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High speed electrical generators, application, materials and design

Conference Paper · March 2013

DOI: 10.1109/WEMDCD.2013.6525164

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 High Speed Electrical Generators, Application,
Materials and Design
James Borg Bartolo1, He Zhang1, David Gerada2, Liliana De Lillo1 and Chris Gerada1
Abstract-- This paper highlights the advancement in high
speed generation applications along with describing the state
of the art in the materials and technologies enabling such an
application uptake. Following the introduction, highlighting
the current situation in the energy market, the first section
describes some recent developments in materials used in the
construction of a high speed drive. Various application areas
are dealt with in section three and the state of the art along
with design considerations of various machine topologies are
discussed in section four. In section five a case study is
presented highlighting the preliminary design procedure used
to select a machine topology for a given application. Finally a
summary discussing the design flow required when attempting
such high speed design is presented in section six.
Index Terms—High speed Generators, Permanent Magnet,
Induction machines, Reluctance generators, High Speed
power convertors
I. INTRODUCTION
A useful definition of ‘high speed’ electrical machines
would be one which in many ways encompasses the
multifaceted approach required when attempting their
design. The term ‘high speed’ in itself, already invites the
prospective designer to think in terms of high fundamental
frequencies and therefore reduced overall dimensions
resulting in high power densities and intensive cooling
systems. Further to this, consideration into the mechanical
stresses involved due to the centrifugal forces experienced,
need to be catered for, to ensure a reliable and safe design.
In rotating cylinders (simplified rotor models) or rings
(magnet retention sleeves), such forces primarily induce
tangential stresses proportional to the circumferential speed
expressed in [1] by
σ t ∝ ρν 2 (1)
Where: σt is the tangential stress, ρ is the mass densities of
the material making up the disc and v is the tangential
velocity. Considering a material exhibiting a moderate yield
strength of 450MPa and a mass density of 8100 kg/m3, the
permissible v according to (1) is 235m/s which might
translate to 3000 rpm if the rotor diameter is 1.5mtrs or
44800rpm if the diameter is 100mm.Thus assigning the
High Speed definition as a function of peripheral speed
1. J. Borg Bartolo, H. Zhang, L. De Lillo and C. Gerada are with the
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering at the University of
Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom.
Emails: he.zhang@nottingham.ac.uk
2. D. Gerada is with the Research and technology Department,
Cummins Generator Technologies, Stamford, United Kingdom
978-1-4673-5658-9/13/$31.00 ©2013 IEEE
provides for a more holistic definition of this motor class
and encompasses a vast spectrum of machines, with
peripheral/tip speeds up to 367m/s being reported [2].
In an effort to account for a number of rotor dynamic issues
in such machine types, a convenient way to quantify the
difficulty in reaching high speed, high power, requirements
is the rpm√kW index. This was reported by [3] classifying
different mechanical transmission applications. Currently
electrical machines reach limits of 1x106rpm√kW for solid
rotor Induction machines.
The interest in high speed machines can be strongly
correlated to the increase in global energy demands, and the
efforts of some countries, in meeting the latter in the most
efficient way possible. This growth in energy requirements
is taking place in an environment of increasing operational
costs due to primary fuel increase, and environmental
considerations. Such forces are pushing the energy market
to respond by funding initiatives which consider diverse
sources of energy, and which seek efficiency both by retro-
fit and novel design. All this is bringing about a record
increase in attention given towards the application, and
increase in efficiency, of turbo-machinery. The latter,
coupled with electro-mechanical storage, more-electric
transport and high speed drilling applications, present the
major market forces which spur on research in the field of
high speed electrical machines.
As far as high speed electrical power generation is
concerned the majority of the applications considered
[4],[5],[6],[7-19]involve turbo-machinery as prime-movers,
operating under either Brayton , or Rankine cycles, or both
combined. The recent developments in Turbo-machinery
applications involving High speed generators can be
categorized into three distinct application objectives
namely:
• To increase the global efficiency in turbo-generator sets.
• To increase the global efficiency of other-cycle operated
generator sets through further use of turbo machinery (the
combined cycle approach).
• To harness renewable sources of energy through the use
of turbo machinery.
II. ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES
The increase in application of high speed electrical
machines is only possible through the ever increasing
availability of new materials, specifically designed to meet
the higher demands in mechanical strength (Yield strength,
Young’s modulus, elongation) whilst at the same time
47
trying to preserve or improve their electromagnetic Stators made out of SMC and Nickel iron alloys have also
characteristics. The generic electrical machine can be been reported (patent application by ABB in [27])
considered to be made out of five material classes; Table I especially in the low power, slot-less application.
details the location of such materials along with their main
properties of interest. B. Hard magnetic Materials
Table I Efforts in developing new magnetic materials are
Classification of main material requirements
Material class Location Properties of interest
centered about the ever increasing demands in providing
• Saturation Flux Density (Bs) high power density solutions in harsh temperature
Rotor • Yield and tensile strengths (YS, UTS) environments. Such efforts can be classified in three current
Soft magnetic • Ductility and Brittleness
Stator • Low iron loss behaviour over
research areas: Extreme temperature stability of sintered
a wide frequency range magnets, low conductivity products for harmonic rich
• Coercivity (Hc) environments and high energy magnetic compounds
• Reminiscent Flux (Br)
Rotor • Yield and tensile strengths
through Nanostructures.
Hard magnetic
Stator
• Operating temperature The high speed scenario makes predominant use of either
• Temperature variation
NdFeB or SmCo sintered products. Nd based magnets
• Low electrical conductivity
Rotor • Conducivity
allow for the highest energy density reaching a peak
Conductors
Stator • Mechanical strenght 430KJ/m3, with typical low temperature, commercially
Electrical Rotor
• Maximum operating temperature
available products, reaching 394KJ/m3[28]. Higher
• Method of application
Insulation
• Ageing mechanisims temperature operation, above 80˚C, of Nd based alloys, is
systems Stator
• Thermal conductivity obtained through inclusion of Dysprosium (Dy) in the
•
•
Yield Strength
Magnetic properties
initial powder formulation with typical operating
Retention
systems
Rotor
• Electrical conductivity temperatures of 220˚C being available.
• Thermal conductivity Table II
Recent advances in soft magnetic materials
A. Soft Magnetic materials
Recent developments in low loss soft magnetic materials Property
Vacoflux48 Vacodur50 Hiperco 50 HS 10JNEX900 10JNHF600

