THEORIES

Tuesday, 17 August 2021 7:36 pm

The Planet Earth

N: STUDY WELL! KABOG KA TODAY!

SCIENTIFIC THEORY - SYNTHESIZE A BODY OF EVIDENCE OR EXPLANATION WHY A PARTICULAR NATURAL PHENOMENA OCCUR.

SCIENTIFIC LAW - REDUCED TO A MATHEMATICAL STATEMENT

STATEMENT BASED ON EMPIRICAL DATA.

SUMMARIZES SET OF OBSERVATIONS ABOUT A NATURAL PHENOMENA

SCIENTIFIC THEORY AND LAW - based on HYPOTHESES, used to make PREDICTIONS, can be REVISED.

• ANCIENT EGYPTIANS - BELIEVED THAT THE WORLD AROSE FROM AN INFINITE SEA AT THE FIRST RISING OF THE SUN.

The Universe
- All of space and time AND all of its contents.

1. Planets, moons, minor planets

2. stars and galaxies
3. contents of intergalactic space
4. all matter
5. all energy

Theories on the Origin of the Universe

• BOOK OF GENESIS - WORLD HAVE BEEN CREATED BY GOD.
• PHILOSOPHICAL THEORY OF ETERNITY - Life has no beginning and no end, life has been here right from the very beginning of time.
• COSMOLOGY - BRANCH OF ASTRONOMY INVOLVES ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE.

THEORY 1: Big bang

•BIGBANG IS NOT AN EXPLOSION BUT A RAPID INFLATION.
Entire universe was infinitesimally small and infinitely hot, all matter and energy compressed into one mega
dense point, - SINGULARITY

a. Most accepted theory.

b. Discoveries have shown that our UNIVERSE had a BEGINNING.
c. At that moment, there was NOTHING, after, there was OUR UNIVERSE.
d. SINGULARITY made UNIVERSE sprang 13.7 BILLION YEARS AGO.

Evidences For Big bang

1. HUBBLE'S LAW - EDWIN HUBBLE 1929

→ Galaxies have been observed to be moving apart from the Earth at speeds that are proportional to their distance.
Supports the expansion of the universe and suggests that it was once compared.

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 → Supports the expansion of the universe and suggests that it was once compared.

→ REDSHIFT - Describes how light shifts longer wavelengths as objects move away from EARTH.

→ DENSITY OF MATTER DECREASES OVER TIME.

2. COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION (CMB)

- By ARNO PENZAIS AND ROBERT WILSON - 1965

--- IF SINGULARITY EXISTS, THERE SHOULD BE ARECORD OF EXTREMELY HOT TEMPERATURE ALL ACROSS THE UNIVERSE.
-- BIG BANG IS TRUE BECAUSE A 2.725 DEGREE KELVIN CMB PERVADES ALL UNIVERSE..

3. RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF LIGHT ELEMENTS

- 74% HYDROGEN AND 24% HELIUM and 2% OTHERS

- FIRST ELEMENTS TO FORM IN THE HIGH ENERGY ENVIRONMENT DURING AND AFTER BIGBANG.

THEORY 2: Big Crunch And The Oscillating Universe Theory

- PREDICTION ON HOW THE UNIVERSE WILL END.

- THEORY THAT THE UNIVERSE WILL NOT CONTINUE TO EXPAND FOREVER.
- UNIVERSE WILL COLLAPSE FORMING A GIGANTIC BLACK HOLE

THEORY 3: Steady State Theory

- ALTERNATIVE TO BIGBANG
- DENSITY IS CONSTANT
- MID 1960S

THEORY 4 : Eternal Inflation Of The Universe

- UNIVERSE FORMATION NEVER STOPPED

- MAKING MULTIVERSE (BABY UNIVERSE) OTHER UNIVERSES - which could be different to our own.

--- - -------------

Origin of the Solar System

THEORY 1: Laplacian Theory

PIERRE LAPLACE IN 1796

I. BEGAN WITH SPINNING CLOUD OF GAS AND DUST.

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 II. CLOUD BEGINS TO COOL AND COLLAPSE

III. IT SPUN FASTER AFTER COLLAPSE AND FLATTENED ALONG THE SPIN AXIS.

IV. CLOUD TOOK DISK FORM WITH EQUATORIAL MATERIAL IN ORBIT AROUND CENTRAL MASS.

V. MATERIAL WAS LEFT AS SET OF RINGS WITHIN CLUMPING OCCURRED

VI. CLUMPS ORBITING COMBINED TO GIVE PROTOPLANET IN EACH RING

VII. CENTRAL BULK OF ORIGINAL CLOUD COLLAPSED TO FORM SUN

PROBLEM: ANGULAR MOMENTUM - Most momentum is found in the sun.

