Frontier Madagascar Environmental Research

REPORT 24

A Socio-economic study of mangrove

perceptions and management in the bay
of Antsiranana

Ambalisakely, Abalibabe, Andohazompona,

Ampasirikely and Antsisikala

2009

i
Frontier Madagascar Environmental Research

Report 24

A Socio-economic study of mangrove

perceptions and management in the bay
of Antsiranana

Ambalisakely, Abalibabe, Andohazompona,

Ampasirikely and Antsisikala

Eaton, J.E., Burton, H., Steer, M.D., and Belle E.M.S.

Frontier-Madagascar

Madagascar-Marine Frontier-Madagascar
Society for Environmental Exploration
UK

Antsiranana
2009

iii
Suggested Technical Paper citation:

Frontier Madagascar (2009) Eaton, J.E., Burton, H., Steer, M.D., and Belle E.M.S. A Socio-economic
study of mangrove perceptions and management in the bay of Antsiranana: Ambalisakely, Abalibabe,
Andohazompona, Ampasirikely and Antsisikala. Frontier Madagascar Environmental Research Report
1. Society for Environmental Exploration, UK and Institute of Marine Sciences, Antsiranana.

ISSN 1470-120X (Print)

ISSN 1748-3719 (Online)
ISSN 1748-5126 (CD-ROM)

© Frontier Madagascar, 2009

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 Frontier-Madagascar
Madagascar is an African island situated in the Indian Ocean. It contains a high biological and ecological
diversity with many endemic species. The economic status of the area is reflected by its primary source of
income, primary agriculture. This income dictates the importance of their management of mangrove forest
environments. Frontier Madagascar Marine is carrying out survey work in the northern region of
Madagascar in regards to marine environments of Mangrove forests, Seagrass forest and Baseline surveys,
to formulate management initiatives for this region calculated from observations of the area.

The Society for Environmental Exploration (SEE)

The Society is a non-profit making company limited by guarantee and was formed in 1989. The Society’s
objectives are to advance field research into environmental issues and implement practical projects
contributing to the conservation of natural resources. Projects organised by The Society are joint initiatives
developed in collaboration with national research agencies in co-operating countries.

Frontier-Madagascar-Mangrove
Work has begun to survey mangrove areas with respect to biomass, biodiversity, replanting methods and
local perceptions. This data will be used in order to assimilate a management plan for the regeneration of
areas of mangrove depletion. Working both with Frontier Research Assistants and local inhabitants of
mangrove areas, cooperation of both will implement the management plans within the next few years.

FOR MORE INFORMATION

Frontier-Madagascar Society for Environmental Exploration

BP41, Antsiranana, 201 50-52 Rivington Street, London, EC2A 3QP. U.K.
MADAGASCAR Tel: +44 20 76 13 24 22
Tel: +261 (0) 20 82 23117 Fax: +44 20 76 13 29 92
E-mail: frontier.madagascar@gmail.com E-mail: info@frontier.ac.uk
Internet: www.frontier.ac.uk

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TABLE OF CONTENTS:

List of Tables vii

List of Figures v
Executive Summary vi
Foreword viii
Acknowledgements ix

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction to Antsiranana Mangrove 1
1.2 Research Aims and Background 1
1.3 Study Site 3
1.4 Description of Questionnaire 3
2.0 AMBALISAKELY 3
2.1 Introduction 3
2.2 Methods 4
2.3 Results 5
2.4 Discussion 7
3.0 ABALIBABE 8
3.1 Introduction 8
3.2 Methods 8
3.3 Results 10
3.4 Discussion 14
4.0 ANDOHAZOMPONA 15
4.1 Introduction 15
4.2 Methods 15
4.3 Results 16
4.4 Discussion 21
5.0 AMPASIRIKELY 22
5.1 Introduction 22
5.2 Methods 22
5.3 Results 22
5.4 Discussion 25
6.0 ANTSISKALA 26
6.1 Introduction 26
6.2 Methods 26
6.3 Results 28
6.4 Discussion 34
7.0 COMPARISON TABLES 35
8.0 CONCLUSION 36
9.0 REFERENCES 37
10.0 APPENDIX 39
Appendix 1 Mangrove Questionnaire 39

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LIST OF TABLES:

Table 1 Species of mangrove found in Antsiranana and their main uses 3

Table 2 Ambalisikely Responses 5
Table 3 Abalibabe Responses 11
Table 4 Andohazompona Responses 17
Table 5 Ampasirikely Responses 24
Table 6 Antsisikala Responses 29
Table 7.1 Number of respondents surveyed & households within the village 35
Table 7.2 Occupations surveyed within the villages 35
Table 7.3 Uses of mangrove wood 35
Table 7.4 Number of households which fish in the mangrove 35

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LIST OF FIGURES:
Figure 1 Map of village locations in Antsiranana 2
Figure 2.1 Ambalisakely beach with depleted mangrove forest 4
Figure 2.2 Ambalisakely mangrove (Ceriops tagel) 5
Figure 3.1 Abalibabe with sparse vegetation covering area of depleted mangrove 8
Figure 3.2 Rear of Abalibabe mangrove 9
Figure 3.3 The village Abalibabe builds its urban areas away from the erosion of the tidal area 9
Figure 4.1 Andohazompona mangrove (Ceriops muconrata) 15
Figure 5.1 Ampasirikely mangrove (Ceriops muconrata, Ceriops tagel & Avicennia marina) 22
Figure 6.1 Antsiskala shows sporadic mangrove (Sonneratia alba) 26
Figure 6.2 Antsisikala main beach 27
Figure 6.3 Zebu fencing around Antsisikala 27

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:

The villages of Ambalisakely, Abalibabe, Andohazompona, Ampasirikely and

Antsisikala, which are located around the bay of Ansiranana (Diego-Suarez), all have
areas of depleted mangrove forest. The depletion is mainly due to the production of
charcoal and for building resources. This report argues that the villages would benefit
from a mangrove replanting and regeneration scheme, which would provide a
sustainably-managed source of raw materials, fishery protection and would protect the
coast from erosion.

Through the provision of environmental awareness workshops and training regarding

mangrove ecology and restoration, basic management plans should be developed in
association with a committee of village representatives. The management plans
should aim to allow mangrove forests to be re-established in areas where they have
previously been removed.

The input of an NGO such as Frontier is seen as beneficial to the villages by giving
the local communities the confidence and knowledge to regenerate previously
deforested mangrove areas.

Key Words: Mangrove, Deforestation, Madagascar, Management Plan, Replanting.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
This report is the culmination of the advice, co-operation, hard work and expertise of many
people. In particular acknowledgements are due to the following:

SOCIETY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EXPLORATION

Managing Director: Ms. Eibleis Fanning
Research and Development Programme Manager: Dr. Mark Steer, Dr. Elise M.S. Belle
Operations Manager: Ms. Sam Fox

FRONTIER-MADAGASCAR
Country Co-ordinator Ms. Amanda Martin
Project Co-ordinator: Ms. Joanne Eaton
Research Co-ordinators: Mr. Romeo Jaomaharavo
Boat Driver: Mr. Nicola Coco

Editorial Comments:

We would like to express gratitude towards the residents of the villages that were surveyed:
Ambalisakely, Abalibabe, Andohazompona, Ampasirikely and Antsisikala. In particular
thanks go to Antsisikala for continuing to welcome us during our studies

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1. INTRODUCTION TO THE MANGROVES OF NORTHERN MADAGASCAR

Mangrove habitats are a significant natural resource spanning the interface between terrestrial
and marine environments. They constitute a productive ecosystem in an abiotically
challenging and often highly unproductive environment (Alongi, 2008). They are a highly
important resource providing both raw materials and land for urban development, farming and
aquaculture ventures (Martinuzzi et al., 2008). In addition to economic benefits, mangroves are
also beneficial in areas of tidal influence, protecting the coastline from natural erosion
processes (Mazda et al., 2004). In Madagascar, mangrove forests cover a significant area of
the coastline, approximately 3,000-4,000 km2 (Giri and Muhlhausen, 2008).

However, mangrove forests are being depleted on a local and global scale. In Madagascar the
mangrove population is estimated to have decreased by 3.6 million hectares since 1980
(Finance and Development, 2008). This reduction is thought to be due to high levels of
continual exploitation which cannot be maintained. Initial restoration projects have been
implemented in the past, however, because of limited ecological background they often
received little success (Erftemeijer and Lewis, 1999). The restoration of mangrove areas is
relatively difficult; it requires knowledge of the area and an understanding of the physical and
chemical needs of the mangrove species (Wolanski, 1992). The ecological aspects of
mangrove restoration must also be coupled with local knowledge, taking into account the
history of the area and local usage level, in order to ensure the sustained management of the
recovered mangrove. Local involvement with restoration programmes has indeed been shown
to be key in providing the sustained management necessary for mangrove recovery (Genio et
al., 2007). Once the management plan has been put in place, the local community should
continue the replanting programme and decide on the areas and amounts of mangrove that can
be used sustainably for building and charcoal.