are given in table II, [20],[21],[22]. Some important Alloy type

[20]
CoFe
[20]
CoFe
[21]
CoFe
[22]
SiFe
[22]
SiFe
considerations need to be stated when discussing such Bs (Tesla) 2.3 2.28 2.3 1.2 1.87
Hs (A/m) 80 80 16000 156 30000
developments namely: Avialable

i. Mechanical strength is achieved by reducing grain size, Laminate

thickness
0.35mm 0.35mm 0.152mm 0.1mm 0.1mm

which in turn increases inter-domain forces and therefore W/kg at 1T

400Hz
12 22 44 5.7 10.1

bringing about an increase in coercivity and a decrease in Mass Density

3
(kg/m )
8120 8120 8110 7650 7650

induction for a given H. This increases the joule losses Yield Strength
200 450 683 604 546
generated within the laminate, thus Joule losses are R0.2(MPA)

Poisson's Ratio 0.33 0.3 0.3

inversely proportional to mechanical strength [23]. Max.
ii. The Hysteretic component of the reported iron losses Elongation
2% 6% 15% 5%

Si content in Iron is increased

13.50%

(W/kg) increase in sheared (laminate stamping) and heat 0.1mm beyond the initial 3% by PVD. Si content in Iron is increased
laminations are The exposure is sufficiently long by PVD, however a shorter
effected zones (laser cutting). For this reason laminates Comments also available to ensure a uniformly diffused diffusion time is allowed,
with 6.8W/kg 6.5% silicon content. This resulting in cheaper alloy having
processed in this way, are generally annealed before the at1T 400Hz allows for negligible a non- uniform doping profile

stack is assembled. magnetostriction effects

iii. Laminated Stator stacks for high speed applications are

rarely edge-welded
iv. For practical reasons it is always preferable to use one
material for both rotor and stator applications (less
material wastage).
v. New manufacturing techniques enabling the whole stator
stack to be made out of one continuous laminate exist and
are currently in use; their impact on high speed stator
production still has to be reported.
Further to point (i) above, recent advances in high strength,
electrical steels have been reported in[24] by Nippon Steel
and Sumitomo Metals, with their 35HXT class of materials
reaching yield strengths of up to 780MPA at the price of
increased losses of up to 52.4W/kg (1T 400Hz).
High speed laminated rotor designs for induction machines
also consider the use high strength aircraft-grade steels such
as AISI 4130 alloy steel (517Mpa[25]) and AerMet 100
(1.5GPa [26]) enabling peripheral speeds of up to 290m/s.
The use of Dy however has some major financial
drawbacks; due to this element’s use in a number of other
applications and its rare natural occurrence in non-
radioactive ore deposits; the world demand has exceeded
supply in increasing ratios since 2011, reaching a forecast
60% (over supply) by 2015 [29]. This means that the price
of such a metal is set to increase further in the near future
along with such NdFeB compounds. Such a shortcoming,
slowed research in this direction (high temperature Nd base
magnets) with high temperature demands being met by
cheaper (currently at 50% NdFeB) Sm2Co17 composites.
Latest advances in SmCo composites of this type (2:17)
saw the introduction of materials such as RecomaHT520R
operating safely up to 550˚C with BHmax at aprox.
230KJ/m3.Prolonged exposure to such high temperatures
however brings about accelerated oxidization and therefore
a loss in the net magnetic moment of the compound; this

48
drastically lowers Br and therefore the BHmax capability of ease of bonding, along with improved skin resistance over
the magnet in the long run. Thus operation in these regions the all-Aluminium solution, are to be noted however fine
requires magnet encapsulation via methods such as PIV stranding is still not available. Earlier this year, the
deposition of Aluminium on the magnet’s surface. Low Japanese company Kyowa Electric Company announced
temperature operation, down to 77K has been reported with that it developed an Aluminium Based Litz wire conductor
the introduction of Praseodymium in NdFeB based weighing half of its copper volumetric equivalent [33] and
compounds. that it intends commercial production by the 1st quarter of
In a bid to reduce eddy current losses in Permanent magnet 2013.
elements, segmented construction of the latter has been Recent advances in copper alloying also saw the
considered. Methods enabling the precise dicing of magnet introduction of high strength, ‘High-Copper’ alloys and
elements up to 1mm thick segments and strong epoxy resins bronzes, in the form of extruded or drawn bars, for use in
enable the commercial construction of magnet components induction machine rotor cage applications. Depending on
such the one shown in Fig.1 the design requirements, in terms of mechanical stresses
exerted, I2R limits and maximum withstand temperature,
copper-beryllium[34],Copper-Chromium ,copper-zirconium
[35],[34] or Copper-Aluminium-oxide [36]rotor cages have
been reported the properties of which are summarized in
table IV below.
Table IV
Physical properties of the most noted high strength copper alloys
Fig.1.Laminated magnetic element
for the High speed application.
Courtesy of Arnold Magnetic Technologies
CuAl2 O3 CuAl2 O3
Cu-Be Cu-Cr Cu-Zr
1.1%wt 0.3% wt
A similar concept, using thinner laminates and controlled C17000- C18100-
UNS number C15000 C15760 C15715
inter-laminar material, has been used in a process C17510 C18400
developed M.Marinescu and JF.Liu et al in 2011 [30] in Electrical conductivity
(1) 45% 80% 93.80% 78% 92%
which a Samarium based composite is laminated and @20˚C (%IACS)

different dielectric layers of varying thicknesses have been Thermal conductivity

