
the control group.

Research Locale
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The study to be conducted at Barangay Demoloc, Malita Davao

occidental located at West Malita District with the elevation of
227.00m/744.75ft and a coordinates of 6.3771N, 125.3349E. This is the
best spot in performing the study whereas primary resources are coming
from the animal farm of Demoloc. The farm of Demoloc is a protected
area with abundance of plant and animals.

Figure .2 the red sign showing the location of barangay Demoloc in the
Google map

Experimental Lay-out
 19

Figure3. Schematic Diagram showing experimental lay-out of the study

Application of Treatments
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This study used starch to increase durability of cow manure paper

we used two kinds of starch the corn starch and cassava starch to widen
the focus of starch being used.
Starch or amylum (C6H10O5) n – (H2O) is polymeric carbohydrate
consisting of large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds.
Starch when heats up with the presence of water become sticky that
possibly increase paper durability.

Care and Maintenance

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The researcher of the study used Personal Protective Equipment

(PPE) such as gloves, mask, and coat in handling and performing the
study to avoid skin contact with the substances. In terms of the output
care and maintenance the researcher follow the good storage and proper
care, significantly prolongs the preservation of paper from cow manure
that includes:
 A cool, relatively dry, clean, and stable environment
 Minimal exposure to all kinds of light, no exposure to direct or
intense light
 Distance from radiators and vents
 Supportive protective enclosures
 Unfolded and flat or rolled storage for oversized papers
 Keep from foods and drinks away

Data Gathering
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1.1 Collecting Materials

Cow manure is to be collected in a ranch where manures are

plenty. These undergo drying, boiling, and bleaching. Cassava starch will
be purchase from the market and coconut husk will be collected in the
farm where it is considered waste.

1.2 Starch Preparation

Boil 500 ml of water with 75 grams of cassava starch. Completely

mix until it is slightly thickened.

1.3 Paper Making Phase

In a mill, grind 1 liter of tap water to a 250 grams of cow manure

to have more refine pulp texture. Then add prepared starch for 10
minutes. Repeat the mixed into different ratios for obtaining the desired
quality paper product. Binding Material (starch) is to be added to improve
the binding strength along the mixed pulp.

1.4 Deckle Preparation

Prepare a rectangular frame deckle use to mold paper by hand.

Every spread mixed cow manure on a deckle. It is one important step for
 23

handmade paper making. The pulp will be spread carefully on the frame
to maintain the uniform thickness of the paper.

1.5 Physical Test Analysis

1.) Burst Index - used to test strength of the different kinds of paper and
paperboard. It is required minimum amount of hydrostatic pressure to
rapture the paper or paperboard (maximum resistance (in kPa) of a
specimen). The pressure is applied through a rubber diaphragm. This
paper property is depends on many things like kinds of fiber, formation,
chemicals, basis weight.
2.) Tensile Index – Tensile strength is used to find out how resistant
paper is to a web break. The strength, length and bonding of fiber,
degree of fiber refining and the direction of the fiber are the main sources
of the tensile strength of paper. It is also depends on the quality and
quantity of fillers used.
3.) Thickness – Thickness measurement is used to measure the thickness
of paper product to identify its characteristic.
4.) GSM – GSM” stands for “grams per square meter.” For this standard,
the weight of various types of paper is measured from a sample sheet cut
to one square meter in size.

Table 1. Physical Test of Cow Manure paper

Test Waits Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
1 2 3 4 5
Burst KPam
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Index ²/g
Tensile Nm/g
Index
Thicknes Mm
s
GSM g/m²
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Statistical Treatment

The researcher of the study followed the following procedure which

divided into five methods using experimental analysis and observation.
The following experimental summary of procedure and formula indicated
below in table form is from “Paper production from cow manure” an
experimental study.

Table .2 Experimental procedure summary and formula.

Methods Description
1.1 Collecting Materials Collecting materials involves drying,
boiling, and bleaching.

1.2 Starch Preparation Boiling 500 ml water mixed with 75

grams of starch

1.3 Paper Making Phase In a mill, grind 1 liter of tap water to

1.4 Deckle Preparation
a 250 grams of cow manure. Then
add the binding agent soak within
10 minutes.
Preparing a rectangular frame deckle
mold the paper mixture by hand.

1.5 Physical Test Analysis The paper products were

undergoing various physical tests
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analysis to identify its durability.

Production of Cost Estimation

The researcher of the study cost estimation in performing the study

was in the range to 500 pesos and above. This includes the purchasing of
materials used in the study.
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Data Analysis

Data is to be analyzed using the various physical tests such as

Burst Index, Tensile Index, Thickness, and GSM.