The Bay of Antsiranana is located at the northern tip of Madagascar; it is a tidal bay fed by
the Indian Ocean to the East. There are areas of mangrove of varying densities and condition
located within the bay, but to date there has been a relatively low level of research on the
mangrove habitat, either with regards to its physical, chemical or socio-economic importance.

This study used questionnaires to obtain information about villagers’ perspectives concerning
mangroves, from five villages surrounding the bay. The questions focused upon the way the
different species of mangrove trees are used and mangrove management within the villages.
In the first parts of the report the findings for each village are discussed separately. In the last
part, the report brings together the results to highlight common issues as well as differences
between the villages in regards to mangrove knowledge, usage and future recommendations.

1.1 Aims
The aim of this study is to discuss the perceptions of local communities towards mangrove
habitat in order to (i) better understand the previous management of the mangroves and (ii)
enable future developments of regeneration schemes for depleted mangrove stands.

1.2 Study site

Five villages were surveyed: Ambalisakely, Abalibabe, Andohazompona, Ampasirikely and
Antsisikala, all situated in the Bay of Antsiranana (previously known as Antsiranana),
northern Madagascar (Figure 1). They are situated on the northern side of the bay and are
flanked by mangroves in various states.

1
A government initiative is currently being deployed in the villages surrounding the Bay of
Antsiranana encouraging replanting of mangrove habitat. In addition, Frontier and
Madagascar National Parks (MNP) have initiated an education and replanting scheme in
Andohazompona. This has been highly successful with an initial establishment of two
mangrove sites and it is hoped that further villages can benefit from the initiative (MNP pers
comm.)

Figure 1. Map of the village locations in Antiranana (Google Map, 2008)

The areas surveyed are known to contain the following species: Rhizophora mucronata
(Rhizophoraceae), Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Rhizophoraceae), Ceriops tagal
(Rhizophoraceae), Avicennia marina (Acanthaceae) and Sonneratia alba (Lythraceae)
(Frontier Madagascar unpublished data). These species differ in their uses and popularity
(Table 1.1)

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Family Species Used for Popularity
Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora Building Poles High
mucronata
Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera Charcoal Medium
gymnorrhiza
Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal Charcoal Low
Acanthaceae Avicennia marina Building Poles High
Lythraceae Sonneratia alba Building Poles High
Table 1. Species of mangrove occurring in the Antsiranana Bay and their main uses by the local
communities.

1.3 Methods

Thirty six inhabitants from five communities located on the banks of Antsiranana Bay
were interviewed using a set questionnaire.

Description of questionnaire

Ten brief questions were asked via a translator. The respondents were chosen by
availability in relation to number of occupants in the village (a minimum 20%
sample). The use of anonymous responses and a translator helped to ensure that
accurate answers were given.

1.3.1 Mangrove Questionnaire

1. How long have the mangroves been here for, has there been any changes to
the area since you have been here?
2. How is the mangrove used in the area? What do you use it for?
3. Is there any fishing or crab collecting at the mangrove?
4. Do you manage the mangroves in any way?
5. Have any areas of mangrove been replanted?
6. Who owns the mangroves?
7. Have there been changes in mangrove wildlife and size of mangroves here?
8. Do you think the mangrove is important?
9. Have any areas been deforested?
10. Has any erosion been noticed?

2. AMBALISAKELY VILLAGE
2.1 Introduction

Ambalisakely is a small settlement of three households; it is important due to its

thoroughfare situation between Antsiranana and agricultural households which
contain a modest area of mangroves (Figures 2.1 & 2.2) (Ceriops tagel). The village
is also influenced by the fishermen who pass through the area frequently. Of the
villages surveyed, Ambalisakely lies closest to the bay mouth and receives the
greatest wave impact and exposure compared to all other villages surveyed.

3
2.2 Methods

The surveys of Ambalisakely took place on 12th June 2008. Two households were
surveyed using a translator (see questionnaire in Appendix 1).

Figure 2.1. Ambalisakely beach with depleted mangrove forest.

Figure 2.2. Ambalisakely mangrove (Ceriops tagel)

4
2.3 Results

Ambalisakely has a small number of households, but remains key to understanding

mangrove perception and management. The area is a walkthrough to the villages
situated beyond the coastline towards the agricultural settlements. This status means a
great number of Malagasy pass through for supplies on a regular basis. The results of
the survey are summarised in Table 2.1

The respondents have always been aware of some mangrove presence since they have
lived in the area. The major loss in mangrove stands occurred before either respondent
resided here. As such there are only speculations as to the reasoning behind the
dramatic mangrove loss to the area. It is thought that the mangrove was lost because
of mismanaged deforestation for building and charcoal. These are the same reasons
given by villagers to explain the mangrove loss in other areas displaying similar
patterns (Alongi, 2002 & Martinuzzi. et al. 2009).

The mangrove wood is a very important part of Malagasy culture within this area,
used for building resources and as charcoal (Ellison, 2000). Both respondents have
used the mangrove wood in this respect, but no longer do, as terrestrial wood provides
a good substitute. The respondents are unsure as to when the last sections of wood
were removed from the mangrove forest.

Both responders also use the mangroves as a food source, since they are a valuable
habitat for fish and crabs. This function is a well documented benefit for many
villages (Genio. et al. 2007). However, the number of fish and crabs caught has
noticeably decreased in the area, which is something the respondents are concerned
about.

Fisherman Farmer
1 The mangrove has been here ever since The mangroves have been here since she has been
he has been here. A section of mangrove here. In the year 2000 her family planted Ceriops
(Ceriops tagal) has been seen to grow tagal propagules. 30 trees can be seen established
here over the last ten years. of juvenile size from 50 propagules planted.
2 The mangrove is used for upper beams in She is not sure if the mangrove is used for
huts, (Rhizophora mucronata and anything, they do not use it for anything.
Avicennia marina is used). The
mangrove used is grown in other parts of
the bay (Anjiabe). They use wood from
the forest to build the remainder of the
hut.
3 There is a fishing site directly in front of She collects crabs from the mangrove.
the mangrove site. There are no fish or
crabs inside the mangrove to collect.
Short nets were used for fishing in 2001,
but have now been replaced with longer
nets as the catch has decreased.
4 They manage the site by only taking There is no management plan as such, though
what is needed. when people come from other places and try to cut
the mangrove down, they try to stop them.
5 Andohazompona was replanted There is no replanting area, though they are trying
(Rhizophora mucronata) but no large to see if what they planted works and would then
areas here have been replanted. There is a plant from these trees.
village association for replanting the
mangroves, though they need signed

5
 paperwork from the Mayor in order to
start replanting here.
6 No-one owns the mangroves.
7 The wildlife here has decreased, while
the size of the mangrove has increased
(Ceriops tagal growth).
8 The mangroves are very important, when
the tide is high the fish swim out from
the mangrove and when the tide lowers
the fish shelter there.
9 Some areas have been chopped down,
but there is no deforestation now.
10 There is erosion occurring directly in
front of the settlement, although where
the mangrove has been established there
is less erosion. The land is kept safe in
the presence of mangroves.
Table 2. Responses given by Ambalisakely residents.
No-one owns the mangroves. The mangrove that
they have planted is their own mangrove.
The mangrove contains more wildlife, there are
more crab holes so she catches more crabs.
The mangrove is very important; it protects their
homes and allows them to get some ‘fresh air’.
Mangrove has been deforested at the side of the
village; the wood is taken to make charcoal.
People from Ambilabe also cut mangrove.
Yes, erosion is happening at a quick rate. That is
the reason why mangroves were replanted in front
of their house.

The general consensus is that the village has no mangrove management plan.
Management plans have been seen to be beneficial in other areas (Martinuzzi. et al.
2009). However, due to government regulations requiring specific management plans,
it would be difficult for the local communities to assemble the necessary
documentation and set up an appropriate plan.

When considering possible replanting schemes several meetings with the local
population would be needed (Berger et al. 2008). The farming household has begun to
discreetly plant a small area; whereas the fishing household believes they need to be
taught how to plant the mangrove propagules before attempting such a task
themselves. There is some confusion as to whether or not their village can replant
mangroves as they ignore if permissions are needed from the government in order to
start an official replanting scheme. This confusion surrounding government input may
come from knowledge of fellow village Andohazompona and their replanting scheme
(see section 4).