(1) 207.7 323.6 366.9 322 365
W/mK
introduced between such laminates, reaching an electrical
resistivity up to 25 times that of conventional SmCo at Tensile Strength MPa
(1),(2) 793 415 365 530 440
1825µOhm.cm. Another noteworthy improvement in this
direction was obtained by introducing a very high content Yield strength MPa
758 345 338 441 358
(1),(2)
of Pr and Nd into NdFeB type composites. Varying the
composition to (Pr,Nd)14.5Fe79.5B6 and using hot pressing Density g/cm
3 (1)
8.61 8.83 8.89 8.81 8.9
methods [Patent by JLiu EEC ref 97b], these compounds (1)The properties listed are for UNS alloys which were reported in High
claimed an improvement of up to 6 times the resistivity of speed motor literature thus for Cu-Be this would be C17510 and for Cu-Cr
over conventional 2:14:1 ratios. C18100 (a form of Zirconium alloy)
Finally, continued research in improving BHmax products by (2) Values for Tensile and Yield strength vary according to the heat
treatment and aging conditions.
combining iron-cobalt and NdFeB nano-particles is still
being carried out to address issues in correct crystal D. Electrical Insulation systems
structure, grain size and magnetic alignments. In theory, Electrical insulation systems have been evolving to meet
such particles packed sufficiently close will have an the demands in shorter voltage pulse rise-times, higher
influence on each other’s electron spins, creating a voltage overshoots (due to cable-motor impendence
magnification effect which would see such nano- mismatch) and high pulse repetition frequency as specified
composites have energy products in the range of 960KJ/m3 by IEC60034-18-41 and beyond. From the mechanical
[31]. point of view the insulation system also has to cater for
C. Conductors high temperature environments and therefore offer good
For most high speed applications the material of choice in temperature stability and thermal conductivity (required for
enhanced cooling). The overall electrical insulation system
terms of winding material would be pure copper Litz wire
for the reduction of AC copper losses. However in the past in any machine can be subdivided into four main functions
years, for reasons of weight reduction Aluminium started namely: Strand insulation, Turn insulation, Groundwall
being introduced. Even though the latter is 3.3 times lighter insulation and impregnation systems. The latter are vastly
than copper, its increased resistivity, by a factor of 1.68 (in employed in the high speed scenario and aim at reducing air
its pure state), and difficulty in jointing with other metals pockets between conductors and the ground wall, this
reduces Partial discharge effects, and effectively thickens
still presents its challenges. In this regard there have been
efforts into co-extruding copper and Aluminium [32] the conductor/strand insulation enabling higher dv/dt
resulting in a conductor having a copper outer surface with withstand. Such systems are generally applied under
an Aluminium core. The advantages in weight saving and vacuum (VPI) to ensure uniform winding impregnation and
elimination of air pockets and use epoxy or silicone based