 Burst Index
- It is used test paper strength
 Tensile Index
- It is used to test the resistant of paper in web break to identify
its quantity and quality.
 Thickness
- It is used to measure the thickness of paper production
 GSM
- It is used to measure the weight of various types of paper from
a sample sheet cut to one square meter in size.
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Ethical Consideration

The study is conducted potential to no harm. The researchers of the

study are carefully handled the substance to prevent and avoid harm or
contamination to anything of its surrounding. Thus, it is safe that cannot
bring disaster and devastation to the environment.
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Statistical Tools

Data gathered is subjected to ANOVA in order to come up potential

of design, and research findings that is statistically significant for
conducting the study. The ANOVA is used mainly to form meaningful
interpretation and carried out analysis.
 30

LITERATURE CITED

Alexander Bismarck, Ph.D, (2018). Recycling manures into paper

product. https://www.earth.com/news/manure-paper-sustainably.

Adebayo and Itiola (1998), Theorized starches from different sources

as excellent binders. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2011.01.002
DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1998.tb00716.x
Andreas Mautner, Ph.D, Nurulain Kamal, Kathrin Weiland, (2018)
elephant and cow manure paper sustainably.
http://bit.ly/ACSLive_NOLA

Blazek, J. (2009) - Role of amylose in structure-function relationship in

starches from Australian wheat varieties.

Belle, J., & Odermatt, J. (2016), Initials wet web strength of paper.

Cellulose,23(4), 2249-2272.

Chiu, C.W., & Solarek,D. (2009).Modification of starches.

In Starch (pp. 629-655), Academic Press.

Escursell, S., Llorach, P., & Roncero, M. B.(2020). Sustainability in

ecommerce packaging: A review. Journal of cleaner

production,124314.
 31

Fornué, E. D., Allan, G. G., Quiñones, H. J. C., González, G. T., &

Saucedo, J. T. (2011). Fundamental aspects of adhesion between

cellulosic surfaces in contact a review. O Papel, 72(9), 85-90.

Ghasemian, A., Ghaffari, M., & Ashori, A.(2012). Strength-enhancing

effect of cationic starch on mixed recycled and virgin

pulps. Carbohydrate Polymers, 87(2), 1269-1274.

Hubbe, M. A. (2006)-Bonding between cellulosic fibers in the absence

and presence of dry-strength agents–A review. BioResources, 1(2),

281-318.

Kasirajan, S .,& Ngouajio, M. (2012). Polyethylene and biodegradable

mulches for agricultural applications: a review. Agronomy for

sustainable development,32(2), 501-529.

Liu, J.,Yang, R., & Yang, F. (2015), Effect of the starch source on the

performance of cationic starches having similar degree of

substitution for papermaking using deinked pulp. Bio
Resources, 10(1), 922-931.

Risberg, E. (2017). Well-functioning wet-end starch: A prerequisite for

capacity increase at Smurfit Kappa Piteå.

Zhang, Y., Guo, Z., Chen, X., Ma,Y., & Tan, H. (2020), Synthesis of
grafting itaconic acids to starch-based wood adhesive for curing at
room temperature. Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 1-9.
 32

APPENDICES

Appendices 1.List of materials used in the study

Materials Grams L Unit

Cow manure 250 2

Corn starch 75 1

Cassava starch 75 1

Water 1.5 ‫ﭘ‬

 33

CURRICULUM VITAE

Personal Data

Name : Noven Bores Dawang

Address : Pamungot Talaguton Don

Marcelino Davao Occidental

Birthday : November 13 1998

Sex : Male

Civil Status : Single

Religion : INC

Citizenship : Filipino

Fathers Name : Danny T Dawang

Mothers Name : May Anne B. Dawang

Educational Background

Elementary : Pamungot Elementary School

Secondary : Don Marcelino National High School

Senior High : Adventure College of Malta INC. (ACM)

Tertiary : SPAMAST
 34

Course : BSED

Personal Data

Name : Rudy C. Jay Bell

Address : Barangay, Kilalag, Davao Occidental

Birthday : May 24 1999

Sex : Male

Civil Status : Single

Religion : Roman Catholic

Citizenship : Filipino

Fathers Name : Rudy P. Bell.

Mothers Name : Elvira C. Bell

Educational Background

Elementary : Kilalag Elementary School

Secondary : Demolok Valley National High School

Senior High : Demolok Valley National High School

Tertiary : SPAMAST

Course : BSED