Both respondents believe the mangrove has no ownership which could be one of the
reasons why there is currently no management. If a community ownership structure
were implemented for the mangrove habitat, it is likely that there would be an
increase in the protection and management of the mangrove, as has been seen in other
locations (Ellison, 2000 & Martinuzzi et al., 2009).

Both respondents have noticed that the amount of mangrove wildlife has increased in
the areas of healthy mangrove, whereas the smaller depleted areas of mangrove are
losing wildlife. As the depleted mangrove area no longer provides shelter and food
there is no benefit for wildlife to inhabit the location (Alongi, 2002 & Genio et al.
2007).

Both respondents agree that the mangrove is an important resource and should be
treated as such. The respondents have different perceptions as to why it is important:
the farmer values the physical protection the mangrove provides to the household;
whereas the fisherman needs it to catch crabs for a sustained livelihood (Alongi, 2002

6
& Genio et al., 2007). It is interesting to note that while the resource is a valued
commodity, there is no management, structure or active protection for the area.

The main reason for the decline in mangrove stands is believed to be the amount of
wood that was extracted for charcoal. During the wet season, charcoal and wood are
vital, as it is used for cooking, drying and warmth (Bosire et al., 2008). Without this
raw material villagers would find cooking difficult. The mangrove wood presents
certain advantages: it is close by, burns strongly, lights easily and lasts for a long
time.

The presence of erosion within this section of the bay has been acknowledged by the
farmer and the fisherman. Erosion processes have caused the loss of land to the sea
and the need to reposition huts as tidelines alter. Villagers see erosion as a problem
but were unaware of the processes responsible for it. The term of erosion is one that
is not known in the village, though they have witnessed its effects and believe it to be
a large threat to the area. Replanting the mangroves is not a solution that has been
identified, though the agricultural experience of the farmer has brought about some
replanting by her hut. However, the amount and type of propagule planted (thirty
established from fifty planted Ceriops tagel propagules), is not in the quantities
required to slow the erosion process down (Ellison, 2000).

2.4 Discussion

This area would benefit from an effective management plan. The location of the
village, near the mouth of the bay, displays a high amount of tidal impact. Erosion
will be a large threat unless mangrove forests can inhibit its effects. The opinions of
the villagers should be taken into account and a workshop developed to allow
ownership to be discussed and suitable recovery plans to be initiated. With the
planting of both Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal propagules a basic forest
should start to establish. At least fifty propagules of each species should be used to
account for the mortality rate and enable a sufficient number to establish. Once
planting has begun to alter the substrate nutrient content, further species could be
accommodated, such as Avicennia marina and Sonneratia alba (Berger, 2008, Bosire
et al. 2008 & Glaser, 2003). A further benefit to replanting mangroves would be to
reduce pressure on terrestrial wood sources, which are currently used as a substitute
for mangrove wood, provided that they are used in a sustainable manner.

7
3. VILLAGE ABALIBABE

3.1 Introduction

The village of Abalibabe has ten households and makes up one sixth of a larger
community known as Angiabe which has diminishing mangrove area (see figures 3.1
& 3.2). The majority of inhabitants of this village rely on agriculture for their
livelihoods, specifically zebu farming, but still occasionally go fishing. This village is
located in a section of the northern area of the bay and is semi-exposed to the tides
with moderate wave impact.

3.2 Methods

The surveys of Abalibabe took place on 12th June 2008. Six households were
surveyed personally using a translator (See questionnaire in Appendix 1).

Figure 3.1 Abalibabe with sparse vegetation covering area of depleted mangrove.

8
 Figure 3.2 Rear of Abalibabe mangrove.

Figure 3.3 The village Abalibabe, away from the erosion of the tidal area.

9
3.3 Results

The area here is a base for a larger village outstretching into higher areas behind the
village. Fishing and Zebu farming constitute the main food sources for the village.
This village also contains a shop and is a focal point for village gatherings,
celebrations and funeral celebrations. Survey data are summarised in table 3.1.

All responders have known the mangrove for all the time in which they have lived in
the area. A village elder was also surveyed; he has lived in the area for eighty two
years and can remember the mangrove being more extensive. The respondents stated
that there has been a large decrease in the quantity of mangrove in the area during
their time here, a view which appears to be confirmed by direct evidence of depleted
mangrove stands (See figures 3.1 & 3.2). There was a large quantity of wood taken
from the mangrove for charcoal both by residents and visitors (Alongi, 2002 &
Martinuzzi. et al. 2009).

10
 Chief Secretary
1 For 30 years he has noticed a decrease in trees,
although last year there was no decrease. The
older trees (Avicennia marina) tend to die when
they reach a certain age. The Rhizophora
mucronata has been chopped down quickly by
boats from Antsiranana.
2 The mangrove is used for building houses; the
main crossing beams and building poles are
made from Rhizophora mucronata and
Sonneratia alba. They did use mangrove wood
for charcoal in the past, but about five years ago
they began using terrestrial trees.
3 They collect crabs from the mangrove.
4 They are starting to manage a section in the
middle of the mangrove which was previously
deforested. Mangrove is being replanted with
Rhizophora mucronata propagules, trials are
still being carried out.
5 They tried to replant mangroves, but the
Ceriops that they used haven’t been established
in the areas they tried.
6 No-one owns the mangroves, if any areas of
replanting were successful they would not be
owned either.
7 The wildlife present has decreased since he has
been here but the mangrove has maintained its
size. On average when some areas decrease in
size other areas will increase to compensate.
8 The mangrove is important.
9 No areas have been deforested completely but
deforestation at a low level has occurred here.
10 Erosion is occurring here, the sand from
Amilakeli has moved outwards and has made
the beach wider.
Table 3. Responses given by Abalibabe residents.
Zebu herder
He grew up here and was born in Antsiranana and
thinks that the mangroves remained at the same
size.
The mangrove species Rhizophora mucronata, is
used for houses, fences, and building, the
mangrove used is. He only takes what is necessary
and what he needs.
He fishes outside the mangrove forest.
The mangrove is managed by people who only
take what they need.
He has never seen any areas of mangrove
replanted.
No-one owns the mangrove.
The mangrove is more or less the same size.
The mangrove is important.
No areas have been deforested.
There is erosion here, as the sea is moving inland.
Previously you could walk out further than now.
Village Elder, 82
The mangroves have been here since he was born,
and they have decreased a lot. There have always
been sections of mud and salt pans behind the
mangrove separating the marine and terrestrial
environments.
The mangroves were used for support beams in
houses (Rhizophora mucronata), but they are no
longer used.
There were a lot of fish and crabs when he was
younger, but they have all gone now.
They only take what they need when managing the
mangroves, often only one tree which is cut into
two pieces for their houses.
There has been no replanting here, and he has not
heard of it anywhere else in the bay.
No-one owns the mangroves, though there was a
French man that came and said he owned them. He
lived here for a long time but has now died,
however his son now comes out and measures the
mangroves occasionally. He used the mangroves for
an electricity company, powering turbines.
The wildlife decreased as the size of the mangrove
decreased.
He doesn’t know if the mangrove is important, but
he doesn’t want it to disappear.
He has seen chopping but no entire area of
mangrove has been deforested.
There is erosion at Ambilekily.
11
 Housewife
1 The mangroves are still the same size.
2 The mangrove in this area is not used. If they
catch someone using it they will make a
complaint against them to the government
(Ministère des Eaux et Forêt). They don’t cut
any mangrove themselves.
3 There are no fish or crabs to take.
4 There is no managing of the mangroves.
5 There is no replanting of the mangroves.
6 No-one owns the mangroves.
7 She doesn’t know if the wildlife or size of the
mangrove has changed.
8 The mangrove is important, it looks good.
9 No, she has not seen any areas deforested.
10 Yes, there is erosion occurring surrounding
the village.
Table 3 (continued). Responses given by Abalibabe residents.
Fisherman
The mangroves have decreased in size since
he has been here. There were areas with fast
chopping and selling, but these have gone
now. But the mangrove is starting to grow
again.
The mangrove is used for building houses, it
was also used to make charcoal, but this is not
done anymore, they now use terrestrial wood.
There is no fishing or crab collecting at the
mangrove.
There is no management. The mangrove wood
is only taken for what is needed.
There should be areas of the forest replanted,
but he has not seen any real areas of replanted
mangrove.
No-one owns the mangrove.
There are a lot more fish and crabs around the
mangrove areas than in other areas of the bay.
The mangrove is not important.
There is an area which has been deforested,
near bay 5 (Ambalisakely).
There is a lot of erosion moving inland in bays
5 and 6.
Fisherman
The mangrove decreased as some species died
(Avicennia marina), there was no reason for the
deaths, God just decided to kill the mangrove.
The mangrove is used for building, he used one
piece for his house, (Rhizophora mucronata). The
mangroves are hard to grow, so he only took one
piece.
He fishes and collects crabs and shrimps in the bay.
The mangroves are not managed.
He has never seen areas of mangrove replanted,
though he has heard of replanting in an area in
Nambokea, which is in the south west of the bay
near industrial salt pans.
No-one owns the mangroves, though they are on the
land of a foreigner.
The wildlife here has decreased, the wildlife is
dependant on the wind.
The mangrove is important.
He has never seen any area deforested.
There is erosion here, it occurs in most parts of this
area. Trees are now more exposed than before.
12
Villagers believe that the species Sonneratia alba, after reaching a certain level of
maturity, will suffer a vast sudden mortality. They think this may be accountable for
some of the deforestation. This phenomenon has also been observed in areas of
Kenya, where it is believed to be the result of a pest or fungal infestations (Mwangi,
2001).