49
materials. Good Thermal conductivity of such materials is
important with current silicone based resins achieving
3.49W/m.K [37] these however exhibit very high/almost
paste like viscosity and therefore are more suited for
enwinding encapsulation. Currently low viscosity <300cps
solvent-less epoxy resin is the most commonly used
solution for impregnation having typical thermal
conductivity of 0.3W/mk.
In terms of conductor or ground wall sheet materials,
Polyimide or Aromatic-polyamide solutions are employed
with standard off-the-shelf conductor insulator systems
rated for operational temperatures up to 240˚C [38] and
therefore motors rated at classes F,H and higher. Silicone
based conductor insulators are also used for thermal ratings
well exceeding class H [39] and having thermal
conductivity at 1.2W/m.K. NASA reported a high
temperature (500˚C) SR machine having insulation systems
based on such silicone based compounds[40]. High
temperature Ground-wall systems using NomaxTM 410 type
paper, have also been reported, the latter retains more than
85% of it dielectric strength at 250˚C.
For High voltage applications the predominant materials are
Mica/Muscovite based insulation systems[41]. The latter
exhibits a high dielectric strength as well as a high
resistance to Partial Discharge effects. Muscovite, is
however extremely brittle and its use has to be combined
with other insulation materials, either as external protection
films and sealing tapes for vacuum impregnation processes
(VPI), or in resin rich tapes. Such mica based products can
be used as either conductor or ground wall insulation.
E. Structural materials
Three high yield strength retention materials are commonly
reported for the high speed application namely: Inconel
718, Ti6Al4V (titanic alloy), and CFRP or Carbon fiber
composites.
Inconel 718, provides a solution with a mass density of
8.19g/cm3, however it exhibits a very temperature stable
yield strength starting from 1100MPa at room temperature
and decreasing to approximately 1000MPa at 500˚C, (with
760MPa of rupture stress at 595˚C) [42]. This material also
exhibits a very good thermal conductivity at 11.4W/m. K
and is commonly used in highly corrosive environments.
A second alloy used for the application, is the titanic alloy
Ti-6Al-4V, being much lighter than Inconel 718 at
4.4g/cm3, it is preferred in weight sensitive applications
such as aerospace. The temperature stability of the material
is however less than, that of Inconel, starting at 950Mpa at
room temperature and dropping to 450Mpa at 500˚C [43].
Its thermal conductivity is also inferior at 6.7W/m. K
The third class of sleeving materials is the family of carbon
fiber composites. The original/as-produced fibers exhibit
impressive tensile strengths ranging from 3500MPa to
5490MPa [44] with a mass density of 1.79g/cm3 for T300.
The latter strengths and resulting densities vary drastically
once they are worked into the composite form (polymer
matrix (epoxy resin) plus fiber), with typical properties for
60% fiber composite set a 120˚C epoxy resin reaching
50
Tensile strengths of 1800MPa. For filament winding
applications, strength degradation as high as 0.52 have been
reported for fibers such as M60J [45].With winding factors
clearly influencing the final composite, a number of layers
are applied reaching tested strengths between 3.4 to
4.1GPA[46]. Two approaches have been reported for fiber
reinforcement namely: winding of fiber tows directly on the
rotor surface with the simultaneous introduction of the
epoxy resin [46], and interference fitting of prefabricated
cross-fiber or filament wound sleeves [47],[1]. A further
consideration when using fibre composites relates to their
brittleness and cyclic stresses which need to be adequately
catered for in the safety margins used. Their low mass
density and high potential structural strengths, renders the
latter class of materials ideal candidates for complete rotor
structure replacement, with reported usage in flywheel
applications [48].
F. Power Electronic Materials
The high speed application is only possible through the
correct synthesis of high fundamental frequency flux
distributions within the machine with the latter being as
clean as possible in order to minimize harmonic induced
losses (eddy current, hysteretic and skin effects). To meet
low harmonic content requirements passive filters are
commonly employed at the convertor inputs and outputs,
these however present a major weight overhead and
therefore reduce the power density of the convertor. In
order to mitigate this, a common work-around has been to
increase the switching frequency to enable the reduction in
physical envelope of the latter components. The enabling
technology in this field is the use of wide band gap (>1.7eV
[49],[50]) materials and their introduction in power
electronic devices, allowing for such high frequency
switching.
Three important wide band gap materials which
continuously attract research attention are SiC, GaN and
Diamond. It is the common understanding that both SiC
and GaN materials will play an important role in the future
of Power electronic devices but both currently both present
some shortcomings. Based on [50] a summary of the
respective properties and some comments are given in
Table V below.
While Experimental data for lab-type switching devices
made out of SiC and GaN in [50-52] show positive results,
long term stability in the industrial environment still has to
be proven in most cases. Good results in that direction were
proven for the SiC BJTs and Schottky diodes whilst SiC
JFETS are seen as the next-in-line [53].
Work done at the University of Nottingham in collaboration
with Infineon using an SiC JFET module with nine bi-
directional switches for Matrix convertor applications [51]
demonstrated the ability of these devices to be packaged in
‘conventional’ IGBT module sizes and handle high powers
whilst being switched at 50KHz. The tested system reached
a power density of 20kW/dm3.
In [52] the benefits in reduced switching losses of GaN
devices was highlighted when a GaN based boost convertor
switching at 1MHz and outputting 430W at 95% efficiency field production i.e. IM and SR motors must provide
was reported. Due to the fact that GaN materials have a excitation current, thus conceptually these will incur
potential manufacturing cost which is drastically lower than heavier copper losses than in the PM case. In the latter case
that of SiC Devices [52]; it is forecast, that SiC devices will however the electrically conductive solid magnetic
be only limited to military and aerospace applications components give rise to Iron losses (through eddy current
whilst other price-driven-markets such as the domestic and effects, see section 1.1.2) thus apart from their reduction
automotive scenarios will predominantly employ GaN (section 1.1.2) the latter must be well managed to avoid
devices[52, 53]. demagnetization.
Most cooling efforts can be categorized into either direct or
Table V indirect cooling. Direct cooling methods in the high speed
Semiconductor materials for future power electronic devices scenario include, oil mist enwinding cooling [12], oil-filled
hollow section conductors [59], forced rotor cooling
SiC-4H GaN Diamond Comments through designed air or oil ducts (these pose natural
Band Gap (eV) 3.2 3.4-3.45 5.45 reliability implications due to their rotating seals) and
The high critical field values allow pumped/working fluid cooling (common solution for
Critical Field
devices made out of these
materials to operate at higher
compressors and ORC expander applications in which the
6
(x10 V/cm)
3 3.5 10
voltage and lower leakage pumped fluid passes through the machine air-gap). Indirect
currents when compared to their cooling methods primarily refer to all outer stator cooling
silicon equivalent
methods including methods outlined in IEC 60034-6.
GaN and diamond exhibit high
Electron electron mobility rending them the
Mobility 900 1000-2000 2200 material of choice for Very high
2
(cm /V-sec) switching frequency applications
at low losses

Thermal management of GaN

Thermal devices might be more critical
Conductivity 5 1.3 22 than SiC one due to the lower
(W/mK) thermal conductivity exhibited by
the former
SiC devices can operate at high
Potential of
junction tempretures of up to
integration
200˚C. GaN device opertation of
within the Good Good up to 300˚C has been reported in
electrical
[50] yet this technology is at an
machine
early stage of development

G. Bearing Technology
Bearings represent by far the most critical mechanical
component in any high speed machine design. The
machine’s reliability and MBTF performance is closely
related to bearing life which in turn is mainly a function of
environmental conditions, lubrication [54](if contact type
bearings are considered), loading requirements (axial and
radial load magnitude and their nature i.e. whether loads are
constant, variable, vibratory or impacting) and required
operational speed range. Furthermore, the stiffness and
damping offered by the chosen bearing system will have an
impact on the rotor dynamics and therefore the stability of
the machine thus must be carefully considered when
evaluating the high speed capability of the design. Fig.2
shows a graphical representation of the distribution of
various bearing solutions with respect to the designed
machine power and speed for cases reported in literature [4,
10, 12, 36, 55-68].
H. Cooling Methods
The maximum attainable current density available to the
designer is primarily limited by the selected cooling
mechanism for a given magnetic design, thus new cooling
concepts which solve the problem of reduced surface area
to volume ratios found in the high speed scenario are
constantly being developed. Machines with no inherent
Fig2. Reported bearing solutions
III. HIGH SPEED GENERATOR APPLICATIONS
As detailed in the introduction, a global bid to reduce fossil
fuel consumption and environmental impact, led major
energy institutions to carry out investigative studies, such as
those detailed in [9, 69-73]aimed at defining road maps for
overall system optimization and permissible emission
levels. Across all application areas therefore the approach
of involving the integration of individually optimised
secondary power systems (SPS) into one major system and
optimizing the latter as a whole, is considered. The
automotive and marine scenario also consider the inclusion
of previously unoccupied functions such as waste heat
recovery to achieve the described goals set out in [71, 72],
whilst the land based generation sector is focusing
evermore on non-fossil fuel alternatives.
A. Aerospace
The two main concepts within aerospace research today,
are, the More Electric Aircraft (MEA) encompassing the
More Electric Engine (MEE).