- In reality, the sun only contains 0.5% AM while rest are found in Planetary orbits.

THEORY 2: Tidal Theory

- JAMES JEANS IN 1917

I. A MASSIVE STAR passed by the SUN, drawing a TIDAL FILAMENT.

II. Gravitationally unstable filament broke up, with each condensation, forming a protoplanet.

III. Protoplanets retained in heliocentric orbits

IV. A filament being drawn from protoplanet within protosatellite formed.

PROBLEM: ANGULAR MOMENTUM

1. Sun and Jupiter should have the same spin period because they have same density.
2. Material from sun would not be able to go into orbit farther than four solar radii
3. Jupiter sized amount of solar material would explode rather than collapse into a planet and
stay in orbit.

THEORY 3: Accretion Theory

- Otto Schmidt in 1944

I. Galaxies contain cool, dense clouds material

II. Stars can pass through these clouds and acquire dusty gas envelope that would turn into protoplanets.

PROBLEMS: ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS (too much energy for cloud to attach to star), NO PLANET
FORMATION AND NO SUN ORIGIN.

THEORY 4: Floccule or Protoplanet Theory

MONISTIC EXTENSION THEORY PROPOSED BY W.H. McCrea in 1960

- LAPLACE'S THEORY ATTEMPT TO FIX Angular Momentum Problem

I. Cloud of GAS AND DUST to form GALACTIC CLUSTER.

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 I. Cloud of GAS AND DUST to form GALACTIC CLUSTER.

II. Turbulence made gas streams collide and produce floccules, high density regions, move thru cloud and combined
every collision.

III. Large aggregations attracted other floccules producing a protostar.

In the original form of the theory, each floccule had about three times the mass of the Earth so many of them had to
combine to form the giant planets.
The resultant planetary aggregations contained much more angular momentum than the present planets.
As the protoplanet collapsed it would have become rotationally unstable and would have broken into two parts
In a neck between the two separating parts, small condensations would form and be retained by the larger part as a
satellite family.

THEORY 5: Capture Theory

DUALISTIC EXTENSION THEORY - Michael Mark Woolfson in 1964

I. Solar system was formed from tidal interactions between SUN and a LOW DENSITY PROTOSTAR.

II. Sun's gravity would've drawn material from DIFFUSE ATMOSPHERE of the protostar, which would've collapse and
form into PLANETS.

PROBLEMS:
- Predicts that SUN and PLANETS will have VERY DIFFERENT AGES; reality was they are same
ages
- Included possibility of tidal filament collision which produced 6 original planets that would
collide again to form MODERN PLANETS.

THEORY 6: Solar Fission Theory

- LOUIS JACOT 1951 and TOM VAN FLANDERN 1993

BY JACOT:
I. Planets were expelled FROM SUN ONE BY ONE.

II. (From the equatorial bulge (caused by rotation) that separates and solar materials that cools into planets. )

III. One of these planets shattered to form asteroid belt.

IV. Moons and Rings were formed from similar expulsion of material from parent planets.

V. VORTEX BEHAVIOUR explained differences between inner and outer planets.

BY VAN FLANDERN:
- Planets were expelled from SUN IN PAIRS AT DIFERRENT TIMES, 6 exploded to form Modern Planets.

PROBLEM: ENERGY & MASS REQUIREMENTS (NO ENERGY SOURCE AND NOT ENOUGH MASS TO
ALLOW FOR SUCH PLANETARY EXPLOSIONS. NO SUN FORMATION.

THEORY 7: Solar Nebula Theory or Modern Laplacian Theory

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THEORY 7: Solar Nebula Theory or Modern Laplacian Theory
- ACCEPTED THEORY OF ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

- ANSWERED AM PROBLEM BY INTRODUCING DRAG created by dust particles in the protoplanetary disk.
- Supported by discovery of YOUNG STARS that were surrounded by disk of cool dusts.
- Observation of excess infrared radiation in many stars that confirms the presence of DISKS OF COOLER MATERIALS
orbiting around them.