The mangrove wood in the village was used for building materials such as structural
beams supporting huts (Rhizophora mucronata), for fencing (Sonneratia alba and
Avicennia marina) and for charcoal in the wet season (Ceriops tagal and Sonneratia
alba). This wood use is similar to that observed in other areas (Ellison, 2000). The
respondents have not taken any wood from the mangrove for the last five years. It is
unclear if this is due to pressure from the local communities or external pressures.
One responder stated that they will report people cutting down the mangrove to the
Ministry of Water and Forest, indicating that the government is respected by the
villagers.

Mangrove habitat is used for fishing. In Abalibabe it is used more widely for the
collection of crabs and shrimp than in other villages (Genio et al. 2007). However, the
numbers of crabs and shrimp have declined. It is no longer an additional economy, but
just enough for their own family diet.

There is no official management plan in the area. Mangrove wood is no longer used
and has been substituted by terrestrial wood. The mangrove could recover if given the
opportunity and a management plan put into effect (Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). There is
also an unofficial restriction on mangrove wood taken from the forest. This has led
the village to declare a self monitored No Take Zone for the mangrove site.

There is no replanting in this area, though they have heard of nearby villages, such as
Nambokea, instigating replanting plans. They are starting to experiment with
propagule planting, which is a good indication of their intention to initiate future
mangrove restoration plans. However, the knowledge they have of mangrove planting
is limited as they tried to replant in a time of year which is not appropriate for the
establishment of propagules (Alongi, 2002 & Berger et al. 2008). With a brief training
session, these small issues could be rectified and the successful replanting of
mangrove areas could easily be achieved.

There is a general consensus that there is no ownership of the mangrove. However,

this mangrove has a history. The village elder remembers a French man claiming
ownership of the mangrove area. This French man is believed to have cut down much
of the mangrove to power turbines for his factory. His relatives have been reported to
measure the mangroves sporadically. This suggests that the villagers are very unsure
as to the ownership of the mangroves. If these reports are true, they could complicate
the matter of mangrove regeneration. Clarification is needed for the villagers to begin
replanting the mangroves for their own benefit, especially with regards to protection
from erosion and increased fishing opportunities.

The amount of wildlife has been observed to decrease, reflecting the decrease of the
mangrove forest (Bosire et al. 2008). Many of the respondents do not consider
regenerating the mangrove forest a viable option to increase the wildlife. One villager
believed that an increase in wind has led to the decrease in wildlife. The wind the

13
village receives indeed partly reflects the amount of protection the mangrove
provides.

The majority of respondents do believe that the mangrove is important. The people
working near to or inside the mangrove are able to see direct benefits. However, those
who do not use the mangrove habitat are unclear as to why the mangroves are
important and are only following the opinions of others. If it can be demonstrated to
them why the mangrove is important then the depletion and subsequent replanting of
the area will be more thoroughly understood. This would constitute the first step for
the villagers to start replanting and protecting the mangrove (Genio et al, 2007).

The mangrove has decreased in size within living memory. This is due in part to the
fact that villagers from other areas of the bay collect mangrove wood for themselves.
This constitutes a major problem for the management of these mangroves as external
sources of removal are harder to control (Berger et al. 2008 & Genio et al, 2007).

There is erosion occurring in the village. The villagers did not recognise the term
erosion, but understood the concept and process once explained. They recognised that
there is a connection between the mangrove decreasing and erosion increasing (Bosire
et al. 2008). They have noted this change in the land with points of reference having
moved and this is an important concern for the village. However, they were not fully
aware that by regenerating the mangrove habitat, erosion impacts on their coastline
could be mitigated (Genio et al, 2007).

3.4 Discussion

A basic mangrove management scheme could be implemented, which would be of

tangible benefit to the area. The village is centrally located in the north section of the
bay. With mangrove depletion, erosion occurs on a large scale through a constant tidal
impact. In a first stage, a workshop should be developed to allow ownership of the
mangrove to be discussed and the opinions of the villagers to be taken into account,
and suitable recovery plans could be initiated. The second stage should be involve a
planting scheme of both Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal propagules to
establish a basic forest. There should be a channel left for boats to reach the village.
Fifty propagules of each species should be used to account for the mortality rate and
enable the best chance of establishment. Once planting has begun to alter the substrate
nutrient content further, other species could be accommodated with planting of
Avicennia marina and Sonneratia alba (Berger, 2008, Bosire et al. 2008 & Glaser,
2003).

14
4. VILLAGE ANDOHAZOMPONA

4.1 Introduction

Andohazompona is of significant size with forty two households. It is currently

working alongside the government organisation Madagascar National Park (MNP) to
establish a mangrove replanting scheme to extend its modest mangrove area. Ceriops
tagal and Rhizophora mucronata propagules have been planted in recent years, with
some success. Fishing and agriculture are predominant activities in the village.
Located at the western side of the bay, the area has low levels of exposure and wave
impact.

4.2 Methods

The surveys of Andohazompona took place on 13th June 2008. Ten households were
surveyed using a translator, one household refused. A copy of the questionnaire can
be found in Appendix 1.

Figure 4.1 Andohazompona mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata)

15
4.3 Results

Andohazompona is the largest village surveyed, and therefore has the most amenities,
including a number of shops and a point of gathering for social events. This area is
accessible via boat and is a large focus for the western area of the bay.

There is a general agreement that the mangrove is physically changing and has
decreased in size (Figure 4.1), which is a pattern observed in other villages as well
(Alongi, 2002 & Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). Respondents who do not visit the mangrove
often believed there was little change, demonstrating the importance of raising
awareness of the importance of mangroves in the villages.

The wood from the mangrove was used in huts (Rhizophora mucronata), fencing
(Avicennia marina) and for charcoal (Sonneratia alba and Ceriops tagal) like in other
villages (Ellison, 2000); however, most residents were hesitant in their responses and
said they feared reprisal from the government and NGOs such as Green Mad for
having given these answers. The respondents also frequently cited the government
and organisations such as Green Mad in their answers. It therefore seems that they felt
compelled to answer in a specific way due to past collaborations with these
organisations.

The mangrove is also used as a source of fish, shrimps and crabs by some members of
the community. However, those who do not use it doubt the benefit of the mangrove.
This is another instance where raising awareness of all the villagers would enable a
better understanding of the mangroves’ benefits to the village.