51
The MEE aims at replacing functions of a critical nature to
the engine traditionally driven off by mechanical systems,
with electrical drives, thus, potentially allowing for the
elimination of external gearboxes and the strategic
relocation of components such as starter/generators and
hydraulic systems [8, 74]. MEA is a slightly more
encompassing goal, as it caters for the inclusion of both the
MEE, with all the engine auxiliaries being driven by
electrical variable speed drives, together with electrically
driven control surface actuators and landing gear. This
would require a re-think in the power distribution strategies
currently employed [74-76]to cater for higher power levels,
redundancy and segregation, and weight reduction.
The MEE concept increases the global propulsion
efficiency by targeting three main areas namely: A
reduction of existing pumping losses; done by
independently controlling the speed of pumping functions
(decoupling of the pumps from the spool speed variation).
Such independent pump speed control allows for lower
component count – no need for recirculation control valves-
and lower fluid temperatures, increasing cooling capacity of
the pumped medium in certain cases. Also the MEE aims at
Replacing the conventional pneumatic engine starting
methods, and reducing to a certain degree [8], or even
eliminate,[74], the number of utility bleed-offs required for
systems such as cabin pressurization and compressor de-
icing. The MEE also caters for enabling emergency power
extraction through wind-milling of the main power plant
[74, 77]. Both concepts therefore require an increase in
generation capacity which is provided for through increased
Auxiliary power unit (APU) capacity (directly coupled high
speed machines to the Auxiliary power turbine) and Main
engine generator units. The latter are usually coupled to
engine-starting functions, thus resulting in increase in
demand of high speed machines having a wide operating
speed range.
1) Machines considered for the aero engine integration
A summary of machines which have been reported [8, 15,
57, 61, 77-80] to be in their advanced state of design, built,
or even implemented in the aero-engine is given in Fig.3.
Fig.3. Distribution of reported machine topologies in the aerospace high-
speed electrical generator application.
52
2) Location of the generator within the aero engine
The location of the starter/generator is determined by a
number of factors namely:
1. The MEE concept to be adopted, whether full SPS power
is required or otherwise
2. The impact of removing the AGB ( auxiliary gear box)
on the engine’s frontal area [8, 81].It might be argued that
the removal on all gearboxes is not desirable, and that the
Generator could be mounted separately[78], ideal for
proposing a PM based solution.
3. The functional aims the designer aims at achieving,
namely whether the generator is required to function as an
engine starter, in which case access to the HP or IP spool
must be provided such as [8]. If the starting capability is
not a requirement[74],and the RAT’s ( Ram Air turbine)
function, using the wind-milling capability of the main
engine, must be integrated, then the LP spool must be
selected as in [78].
4. Thermal and environmental considerations play a major
role, and to a certain extent determine the type of machine
to be used. If no space can be found in which the soak
back temperature does not damage the materials used in
the generator, then embedding the latter might prove
difficult. To this extent the SR proves to be a flexible
topology[82] in that its temperature dependence is only
limited to that of winding insulation.
Thus if one were to design strictly basing on weight
reduction then, the fastest spool ( usually the HP) would
have to be selected, which might land the designer in very
hot regions of the machine, becoming even hotter at engine
shut down. Thus most of the PM motors detailed in Fig.3
were installed in either engine tail cone or forward sump
areas, with SR based machines being considered for high
temperature locations. In[40] an SR Machine was tested by
NASA at 540˚C. It is important to note that all of the above
locations, were primarily discussed in terms of the electrical
machine and it requirements, all proposals must undergo a
full, engine specific feasibility study such as that reported
in [8] to assess the impact of the required alterations to the
engine.
B. Automotive
The guidelines set out in [71] are met in the automotive
industry by either; complete electrification of the main
propulsion function, using either complete substitution or
hybrid drive trains (the most common approach, with all
major automotive companies having their version of the
idea). The hybrid drive train concept encompasses efforts in
both boosting the efficiency of the internal combustion
engine through better management of SPS (electrification
of auxiliary functions), and aid engine power output with
the help of flywheel (or flywheel housing) integrated from both military and commercial outfits and allow for a
motor/generators. This concept therefore led to the reduction in prime mover count. IFEP eliminates the need
development of the more electric engine which for the traditional auxiliaries generator sets, and caters for a
predominantly employs a combined cycle approach to boost centralized grid having a number of Generators operating at
both performance, and fuel efficiency of the Otto cycle their optimum loading, (with propulsion being the major
engine through the exploitation of waste heat energy consumer).
sources. In certain cases an improvement in fuel Table VII
efficiencies of 12% have been reported[83]. Since the Reported machine types for the various
motor/ generator functions in the automotive application
energy source in these cases are of the low-heat-grade type,
high speed turbine units are required as prime movers Machine
Application Typical Power ratings
allowing for the high speed motor/generator to play an ever area
types
considered
Speed range reported
Comments