Summarization of Solar Nebula Theory:

- Solar system started out as a large nebula of gas, dust and ice, which spun out into a shape of disc.

I. A SUPERNOVA (dead star) forced clouds of gas, dust and ice together.

II. The cloud of matter and gas started to spin FASTER AND FASTER.

III. The spinning motion FLATTENED the dust to form ACCRETION DISC of dust and planetesimals.

IV. As matter, gas, and planetesimals COLLIDED IN THE

V. DISC, larger bodies took shape into PLANETS.

Earth: Our Home Planet "

- ONLY PLANET THAT SUPPORTS LIFE

- BIOSPHERE - PARTS THAT SUPPORTS LIFE

1. ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is a subset of the earth’s biosphere where majority of the elemental gases are found. It also has an
invisible layer of ozone that protects the earth from the sun’s intense UV rays.

2. LITHOSPHERE
The lithosphere is the part of the earth that is mostly solid in composition and is where majority of terrestrial
organisms live. It has three major parts, the crust, mantle, and the core.

3. HYDROSPHERE
The hydrosphere is the total volume of liquid on the earth’s surface and its entirety. Though it has many forms, the
hydrosphere does not equate to the liquid portion only but also to the gaseous and solid liquids

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 LAYERS OF THE EARTH
Monday, 23 August 2021 6:45 pm

Layers Of The Earth"

N: SIPAG YARN? LOVE IT

The Crust
IS THE EXTERIOR SOLID SURFACE OF THE EARTH
a. Oceanic Crust:
- THINNEST PART
- MOSTLY COMPOSED OF BASALTIC CRUST.
- SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- (SILICATE AND MAGNESIUM)
- DENSE HIGHLY COMPACT , SINCE ARE IN OCEAN WITH MORE PRESSURE.
- DENSER THAN CONTINENTAL CRUST

b. Continental Crust:
- MOSTLY GRANITE ROCKS

c. Mohorovicic Discontinuity (MOHO)

BOUNDARY BETWEEN CRUST AND UPPER MANTLE,

- DISCOVERED IN 1909 BY ANDRIJA MOHOROVICIC, A CROATIAN GEOLOGIST.

CRUST IS ANALOGOUS TO SKIN OF AN APPLE.

→ The crust of the EARTH is broken into many pieces called PLATES the plates "float" on the soft, semi rigid asthenosphere

→ Plates move because not all are SOLID like asthenosphere.

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 Asthenosphere
Made up of semi rigid or MOLTEN materials part of the MIDDLE MANTLE that flows like hot asphalt under heavy weight.

(Greek: asthenos: weak)

Mantle
→ Solid but capable of flow (like fudge) SEMI-SOLID/SEMI-LIQUID
→ THICKEST LAYER of the Earth ranging from 2900km (1800 miles) 67% of earth mass
→ The HOT MAGMA rises then COOLS AND SKINS
→ Conveyor belt for the tectonic plates.

-------
a. Upper mantle consists of ASTHENOSPHERE

→ as it is made of PLASTIC like magma (molten rock and metal)

b. Lower Mantle while also mostly magma possess more METALLIC ELEMENTS than the upper

Elements in Mantle:

 Oxygen,
 Silicon,
 Aluminum,
 Iron and
 Magnesium

Convection Currents"
- the middle mantle "flows" because of convection current.

- These convection currents cause changes in Earth's surface

- Caused by the very hot material at the deepest part of the mantle rising being less dense, then cooling becoming more dense
and sinking again
-- repeating this cycle over and over.

Earthquake - colliding of moving plates.

- Gutenberg Discontinuity - Between Mantle and Outer Core

The Core
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 The Core
a. Outer Core:

b. Inner Core:

TEMPERATURE INCREASES AS DEPTH INCREASES. BCZ OF RADIOACTIVE ACTIVITY OF INNER CORE

DENSITY AND PRESSURE INCREASES AS DEPTH INCREASES

Summary
1. The Earth is divided into 3 main layers
a. Crust
b. Mantle
c. Core

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2. Main Rock type of the 2 types of Crust
a. Oceanic - Basalt
b. Continental - Granite

3. Oceanic Crust IS DENSER than Continental Crust

4. The Lithosphere is divided into TECTONIC PLATES

5. The Mantle has the CONVECTION CURRENTS which causes plates to move.

6. The ASTHENOSPHERE flows semi-liquid ON which the plates move.

7. TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND DENSITY INCREASES as depth increases.

This is a direct relationship.