16
 Housewives (2 individual)
1 The mangroves have been here for as
long as they have and are slowly
decreasing. This decrease means they
should start replanting.
2 The mangrove was used for houses, but
has not been used since replanting
(Avicennia marina) started two years
ago.
3 There are no fish or crabs in the
mangrove, so no fishing can be done.
4 The mangrove is managed by not
taking any wood from it anymore.
5 Yes, replanting is happening here. A
100m stretch of land has been
replanted (Rhizophora mucronata is
being replanted but not Avicennia
marina).
6 No-one owns the mangroves, they are
public.
7 Crabs have decreased in number,
although the mangrove has increased in
size.
8 They think the mangrove is important.
9 No deforesting is occurring.
10 They don’t know if there is erosion
here.
Table 4. Responses given by Andohazompona residents.
Fisher lady
The mangroves increased when they
first came here.
The mangrove is used for building
houses, but now they use mangrove
wood from the forest, as using mangrove
wood is no longer allowed.
Both fish and crabs are collected near
and in the mangrove.
The mangroves are currently managed
by not cutting them. MNP has told them
that they shouldn’t cut the mangrove
anymore.
They do have a replanting scheme, and
have been told by MNP that they should
try to increase the replanting area.
They don’t know if anyone owns the
mangroves.
They don’t know if the wildlife has
increased or not.
They don’t know if the mangrove is
important. They think it is as they are
being told not to cut it anymore.
They have never seen an area being
deforested.
They don’t know if there is erosion here.
Fishermen (2)
The mangrove has decreased slowly as he
can’t collect the crabs in the same way, there
are less of them.
The mangrove is used for building
(Avicennia marina), roof and flooring, but it
was stopped in 2006 by Green Mad.
He collects crabs when the tide is low, but
there are no fish.
The mangroves are starting to be managed
with a replanting scheme.
There is replanting here, (Rhizophora
mucronata and Ceriops tagal). The
replanting section is situated in two areas
south of the village. This place was
previously deforested, as well as the area in
Cap Diego where mangrove was taken for
charcoal wood.
No-one owns the mangroves.
The amount of wildlife here has decreased.
The mangrove is very important. Fish can be
caught there because they come to feed and
breed.
There is an area south of the village which
has been deforested.
There is erosion here, especially at the
‘mouth of the village’.
Fishermen (2)
The mangrove is increasing in size as seeds
are replanting themselves.
The mangrove wood is used for houses
(Rhizophora mucronata) and fences
(Avicennia marina). Forest wood is used for
pirogues. Their parents have taken wood for
building in the past.
Fishing and crab collecting is done at the
mangrove.
There is no management plan, but we do
watch to see if others cut it down.
There are two areas for replanting, both were
started in 2007.
No-one owns the mangrove.
The amount of wildlife and the size of the
mangrove have decreased.
Mangroves are very important.
There is a location about 10 miles south of
the village which has been deforested.
There is erosion occurring nearby.
17
 Housewife
1 The mangrove has slowly decreased.
2 The mangrove is used for charcoal and
for fences.
3 There is crab collecting from the
mangrove.
4 There is a management scheme in
place to replant the mangroves.
5 There are two areas that have been
replanted.
6 No-one owns the mangroves
7 The wildlife has decreased within the
mangrove, especially crabs.
8 The mangrove is important as a habitat
for crabs.
9 There is an area south of here that has
been deforested; she doesn’t know how
big it is.
10 She doesn’t know if there is erosion
here.
Table 4 (continued). Responses given by Andohazompona residents.
Farmer
The area of mangrove has decreased
slowly.
The mangrove is used for housing (roof
beams).
There is crab collecting and fishing in
and around the mangroves.
There is a management plan to protect
the mangrove.
Two places have been replanted and it
has been successful.
No-one owns the mangroves.
The wildlife has decreased; it is not the
same as before.
The mangrove is very important; if it
decreases there will be fewer animals.
Another nearby area was nearly
deforested, as the villagers used the
wood for charcoal.
There hasn’t been any erosion.
Farmer Housewife
The mangroves have decreased slowly. The mangroves have increased slowly.
The mangroves are used for beams in The mangrove is used as building
the roof. material.
He had never fished, but some people She doesn’t eat crabs, so doesn’t
do use the mangrove for fishing and collect them.
crab collecting.
There is a management scheme She doesn’t know how the mangrove is
because there is replanting taking place managed.
every year.
Two years ago the government told the There is replanting here.
villagers to replant the mangroves. This
village was the only one which did.
No-one owns the mangrove, it is No-one owns the mangrove.
‘private’.
He doesn’t know about mangrove The number of crabs has decreased in
wildlife, because he doesn’t go there. the mangrove.
The mangroves are very important, the She doesn’t know if it is important as
juvenile fish use it for shelter and she is not a man and ‘a man would
villagers need mangrove wood, know’.
because there is no other place to get
wood from.
No deforesting has occured, but the No deforestation.
mangroves have died (100m of Ceriops
muconrata). He would like to know
why they died, but no-one knows.
Erosion is present in the area. No erosion.
18
 Shop Keeper
1 The mangroves have slowly decreased.

2 She has never taken any wood, but knows it

is used for houses and fences.

3 She collects crabs and shrimps.

4 There is a management plan to protect the

mangrove and replant more.

5 There are two sections which have been

replanted. They were both successful and
more should be replanted.

6 No-one owns the mangrove.

7 There has been a decrease in wildlife, but the

mangroves have remained the same size.

8 The mangrove is very important; it is needed

for crabs and shrimps.

9 There was a place almost deforested, but she

doesn’t know what happened.

10 There is erosion here, as the mangrove is now

connected to freshwater. Previously they
were two separate areas.

Table 4 (continued). Responses given by Andohazompona residents.

19
There is a split opinion in respondents regarding whether there is a management plan
or not. The government has expressed its intention of replanting in this area, although
it appears it has given little support to the local communities. Respondents are
concerned that the government might act against them if they do not respond to them
correctly. There are also mentions of the NGOs MNP and Green Mad, although in this
large village the exact extent of NGO involvement is uncertain. It is also unclear
whether they are working independently or in union.

However, there is a successful committee within the village that has interests in a
management scheme for the mangrove. This may form the basis of a successful
project (Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). This committee was unfortunately not present when
we interviewed the villagers neither was the president in residence. It would be
beneficial for further work in the area to include interviews with their local committee
and president.

The replanting scheme that has taken place within the village has by all accounts been
a success. There are now two areas which have been replanted with Rhizophora
mucronata and have established in the last few months. Other villagers have now
become aware of the schemes and have received training in the village.

Opinions over ownership of the mangrove are divided. Villagers either believe they
are privatively or publicly owned, or that they are not owned at all. Once this issue
has been resolved, a management plan could be implemented with a clear structure
(Ellison, 2000).

The villagers seem to be in agreement that wildlife has decreased with the decline of
the mangrove (Bosire et al. 2008). This village is much more aware of the benefits of
the mangrove and the consequences decreasing mangrove can have on the wildlife.
This may be thanks to MNP’s involvement in the village.

The mangrove is important to the villagers. Some respondents were informed of the
different ways in which the mangrove benefits them, e.g. as a breeding ground for fish
and a shelter for juveniles (Genio et al, 2007). Others recognised the mangroves were
important even though they didn’t really know the reasons why. This recognition
could stem from the visits from NGOs raising awareness about the mangrove. An
interesting observation made by one woman in the village suggests that male opinions
on this matter are valued more than that of females. Some work could be done in
order to encourage women to take a more active role.

There is again a discrepancy in opinion over deforestation. Respondents working

within the mangrove environment are aware that there is a decline in mangrove
habitat, whilst those living away from the mangrove do not perceive any decline.
Some have observed a sudden high mortality amongst mangrove trees, especially
Sonneratia alba. It is possible that a pest or fungus is causing this reaction as seen in
Kenya (Mwangi, 2001).

The respondents have noticed erosion within the area as it has changed the land
topography. Models have shown similar effects in other areas (Genio et al, 2007).
However, respondents who do not work within the mangrove have not witnessed
these effects.

20
4.4 Discussion

There is a management plan already in place in Andohazompona, with a committee

structure for the community. However, this could be improved if all the villagers had
a wider ecological knowledge. The western edge of the bay has only moderate tidal
influence so impact damage is not a pressing issue, but it should not be dismissed
either. The management plan has begun with two areas being replanted upon the
involvement of MNP. This has been successful with sections of mangrove beginning
to become established. It is hoped that the committee structure put in place will
continue to give support to the recovery of the mangrove forests in this area.

21
5 VILLAGE AMPASIRIKELY

5.1 Introduction

Ampasirikely is a moderately sized village with eleven households. It has a large

fishing influence and contains a medium sized healthy mangrove forest (Figure 5.1)
comprising stands of Avicenna marina, Ceriops tagal, Rhizophora mucronata and
Sonneratia alba. The village is greatly influenced by its larger neighbour
Andohazompona. It is situated on the western edge of the bay. It is relatively
sheltered, with minimal exposure and low levels of wave impact.

5.2 Methods

The surveys of Ampasirikely took place on 13th June 2008. Four households were
surveyed using a translator (See questionnaire in Appendix 1).

Figure 5.1 Ampasirikely mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops tagel and

Avicennia marina)

5.3 Results

Ampasirikely is situated on the road between Andohazompona and Antsisikala. It

relies primarily on fishing but some farming activity also occurs. The mangrove is
healthy, sheltered and shows active development. It should be noted that during the

22
survey the men of the village were engaged with agricultural activities, so only
women were interviewed. During the dry season men leave the villages to work on
agricultural harvests and to herd the zebu. The results of the survey are summarised in
Table 5.1.

The housewives main responsibilities are in the maintenance of the village e.g.
cooking and cleaning. The knowledge they have of the mangrove is limited, but they
have observed a small increase in the size of the mangrove. The mangrove does not
seem to be suffering from deforestation at this site. In fact there is evidence of
propagule establishment around the edges of the mangrove, which is increasing the
size of the mangrove. There is some active development towards the edges the
mangrove (Figure 5.1).