important role in the more electric Engine. Further to this, Induction

• 10kW [36]
• Application has high operating
temperature thus Magnet-less solution
kinetic based systems are also employed in hybrid-drive [11]
preferred
• Special care in choice of bearing
topologies, which recover main flywheel energy during Assisted
Turbocharger
40-80krpm
• 20kW [11]
lubrication is paramount
Switched • Electrical machine used as a motor to
vehicle braking, and assist the latter as required. This (Brayton
cycle)
reluctance reduce turbo-lag and generates during
[63] • 65kW [63] excess exhaust pressure preventing
concept was initially employed in High performance excessive charge air loading ( waste gate
function)
machines such as those found in F1 (KERS) however
smaller versions are employed in commercial cars such as Permanent • 15kW [64]
• Electrical energy can be either used in
Magnet [64]
the Toyota Prius and Honda Civic Hybrid. A schematic Exhaust
turbine
50-80krpm
• 22kW [64] hotel loads( to drive other auxiliaries) or in
combination with an existing flywheel
summary of the potential areas of application for high speed (Brayton
cycle)
Switched
reluctance
• 30kW [64] motor to boost engine power output
(electrical turbo compounding)
machines is shown in Fig.6 with reported machine types for [63]
• 2kW [63]

the various motor/generator functions given in Table VII.[6, Permanent

Magnet radial
• Usually designed to operate in
• 4kW [86] conjunction with an existing flywheel
36, 48, 62, 63, 84-86] Waste heat
recovery
flux
[6] [83]
motor similar to the turbo compounding
≥ 18krpm
(Organic • 20kW [37] • Provides for 12% fuel reduction
[36]
Rankine Permanent
Cycle) Magnet axial • Commercially available conversion kits
flux [86] • 100kW [6] are being marketed for high to medium
power diesels[6]

• The same motor acts on the flywheel

Kinetic • 23kW [85] either to help braking in generator mode,
Energy (commercial) (charging battery), or boost power output
Permanent
recovery 50-100krpm in motoring mode (draining from battery)
Magnet
Electrical • The major bottleneck lies in ability to
[84] • 60kW (F1)
(KERS) transfer energy to and from the Battery

Kinetic • Energy stored in its Kinetic form via

Energy Permanent flywheel type rotor, no battery problems
50-100krpm
recovery magnet based 60kW (F1)
[84] • The actual storage mechanism forms
Hybrid composite
(KERS) flywheel[84] part of the electrical machine

Scope for High speed electrical machines is however seen

Fig. 6 High speed Electrical machine application areas for the more
electric engine
C. Marine
Traditionally the marine sector was the first to implement
the more electrical craft concept; primarily for reasons of
better weight distribution and reduced main shaft lengths
(the latter reduces hull vibration and transmission power
loss issues). These reasons still hold true today which
together with the addition of three other motives, namely:
reduced Noise/vibration signatures (Navy); increased fuel
efficiency (by operating the prime movers with a constant
near-full-load profile), and reduced/eliminated mechanical
gearing (using direct coupling of propulsion motors having
their speed varied smoothly via a VSD), form the main
push towards concepts such as Integrated Electric
propulsion (IEP) and Integrated Full electric propulsion
(IFEP)[87-89].Both concepts find the industrial backing
through the use of ACL-GTA (Advanced Cycle Low-power
Gas Turbine Alternator), generator units in the IEP concept
for military purposes (ACL-GTAs use high efficiency
turbines, such as the WR21, which include intercooler and
recuperator functions to boost performance at reduced fuel
consumption). The main generation units (20MVA+,
providing for propulsion power) is done via direct gas
turbine coupling to either PM or FWSM machines with last
stage speeds at 3600rpm [90, 91]. Designs of Field Wound
machines rotating a 7000rpm with tip velocity of 150m/s
have also been reported [7].
Lower power units employing Permanent magnet machines
[65],[90] with powers of up to 5MW were reported in [90].
Speeds of up to 22.5krpm for 2MW units, were reported in
[65], with a tip speed of circa 200m/s a filament carbon
sleeve was considered a suitable retention system. The
volume and weight reduction envisaged by such a high
speed generator sets allows for better placement of the latter
within the hull structure potentially saving on ducting
(exhaust and intake) volume[90].
D. Land Based Applications
The global energy outlook in terms of land-based
electricity generation is set to increase drastically over the