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 ROCKS
Tuesday, 24 August 2021 11:32 am

Rocks
N: GO SIS!

Is any solid material naturally derived from the earth that is also composed of substances consisting of different
naturally occurring minerals that are clumped together.

Types of Rocks

1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
- Latin Ignis means Fire

- They are the crystallized material from the magma

a. MAGMA - is the molten volcanic material beneath the surface of the Earth
b. LAVA - is the molten material that was extruded to the surface of the Earth.

EXTRUSIVE - formed by cooling & solidification of lava

→ ▪ Igneous rocks are classified according to silica content and

relative amounts of K, Na, Fe, Mg, and Ca.

→ They can be classified based on the presence of dark colored materials and silica content.

a. felsic, - rocks with

more than 65 percent silica

b. Intermediate - those with between 55

and 65 percent silica

c. Mafic -those with between 45 and 55 percent silica

d. Ultramafic - those with less than 45 percent

2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- Formed by accumulation, compacting, and cementing of sediments at or near the surface of the Earth.

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 ▪ Sedimentary processes include: weathering of rocks, erosion,
sediment transport and deposition (compaction and cementation).

▪ Common sedimentary features: fossil assemblages (traces of plants and animals that
are preserved in rocks)
and Stratification

▪ Sediments are solid organic and inorganic fragments form

weathered pre-existing rocks.

- Organic - carbon based

ex. chloroforms, sugar
- Inorganic - no carbon true chemicals ex: salt

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

a. DETRITAL - formation of the rock separate and distinct materials
(non-homogenous)
b. CHEMICAL- forms from minerals that have been dissolved in water
c. ORGANIC -formed from the accumulation of plant and animal debris.

CLASTIC AND NON-CLASTIC ROCKS

CLASTIC ROCKS - are composed of grains, matrix and cement classified based on particle size. (gravel, sand,
conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, & claystone.)

NON-CLASTIC ROCKS - formed through evaporation and precipitation from

a solution.

a. EVAPORITES – rocks formed from the evaporation of water leaving the

dissolved minerals to crystalize.
(halite, gypsum, and dolostone, )

b. PRECIPITATES – rocks formed when minerals from a mineral

supersaturated waters start to crystalize at the bottom of the solution (e.g. Limestone)

c. BIOCLASTIC – rocks formed from compacted organic matter (e.g. coal).

3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
- rock formed by heat and pressure

Came from existing rocks that were

subjected to intense heat and pressure
below the earth’s surface.

▪ An existing rock called the

protolith could be an igneous, sedimentary, or a metamorphic rock that undergone that
intense temperature.

a. CONTACT METAMORPHIC ROCKS -

are formed through heat.

b. REGIONAL METAMORPHIC ROCKS

formed through pressure and other factors and are more abundant than the contact.

Metamorphic rocks can also be classified into foliated & non- foliated rocks

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 The Rock Cycle

GEOLOGIC PROCESS - The rocks of earth's crust are constantly being recycled and
changed into new forms

ROCK CYCLE - .continual transformation of rocks from one type to another.

▪ Rocks can be changed through the processes of:

1. weathering,
2. heating,
3. melting,
4. cooling, and
5. compaction.

Any one rock type can be changed into a different rock type as its chemical composition and physical characteristics are
transformed

▪ The minerals and metals found in rocks have been essential to

human civilization.

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 MINERALS
Thursday, 26 August 2021 5:14 pm

Minerals
N: HAVE FUN LEARNING!

WHAT?: the fundamental (necessary) components of rocks.

COMPOSED OF?:

1. They are naturally occurring inorganic substances (means: with specific chemical composition)

2. With orderly repeating atomic structure that defines a crystal structure.

3. Silicate minerals - most abundant components of rocks on the Earth's surface (making up over 90% by mass of the Earth's crust.)

The common non-silicate minerals

(with < 10% of Earth's crust)

→ carbonates,
→ oxides,
→ sulfides,
→ phosphates and
→ salts.

Elements occur in pure form:

→ Gold,
→ silver,
→ copper,
→ bismuth,
→ arsenic,
→ lead,
→ Tellurium
→ and carbon.