Wood from the mangrove was previously used in everyday life by the local
community, e.g. Rhizophora mucronata was used for the structural beams in their
huts as seen in other villages (Ellison, 2000). However, to ensure wood within the
mangrove is maintained at a sustainable level they now use terrestrially sourced
wood.

The great majority of respondents collect crabs from the mangrove, like in other
villages (Genio. et al. 2007). Of the total respondents, 90% collect crabs on a regular
basis, emphasising one of the benefits of a healthy mangrove habitat.

23
 Housewife
1 The mangrove has increased in
size a little bit.
2 Little mangrove wood is used
for the village. They tend to use
terrestrial trees for building
now.
3 Crabs are collected at the
mangrove.
4 The mangroves are managed by
not cutting them down.
5 There is no replanting here.
6 No-one owns the mangrove.
7 The crab population size has not
changed but the mangrove has
increased in size.
8 The mangrove is important as
crabs and shrimp inhabit it.
9 There are no deforested areas
here.
10 There is no erosion here.
Table 5. Responses given by Ampasirikely residents.
Housewife
The mangrove has increased a
little.
She doesn’t know if it is used.
She collects crabs in the
mangroves.
Management of the mangroves
is done by not taking anything
from it.
There is no replanting here, but
there is replanting at
Andohazompona.
No-one owns the mangrove.
There has been an increase in
the number of crabs in the
mangrove.
The mangroves are important as
they are an environment in
which crabs live.
There are no deforested areas
around here.
She has not noticed any erosion.
Housewife
The mangrove area has slowly
increased.
The mangrove wood
(Rhizophora mucronata) is used
for beams in housing, but she
has never taken any personally.
There is nothing living in the
mangrove forest.
Management consist in not
cutting mangrove wood very
often.
No areas have been replanted
here.
No-one owns the mangroves.
She doesn’t know enough about
mangrove wildlife to know if it
has increased or decreased.
The mangrove is important for
building houses, and supporting
crabs and shrimps populations.
There is no deforestation here.
There is no erosion here.
Housewife
The mangroves have increased a
little bit.
Mangroves are used for beams
in houses (Rhizophora
mucronata).
Crab collecting is done at the
mangroves.
The mangroves are managed by
not cutting trees down often and
by targeting a different part on
each visit.
There is no replanting here
because there has been no
training.
No-one owns the mangroves.
The amount of crabs within the
mangrove has increased,
because they are not collected
very often anymore.
The mangrove is important for
crabs and shellfish.
There is no deforestation here.
There is a small amount of
erosion in the northern area of
the village.
24
Currently there is no management plan in the village and it would be beneficial to
implement one. The respondents have all stated that they make a conscious effort
when selecting the type, amount and location of trees in the mangrove forest. The
village here would not need large quantities of wood due to its small size. This may
be one of the reasons why the level of depletion is lower than in other villages. The
mangrove is also held in great esteem due to the amount of fishing which is dependent
on its habitat.

The villagers are aware of replanting schemes being developed in the next village,
Andohazompona, but no replanting has taken place here. The mangrove is generally
healthy and there is no appropriate area for replanting. The mangrove area itself could
be expanded; however, some training would need to be provided (Berger et al. 2008).
Andohazompona is relatively close (a days walk) to the village; their neighbours
replanting success may therefore encourage them to expand their mangrove as well.
However, it may be more important to focus on protection, rather than restoration, of
the mangroves in this community.

In the village, the mangroves are not believed to be owned therefore they are treated
as communal land. It would be beneficial for the community to fully own this land, as
management schemes would be upheld to a greater level (Ellison, 2000 & Martinuzzi.
et al. 2009).

The majority of villagers have noticed that there is an increase in the number of crabs
in the mangrove. Management plans, including rotating the collection areas within the
mangrove will help maintain these populations at sustainable levels. Perhaps the
village could set up crabs No Take Zones to enable the renewal of the population.
(Bosire. et al. 2008).

The villagers all agreed that the mangrove is important because they support a food
source of crustaceans, shrimps and fish which constitutes an important part of the
coastal communities’ diet and which is highly valued (Genio et al, 2007).

The respondents state there are no areas of deforestation. The village has a healthy
looking mangrove with a high ecological content. The outer limit of the mangrove
does have evidence of tree cutting. However, this is managed to a certain extent, with
an alternation of the areas being used, making it a more sustainable option (Berger et
al. 2008).

One respondent noticed a small amount of erosion, but generally they have been
affected much less then other villages. This highlights the benefit of a healthy
mangrove for protection against erosion.

5.4 Discussion

Ampasirikely village currently has a healthy mangrove so a management plan is currently

not essential. The mangrove is showing good development by spreading further along
the bay. The village is situated in a sheltered area of the bay so tidal impact is not a
big concern. However, raising awareness, perhaps through workshops demonstrating
the full mangrove potential could still benefit the village.

25
6. VILLAGE ANTSISIKALA

6.1 Introduction

Antsisikala is one of the largest settlements with eleven households and a high
number of people passing through during parts of the dry season. It boasts large
fishing and agricultural activities, good communication and transport links. However,
its mangrove areas are depleted with only small areas of Ceriops tagal, Rhizophora
mucronata and Sonneratia alba remaining (Figure 6.1) and erosion is also noticeable.
The village lies in the north-west area of the bay with moderate exposure and wave
impact.

6.2 Methods

The surveys of Antsisikala took place on 14th June 2008. Thirteen households were
surveyed personally using a translator (See questionnaire in Appendix 1).

Figure 6.1 Antsisikala shows sporadic mangrove (Sonneratia alba).

26
 Figure 6.2 Antsisikala main beach.

Figure 6.3 Zebu fencing around Antsisikala (Avicennia marina)

27
6.3 Results

Antsisikala is a village with a large tradition of farming and fishing. It has links with
Frontier Madagascar Marine project and receives teaching placements on a regular
basis. The village is a focal point for social gatherings and events; it also has shops
and a bar with a regular boat service. The village is a pathway to the farming areas o
situated behind the village. The responses to the questionnaire are summarised in
Table 6.1.

There is a general consensus that the mangrove area has increased during the time the
villagers have been here. This view is held mainly by housewives and farmers who
work on the land behind the village. The two respondents claiming that the mangrove
area has decreased were fishermen who use the area for their livelihood on a daily
basis. They show a similar level of knowledge about deforestation as other villages
(Alongi, 2002; Martinuzzi. et al. 2009).

Mangrove wood was used for housing and fencing (see figure 11), as seen in other
villages (Ellison, 2000). However, the mangrove is no longer used as a source of
constant raw material, but only for specific purposes. The properties of Rhizophora
mucronata make it unsusceptible to woodworm, a clear benefit when housing is
primarily wood based. However, problems ensue when wood is selected with no
regard to its type or location. A structured management plan therefore needs to be in
place to ensure villagers know which wood can be taken and with which methods.