53
next 20 years [92]. The contribution of high speed
machines to such growth is strongly related to the three
pronged approach (ref. section1) this sector has ‘chosen’ to
employ in reaching this target in a liberalized market
reality, constrained with environmental concerns.
These aims see the increased use of ORC plants,
Mircoturbines, flywheel storage systems and exploitation of
renewable sources of energy. Starting with the ORC
concept, the latter cycle (described in Fig.6) is seen as the
solution to most low-grade-heat extraction applications (as
long as a suitable heat source can be found the High-speed
ORC solution can be implemented).It was first introduced
as a Waste heat recovery system from combustion plants,
increasing their global heat rate efficiency [18]. Typical
small installations such as that reported in [60] have an
output capacity of 140kWe. In this case high unit
efficiencies are reached through the application of a high
speed, 20000rpm, turbo-generator set having an induction
machine as the generator. Higher powers have been
reported in [18] reaching 15MW installations however the
prime movers are slow speed turbines. The ORC also finds
its application in solar thermal cycles [93]with potential
applications of High speed machine technology.
Mini/microturbines using directly coupled high speed
machines such as those reported in [4, 94] are commercially
available and provide an efficient generation solution in
remote access locations or low infrastructure countries. The
model offered by ABB reported in [4] uses a 70000rpm,
carbon fiber-sleeved PM machine outputting 100KWe. A
higher output PM machine was reported by Toshiba in [94]
rotating at 53000rpm and rated at 200kW. An Axial flux
PM machine was also suggested for the application in
reaching powers of up to 500kW.
Large scale, flywheel-based, grid frequency regulation
systems are being introduced in the US due to their very
fast response time (at circa 4sec [95]), with a 3MW plant
installed in 2009, a 20MW plant commissioned in 2011 and
40MW plant being planned [96]. The current technology
uses a 100kW PM motor/generator directly coupled to a
1000kg flywheel. The unit is charged by motoring the
flywheel up to 16000rpm and discharged according to
demand; the minimum (fully discharged) state is reached at
8000rpm. A complete discharge will take 15mins thus
providing for 25kWh of energy. A new generation flywheel
is being designed for higher kWh outputs[96]. Both designs
use axial and radial magnetic bearing systems for reduced
frictional losses. Smaller UPS systems such as those
provided by Vycon also employ vacuum-housed flywheel
systems. Rated at 300kW instantaneous fault ride-through
capability, the latter use directly coupled High speed PM
machine running from 14500 to 36750rpm when fully
charged.
The forth area of application of High speed machines is the
emerging field of the solar Brayton cycle, projects such as
Solgate demonstrated the potential application of such
technology however limited the generation function via a
reduction gearbox when real implementation was reported
54
IV. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR DIFFERENT HIGH SPEED
DRIVE TOPOLOGIES FOR GENERATION APPLICATIONS
After detailing the areas of application of high speed
generators, this section attempts to provide an insight into
the various drive topologies and control strategies reported
for the machine types discussed.
A. The permanent magnet drive
1) Motor considerations
The Permanent magnet topology of choice for the high
speed application is the surface mount permanent magnet
topology [55, 56]. Pole number selection is based on
viability studies comparing the better magnetic utilization
achieved in high pole number designs, and the lower iron
losses per output power achieved by lower pole numbers.
The field weakening capability of the traditional machine
is however not sufficient for the application where a wide
speed range is required, due to low inductance values of
such a design typically resulting from the large effective
air-gap (physical clearance, magnets and retention
sleeve).This low inductance also results in very high short
circuit-currents.
In order to achieve a wider constant power region such
machines are designed for a higher knee-point voltage,
leading to an over-sizing of the converter VA rating and
hence increased cost of the power electronics. Alternatively
an external inductance can be used, which adds to the
required drive physical envelope and cost.
The concentrated-wound surface-mount PMSM [11] is
another potential option for high speed applications
requiring constant power over a wide speed range. The
concentrated winding leads to an inherently high inductance
and hence the ability to field- weaken over a wide speed-
range. Moreover the higher inductance limits the short-
circuit currents and makes fault-tolerance/fail-safe easier to
achieve. The capability and design of concentrated wound
machines for optimal flux weakening has been with dealt
rigorously in [97]. It has also been investigated for a lower-
power, high speed (2kW, 220krpm) turbocharger
applications with a wide field weakening requirement[98].
Such a winding configuration increases the eddy-current
losses generated in the sleeve and magnets due to the high
spatial harmonic content of the armature reaction field. In
some cases such losses lead to excessive rotor temperatures
[11]. In A bid to reduce such losses, for smaller power
nodes (~100W) such as those described in [55],[27]; slot-
less stator configurations have been employed. For higher
power machines with non-electrically conducting retention
systems, aluminum foil is wrapped around the magnets to
shield them from such high frequency effects.
A major design consideration when dealing with such
multi- element rotors is proper element retention at high
speeds. Magnetic composites exhibit poor tensile strength;
however can accept high compressive stresses. For this
reason it is common practice to design the interference fit
of the retention shell such that , the resulting centrifugally
induced, tangential stress is compensated for by that
provided by the latter shell, in such a way as to provide
positive contact pressure between the magnets and the rotor
at the given/designed for speed [99]. The effect of such pre-
stress is shown in fig7 below.
Fig 7 Variation of shell hoop stress σθ and radial stress at the magnet inner
radius (rotor facing) radius σmir with rotor speed for various pre stress
levels
2) Converter considerations
Most high speed generator applications require
bidirectional power flow capability (starter-generators in
aerospace, flywheel storage etc). For this purpose a number
for active rectifier topologies have been considered in
literature including, PWM rectifiers and Three level Neutral
point Clamped (NPC) rectifiers. Such rectifiers are usually
used in conjunction with DC-DC converters to deliver the
required power at the required DC voltage level. With the
correct value of input (machine side) inductances,
sinusoidal currents, with sinusoidal fundamental and
minimal switching frequency ripple, can be ensured for
both PWM and 3 Level NPC rectifiers at unity power
factor. The PWM (2-level VSI-type) topology however
requires a high switching frequency with respect to the
input fundamental to obtain the desired current ripple,
which in the high speed, high power, scenario might prove
difficult to implement. Thus, the three level NPC rectifier
could present itself as a more viable option. The reason for
this is that the IGBTs in this topology of converter have a
lower average switching frequency as they are not required
to switch at every PWM cycle. This, together with the
lower voltage applied to the IGBTs offers lower switching