Most Common Element in Earth's Crust

1. Oxygen (O) - 46.6 %

2. Silicon (SI) - 27.7 %
3. Aluminum (Al) - 8.1%
4. Iron (Fe) - 5.0 %
5. Calcium (Ca) - 3.6 %
6. Sodium (Na) - 2.8 %
7. Potassium (K) - 2.6 %
8. Magnesium (Mg) 2.1 %

- -- - - -- -- - - -

Properties of Minerals
1. LUSTRE/LUSTER
The quality and intensity of reflected light from the mineral.

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a. Metallic – Generally Opaque;
Exhibits an attractive shine similar
to polished metal.
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy),
adamantine (brilliant/diamondlike), resinous, silky, pearly, dull
(earthy), greasy, etc.

2. HARDNESS
- Measure of the resistance of a mineral (not surface) to abrasion.

Mohs’s scale devised in 1812 by the German geologist Friedrich

- The most famous measurement of hardness .

- simply determining the hardness of a mineral by scratching them with common objects of known hardness.

- Compares the resistance of a mineral relative to the 10 reference minerals with known hardness.

3. COLOR AND STREAK

COLOUR - Unique identifying property of certain minerals.

Many minerals are of the same colour

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Many minerals are of the same colour

(e.g., mineral quartz can be

pink (rose quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine) and white (colorless quartz).

STREAK - Color of the mineral when it is ground in powder form

Example of STREAK:

4. CRYSTAL FORM / HABIT

- The external/crystal form of a mineral.

- Highly diagnostic by its internal atomic structure.

- Defined by the angular relationships between crystal faces

5. CLEAVAGE
Mineral breaks along a flat surface or into sheets.

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 - Mineral breaks along a flat surface or into sheets.

- break along parallel repetitive planes of weakness (inherent in the bonding of atoms; makes up a mineral)
to form smooth, flat surfaces.

! - When minerals break evenly in more than one direction, It is described by:

a. the number of cleavage directions

b. the angles between planes

(e.g. cleavage in 2 directions at 90 degrees to each other).

6. FRACTURE
- Mineral breaks with lots of jagged edges.
(e.g. conchoidal, fibrous, hackly and
uneven among others.)

- Some minerals may not have cleavages but exhibit

broken surfaces that are irregular and non-planar.
Ex: Quartz (with non-planar inherent weakness in structure)

7. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
It is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water.

Example: bucket of Silver (Specific gravity=10) would weigh 10 times more than a bucket of water (Specific gravity=1).

Minerals with certain unique materials that makes them easier to identify:
(magnetism, odour, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.).

-- - -- - - -- -- - -

Exogenic Processes
▪ Includes geological phenomena and processes that originate externally to the Earth’s surface.

They are generally related to the following:

1. Earth’s subsystems
2. Naturally occurring processes of:
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 2. Naturally occurring processes of:

a. Weathering
b. Erosion
c. Transportation
d. Deposition
e. Denudation
f. Extraplanetary phenomena

Landforms (LIMITLESS) have been shaped primarily by:

1. streams of water
2. glacial ice
3. waves and currents
4. movements of the Earth‘s crust
5. volcanic eruptions.

WEATHERING - The BREAKINGG DOWN of rock.

AGENTS:

✓ Water
✓ Wind
✓ Growing Plants
✓ Ice
✓ Animals

EROSION - The MOVEMENT of sediment from broken rock.

AGENTS:

✓ Water
✓ Wind
✓ Ice
✓ Gravity

DEPOSITION - The DROPPING sediment in a NEW place.

✓ Formation of an Island
✓ Sand Dunes

-- - - ---------

The Work of Weathering

- Directly produces landforms.
- more effective in removal of rocks by mass wasting and erosion.
- Weathering influences relief in every landscape.

Freezing and thawing:

- Water expands when it freezes.

- In a temperate climate, water may freeze at night and thaw during the day.
- Ice cements the rock temporarily. When melted, the rock fragments may tumble from a steep cliff.

Other Terms:
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Other Terms:
a. Frost Wedging -
- Process where expansion from the accumulated frozen water in crack pushes the rock apart.
(ex: When talus slopes rock fell from the cliffs)

b. Talus Slopes
- Large piles of loose angular rocks that lie beneath many cliffs.

c. Temperature changes
▪ Sudden cooling of a rock surface may cause it to contract so rapidly over warmer rock beneath results to flakes or grains break off.

( Ex: In deserts, where intense daytime heat is followed by rapid cooling after. )

--

N: GREAT JOB! LAVARN LANG!

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