28
 Fisherwoman/Shop Keeper
1 The mangrove area has remained the
same.
2 The mangrove is used in housing (e.g.
for beams) and zebu fencing. She
doesn’t take any wood. Her husband
only takes the wood they need.
3 There are no fish or crabs in the
mangrove.
4 She doesn’t know how to manage the
mangrove.
5 There is no replanting.
6 No-one owns the mangrove forest and
she has never heard of anyone owning it.
7 She doesn’t know if the amount of
wildlife has increased or not because she
doesn’t go there.
8 Fishermen have told her that it is
important because it is where fish feed
and crabs live.
9 She has never seen any deforested areas.
10 There is no erosion here.
Table 6. Responses given by Antsisikala residents.
Fisherman
The mangroves have decreased slowly.
The mangrove wood is used for houses,
(e.g. upper beams) and zebu fence.
Crabs can be caught at the mangroves.
There is no management of the
mangrove.
There are no replanting schemes here.
No-one owns the mangrove.
There is a decrease in the amount of
wildlife. He thinks this may be due to
increased heat.
The mangrove is very important for
fish and crabs and for every animal
living in the sea.
He has seen deforestation in the west.
The erosion down the beach has
increased since he has been here; he
thinks there has been a 4m loss since
2000.
Retired Shop Owner
The mangroves have remained at more
or less the same size.
The mangrove is used for zebu fencing
(Avicennia marina). They don’t take
anything themselves.
Others collect crabs from the
mangroves.
They don’t know how to manage the
mangroves.
There is no replanting around here. He
believes there is nowhere suitable
because strong winds and waves have
caused muddy areas to turn sandy.
No-one owns the mangrove.
They don’t know if the wildlife has
increased or decreased.
The mangroves are very important, but
they don’t contain useful species.
There have been no areas deforested.
Yes, there is erosion here. It has
claimed a coconut tree, and a house has
been carried out to sea.
Fisherman
The mangroves have increased, they grow
easily anywhere.
He only uses mangrove in houses, for the
beams (Sonneratia alba and Rhizophora
mucronata), but he knows others use them
for fencing.
There is fishing around the mangrove.
He doesn’t know how to manage the
mangrove.
There is no replanting here.
No-one owns the mangrove.
The wildlife has decreased due to the
amount of fishermen that fish there.
The mangroves are important as it
increases the amount of fish. It is also used
for building houses, the wood lasts a long
time (about 10 years), and woodworm does
not get into it.
No areas have been deforested, but some
has been in Andohazompona.
In the south there is erosion; last year the
spring tide reached the start of the grass.
29
 Housewife
1 The mangrove area has increased.
2 They don’t take any but some wood has
been taken by other villages to use for
fences.
3 Her husband fishes around the mangrove
area sometimes.
4 The mangroves are not managed.
5 There is no replanting here.
6 No-one owns the mangroves.
7 There is less wildlife, it has decreased.
8 She thinks the mangrove is important for
fish.
9 There are no areas of deforestation.
10 She has not seen any erosion, but has
heard of it in other places.
Table 6 (continued). Responses given by Antsisikala residents.
Zebu Herder
The area of mangrove has generally
remained the same, although a little bit
has decreased.
The mangrove is used for zebu fence
and houses (Sonneratia alba for poles).
There is some crab fishing taking
place.
To manage the mangroves we should
replant some, like in Andohazompona.
There is no replanting right now; next
to the mangrove in bay 2 would be a
good place to start.
No-one owns the mangroves.
It is hard to say if there is less wildlife
as the catch varies from day to day.
The mangroves are very important. It is
a place for animals.
He has never seen an area completely
deforested, but he’s seen some areas
chopped down and some dead trees. He
thinks this could be caused by a disease
because old trees tend to die.
No erosion here.
Farmer
The mangrove areas are mainly the
same, although some trees have died.
He has never taken any wood, but it is
used for zebu fences and houses in
Antsiranana.
He has nothing to do with the
mangrove fishing or crab collecting.
To manage it more mangrove should
be planted.
There is no replanting so far.
No-one owns the mangroves.
He doesn’t know about wildlife.
The mangrove is important because it
is home to lots of species.
There is no deforesting because people
don’t take wood very often.
There is erosion here, the land has
‘disappeared’.
Housewife and son
The mangrove area has increased.
It is used for zebu fence.
The son says there are fish there, but
the mother stays in the village and
never goes there.
To manage it, the mangrove shouldn’t
be chopped down.
There is no replanting here, but the best
place for it is by the stream. They have
experimented with the species
Sonneratia alba and Rhizophora
mucronata. Both species have been
good, but it is easier with the long
seeds.
No-one owns the mangrove.
There are less fish now because it is
too windy for them.
The mangrove is important.
There is no deforesting here.
There is erosion down the beach; it is
too windy and waves ‘eat the land
away’.
30
 Fisherman
1 Some parts have decreased whereas
others have increased.
2 He doesn’t take mangrove trees.
3 The mangrove is useful for fishing,
but not for crabs.
4 They need to manage it by replanting
more of it; they should try to work
with MNP to replant.
5 They have replanted a 50m section of
mangroves in a small sector of bay 2.
6 The village owns the mangrove. The
land is for all, so the mangrove is for
all.
7 There is an increase in wildlife.
8 The mangrove is important for fish.
People should be supervised fishing
in bay 2.
9 There is no deforested area.
10 There are areas eroded in many
places. Planted mangroves are now at
the same level as the water because
the water is slowly moving inland.
Table 6 (continued). Responses given by Antsisikala residents.
Housewife
The mangrove has increased.
It is used for houses (beams for
the roof) and fences.
There is crab collecting in the
mangrove.
The mangrove should be
managed by not being allowed
to cut the mangrove.
She has never heard of
replanting.
No-one owns the mangrove.
There has been an increase in
wildlife here.
The mangrove is important as
people from the village can get
food from it.
In the north there has been some
deforestation; the area is half the
size of what it was; they can
now see the sun through it.
There is erosion in the south.
Zebu Farmer
The mangroves have increased as no-
one is cutting them down. However, it
is a smaller forest than in other places.
The mangrove wood is used for zebu
fence, and beams in houses
(Rhizophora mucronata and
Sonneratia alba).
Nothing is caught in the mangroves.
It is good to respect the government
decisions and not to cut the mangrove.
There has been no replanting. There is
no open space for it; it should be
muddy, mangroves need the right
conditions. Rhizophora mucronata
would be the easiest to replant.
No-one owns the mangrove, or maybe
MNP or Green Mad.
In general there are less animals, e.g.
fish, octopus, crabs.
It is important as there are fish and
crabs there.
There are no deforested areas,
although there has been a decrease in
mangrove.
There is less erosion in some areas and
more in others. Before he could see the
sea through the stream behind the
house.
President
The mangroves have increased a little bit.
People use the mangrove because it provides
straight and tall wood used for fences and houses
(Rhizophora mucronata and Sonneratia alba).
Crabs and fishes can be collected there.
The mangroves should be managed. He would like
an increase in mangrove, and that people don’t take
the younger trees and take no more than what is
needed.
This location is good for replanting. There has been
no replanting here but there has been at
Andohazompona.
Each village owns the mangrove, so maybe people
shouldn’t be allowed to hunt crabs in other villages.
He doesn’t know if the amount of wildlife has
decreased or increased, there are always fish, they
come from the sea into the mangrove for shelter.
Different villages come here to fish because fish
hide in the mangrove.
Mangroves are important, but their mangrove is
small so only important for fish and crabs. They
don’t allow charcoal burning as they need the
mangrove for crabs and fish. It provides an
additional fishing location.
There may have been an area deforested. He only
saw dead roots so he isn’t sure whether they died or
were chopped down.
There was and still is erosion, but only a little
amount.
31
 Fisherman
1 The mangrove has decreased slowly,
between 1978 and now.
2 He doesn’t use the mangrove. He has
seen it used for zebu fences as it can
last ten years, much longer than any
other tree.
3 There is crabbing and fishing around
the mangrove.
4 To manage the mangrove there needs
to be a stronger law made with MNP.
5 There has been no replanting so far.
6 No-one owns the mangrove.
7 He has noticed that in the 1990’s there
were juvenile fish and crabs in the
mangrove, but now there are much
less.
8 The mangrove is very important as it
is a place for juvenile fish to grow. He
is a spear gun fisher and sees the fish
in the mangrove.
9 There is no mangrove deforestation,
except in one area where no plants
have grown afterwards.
10 Between 1978 and now there has been
a 2m erosion in front of the village.

Table 6 (continued). Responses given by Antsisikala residents.

32
The collection of crustaceans and fishing is common in the area like in other villages
(Genio. et al. 2007). Those respondents which doubt the benefit of the mangrove
possess little knowledge of it and visit the mangrove area infrequently. Those
respondents who do undertake fishing activities in the mangrove appreciate the shelter
which the mangrove provides to the development of the fish stocks.

There is no official management plan here. Like in most villages people have some
basic knowledge as to how to look after mangroves. This may form the basic structure
of a management plan (Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). The mangroves are cut in restricted
numbers and selected areas to allow the mangrove to grow and establish itself without
the juvenile trees being taken. Inspiration regarding their mangroves management has
been taken from the village of Andohazompona. The respondents believe that, with
some guidance and training, possibly from an NGO, it would be attainable to put a
management plan in place.

There is no replanting scheme here; however, there is a keen interest in learning how
to replant the mangroves. Some community members have already attempted to
replant mangroves, indicating that with training and extended knowledge, the village
would be able to help sustain a successful healthy mangrove (e.g. see Berger et al.
2008; Martinuzzi. et al. 2009). They already have a basic understanding as they are
thinking about the different conditions in which mangroves develop.

There is some confusion over who owns the mangroves. With opinions ranging from
the government or MNP to themselves or no-one, is it no wonder why the villagers
are not currently implementing a management plan because they don’t know who
would benefit from it. Once ownership is established, a management plan can be
implemented and a community committee could maintain it (Martinuzzi. et al. 2009).

The respondents who work in and around the mangrove have seen a decrease in
wildlife, whereas those who do not work near the mangrove think that the wildlife has
increased. In Kenya, a subsequent return of wildlife has been found after mangrove
regeneration (Bosire et al. 2008).

All respondents believe that the mangrove is of some significance, although levels of
importance differ. The main reason given as to why it is important is that it constitutes
a feeding and breeding ground for fish and crustaceans, and is also an important
source of hard bearing wood. Some villagers also think that there is only little wildlife
and that it is not of real importance, following some views of other villages (Ellison,
2000 & Genio et al, 2007). This result suggests that more education could help all
villagers realise the benefits of healthy mangroves.

There is some contradiction regarding respondent opinions as to whether deforestation

has occurred in the area. Some believe that the area has been deforested significantly
over the last fifty years. Other respondents see no perceivable difference in the
amount of mangrove forest. The respondents who have lived in the area the longest
seem to perceive the greatest mangrove depletion. The largest extent of the depletion
may have already occurred by the time the other respondents took up residence in the
area. Most villagers think there should be more mangrove forest in the area. There is
room for a management plan in this area and the mangrove population is low enough
for respondents to agree to a plan (Alongi, 2002 & Genio et al. 2007).

33
Some respondents have noticed the process of erosion as some points of reference in
the village. This is a real problem to the village and without a reintroduction of
mangrove to the area, it will continue at the same or perhaps an increased rate (Bosire
et al. 2008 & Genio et al. 2007).

6.4 Discussion

This area would benefit from an implemented management plan. The villagers already
have a basis upon which to build their knowledge of the mangrove environment and
management. The location of the village is in a tidally impacted zone during the
windy season. Erosion is a problem which could be alleviated by the regeneration of a
mangrove forest. A recovery plan should be initiated to set up a committee with the
mangrove regeneration as its primary aim. With the planting of both Rhizophora
mucronata and Ceriops tagal propagules, a basic forest could start being established.
At least 50 propagules of each species should be used to account for the mortality rate
and enable the best chance of establishment. Once planting has begun to alter the
substrate nutrient content further species could be accommodated such as Avicennia
marina and Sonneratia alba (Berger, 2008; Bosire et al. 2008; Glaser, 2003).

34
7. COMPARISON TABLES

Number of Respondents Number of households in

villages
Ambalisakely 2 3
Abalibabe 6 10
Andohazompona 10 42
Ampasirikely 4 11
Antsisikala 13 11
Table 7.1 Number of respondents surveyed and households within the village.

Farmer Fisherman Housewife Village

Superior
Ambalisakely 1 1
Abalibabe 1 2 1 2 village elder
and Chief
Secretary
Andohazompona 2 3 4 1 shop keeper
Ampasirikely 0 0 4 0
Antsisikala 3 5 3 2 President
and retired
Table 7.2 Occupations surveyed within villages.

Charcoal Hut Beams Fencing Hut Fishing

Building and
Crabbing
Ambalisakely 0 1 0 0 2
Abalibabe 0 5 1 4 4
Andohazompona 1 8 3 7 11
Ampasirikely 0 2 0 1 3
Antsisikala 0 7 12 8 12
Table 7.3 Uses of mangrove wood.

Crab Collecting Fishing

Ambalisakely 1 1
Abalibabe 2 2
Andohazompona 6 5
Ampasirikely 3 0
Antsisikala 6 6
Table 7.4 Number of households that fish in the mangrove.

35
8. CONCLUSION

When comparing the villages, it is clear that raising awareness of the importance of
mangroves, and providing training in reforestation techniques would greatly benefit the
mangroves and therefore the local communities. There is scope for an action plan for the
recovery of the mangrove forests on the coastline of Antsiranana Bay. To begin with the
ownership of the mangroves needs to be clarified in order to make the villagers aware that
any work carried out on the mangrove will benefit them directly. Until this is done it will be
difficult to encourage villagers to replant mangroves. A management plan should then be put
into place to begin replanting the mangroves using methods appropriate for each area.

The largest villages surveyed were Andohazompona and Antsisikala. These villages would
particularly benefit from the creation of a committee to help organise the implementation of a
management plan to ensure mangrove protection. The villagers interviewed were chosen to
represent different socio-professional categories to allow a wider range of opinions. The
mangrove wood has been mainly used in building and fencing within the villages, whereas
little wood has been used for charcoal. The mangrove forest is still used by some villages for
fishing and collecting crab. These results suggest that the mangroves are of high value to the
Malagasy, both economically and ecologically.

In all villages surveyed, it appeared that the government is respected and influences the
populations’ decisions regarding mangrove management. The government has already
proposed a replanting scheme; however, the villagers were concerned about failure to adhere
to the correct regulations, and as a consequence did not initiate any reforestation plan. A visit
from the government outlining the necessary regulations would therefore be of great benefit
to the villagers. The involvement of an NGO and the set up of a village committee would also
benefit the villages and could help initiate the set up of a management plan. This has already
begun in Andohazompona with the support of MNP.

Furthermore, there is a need to reassure some villagers that any work carried out on the
mangroves will be protected by legislation. The continual deforestation of the mangrove by
villagers from other areas of the bay is not only detrimental to the mangrove, but it is also
discouraging for the people involved in managing the mangrove. It should therefore be
monitored and a management plan put in place to regulate this practise.

If each village around Antsiranana were given basic training and the confidence to initiate
mangrove regeneration, replanting mangroves could be very successful given that the local
communities already have a relatively good level of awareness of the importance of
protecting the mangrove forests.

36
9. REFERENCES

Alongi, D. M. (2002) Present state and future of the world’s mangrove forests.
Environmental Conservation. 29 (3) pp. 331-349.

Alongi, D. M. (2008). Mangrove forests: Resilience, protection from tsunamis, and

responses to global climate change. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 76 (1) pp. 1-
13.

Berger, U., Rivera-Monroy, V. H., Doyle, T. W., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Duke, N. C.,
Fontalvo-Herazo, M. L., Hildenbrandt, H., Koedam, N., Mehlig, U., Piou, C. &
Twilley, R. R. (2008) Advances and limitations of individual-based models to analyze
and predict dynamics of mangrove forests: A Review. Aquatic Botany 89 pp. 260–
274.

Bosire, J. O., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Walton, M., Crona, B. I., Lewis, R. R. Field, C.,
Kairo, J. G. & Koedam, N. (2008) Functionaltiy of restored mangroves: A review.
Aquatic Botany 89 pp. 251–259.

Ellison, A. M. (2000) Mangrove Restoration: Do we know Enough? Restoration

Ecology 8 (3) pp. 219–229.

Erftemeijer, P.L.A., Lewis, R.R., (1999). Planting mangroves on intertidal mudflats:

habitat restoration or habitat conversion? Ecotone, VIIIth Seminar, Enhancing
Coastal Ecosystem Restoration for the 21st Century, Ranong and Phuket, pp. 1–11.

Finance & Developmant (2008) Mangrove Management. Business Source Premier

(EBSCO). 45 (1) p. 4.

Genio, E. L., Rejesus, R. M., Pomeroy, R. S., White, A. & Smith, B. (2007) Factors
affecting fisherfolk’s support for coastal resource management: The case of local
government initiated mangrove protection activities. Ocean and Coastal Zone
Management. 50 pp. 808-828.

Glaser, M. (2003) Interrelations between mangrove ecosystem, local economy and

social sustainability in Caet´e Estuary, North Brazil Wetlands Ecology and
Management 11 pp. 265–272.

Martinuzzi, S., Gould, W. A., Lugo, A. E. & Medina, E. (2009) Conversion and
Recovery of Puerto Rican mangroves: 200 years of change. Forest Ecology and
Management. 257 pp.75–84.

Mazda, Y., Magi, M., Nanao, H., Kogo, M., Miyagi, T., Kanazawa, N. & Kobashi, D.
(2004) Coastal erosion due to long-term human impact on mangrove forests. Wetlands
Ecology and Management. 10, pp. 1-9.

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Mwangi, J.G. (2001) A new pest causing decline of mangrove species in Kenya.
Eastern Arc Mountains Information Source:
http://www.easternarc.org/html/NewPestK.html

Wolanski, E., Mazda, Y., Ridd, P., 1992. Mangrove hydrology. In: Robertson, A.I.,
Alongi, D.M. (Eds.), Tropical Mangrove Ecosystems. American Geophysical
Union, Washington, DC, pp. 43–62.

38
10. APPENDIX

Appendix 1. Mangrove Questionnaire for village residents.

1. How long have the mangroves been here for, has there been any changes to
the area since you have been here?
2. How is the mangrove used in the area? What do you use it for?
3. Is there any fishing or crab collecting at the mangrove?
4. Do you manage the mangroves in any way?
5. Have any areas of mangrove been replanted?
6. Who owns the mangroves?
7. Have there been changes in mangrove wildlife and size of mangroves here?
8. Do you think the mangrove is important?
9. Have any areas been deforested?
10. Has any erosion been noticed?

39