losses, even though three additional bidirectional power
switches are required (ref Fig 8)
Fig.8.The Three Level NPC Rectifier layout
55
Direct Power conversion (Rectification and voltage level
regulation) has also been reported for the high speed
application using 3x2 Matrix topologies. This solution
however requires a bespoke semiconductor packaging for
optimal circuit layout. A compromise between the indirect
converter layout and the PWM topologies is discussed and
implemented for the low power, ultra high speed case in
[55] and is shown in Fig 9.
Fig.9 Reported control system for an ultrahigh speed permanent magnet
machine [55], note the additional DC-DC convertor on the DC link
B. The Induction motor drive
1) Motor considerations
Due to their robust construction, induction machines are
commonly used in high speed, high temperature
applications. The solid rotor topology is usually preferred
for the high peripheral speed application; the latter however
comes at a price of increased electrical rotor resistance and
therefore reduced efficiency. Axial slitting provides an
improvement in terms of fundamental flux guiding and high
eddy current impedance over the former design however
reduces the power factor of the machine and therefore
increases convertor requirements. Detailed studies on axial
and solid rotor topologies are discussed in [100, 101].It is
commonly agreed that laminated caged machines provide
the highest efficiencies and where mechanically possible
[34] the latter should be employed.
The paper by Boglietti et al. [102] was one of the first
papers to discuss the complexities associated with the
design of high speed laminated rotor induction machines.
Boglietti also discusses the problem of high iron losses due
to high fundamental frequencies in high speed machines.
This often constrains the designer to choose a relatively low
flux-density in the stator teeth (1-1.1T) and stator yoke
(1.1-1.2T). Round bars are usually preferred for even stress
distribution [34], however Gerada et al. [36] describe a
design methodology which boosts the power density of
laminated rotor Induction Machines by using drop-shaped
bars instead. This approach required further mechanical
modelling and compared to[34] has a much lower power
requirement.
Spatial harmonics are decreased in the fundamental MMF
waveform by increasing the stator slot number, and the use
of double layer windings with short pitch (usually targeting
the 5th and 7th harmonics).Double layer windings will
decrease the slot fill factor due to the insulation required
between two phases in the slot. Short pitching allows for
short end winding and relatively lower I2R loss and leakage
inductance. Rotor losses are also minimised by introducing,
a larger air gaps at the cost of reduced power density and
power kVA/kW ratios.
2) Converter considerations
Most of the considerations discussed for the PM case hold
true for the IM motor/generator. Further to this, the use of
resonant converters under pulse density modulation,
feeding a 3phase 400Hz bus has also been reported in [13,
14].
C. The switched reluctance motor drive
1) Motor considerations
The switched reluctance machine offers the most robust
solution out of all High speed configurations considered
having inherent ( no need for specific design) fault tolerant
capabilities. As shown the section III, it is therefore the
ideal candidate for high temperature difficult to access
locations such as aero engine integration. Fig. 10(a) shows
a typical cross-section of a switched reluctance motor,
marking the salient dimensions requiring design attention.
The choice of pole number combinations is primarily done
on the basis of four criteria namely: number of phases, Self
starting capability, Torque requirements at operational
speed, and accepted iron losses. The majority of high speed
applications considered (such as [10, 57, 62] )use a 6/4
combination , ( the minimum for a three phase self starting
machine) reaching a compromise between torque ripple,
and iron losses.
Fig 10(a) Sectional view of a switched reluctance motor showing its
salient dimensions, (b) piece-wise linear variation of inductance for Phase
A. Note βs is the stator pole arc, βr is the rotor pole arc, Hr is rotor slot
depth, and Hs is the stator slot depth. The air-gap defines the resulting
rotor diameter
56
The electromagnetic energy conversion in an SRM, occurs
in discrete cycles, its potential conversion capacity is
proportional to the area enclosed by the trajectory in the ψ-i
plane formed by the motion of the rotor pole relative to an
excited stator pole, and is expressed as:
δW f' (i,θ ) (1)
Te =
δθ cond
Where: Te is the electromagnetic torque, W’f is the co-
energy and θcond is the angular duration of phase excitation.
Motoring and generating regions of the ideal motor and
convertor are shown in fig.10b.
To maximize the potential area enclosed by the psi-i
trajectory, it is recommended to reduce the flux due to pole
excitation to zero in the period which follows the constant
current region [103]. Thus in order to increase the allowed
current decay/rise period during the alignment/aligned
(maximum inductance) period, (θ3 to θ1+θrp in fig10b), it is
common practice to design βr to be greater than βs, in [104]
it is shown that the maximum βr/βs ratio for optimal
performance lies at circa 1.8.
The material of choice [57-59]in this class of machine
design is Cobalt iron, offering high mechanical strength,
requiring low field strength values to reach its flux density
knee-point value (material entering saturation) and high
saturation flux density.
In terms of vibration reduction (primarily a radial force
effect), stator skewing techniques have also been found to
be effective as shown in [105].
2) Converter considerations
A number of Convertor topologies have been reported in
[106]and their pros and cons discussed. It can be concluded
that the most advantageous topology in terms of flexibility
of use, would be the classical asymmetric bridge [106,
107]. (Fig11). In generating mode, this converter supplies
magnetizing energy though the switches and routes electro-
mechanical energy through its diodes D1,D2 ( Fig 11).
Even though the latter converter has one of the highest
active component counts [106],( thus high switching losses)
it allows for the independent control of each motor phase,
addressing issues such as: required current overlap
(allowing self and mutual flux components to contribute to
torque production) and phase isolation (fault mitigation).
Due to these main advantages the latter is employed in the
vast majority of the high speed cases reported [10, 57, 59,
107].
Fig.11 One leg of an Asymmetric H-Bridge convertor
 V. CASE STUDY
To illustrate the multi-factorial approach involved when
designing a high speed machine along with the salient
advantages and disadvantages of each drive topology
considered above, a trade-off study is presented. The
designed machine is a starter generator for a regional jet
rated at a peak of 54Nm whilst motoring at 8000rpm and
having a continuous power output during generating mode
of 45kW. It is expected to operate over a 4:1 speed range,
having a maximum continuous operating speed of
32000rpm. A summary of the four main machine types
considered is given in Table VIII. The main criteria for
assessment were motor weight, reliability and power
convertor cooling. All machines were designed having the
same laminate material, Arnon 7 (low loss SiFe) outer
diameter (to meet physical constraints) and electromagnetic
pole number, chosen at 2pole pairs. The latter was chosen
to limit the fundamental electrical frequency in the IM and
PM to 1067Hz (2133Hz for the SR machine). All designs
VI. CONCLUSION
The prospective growth of the energy markets in a
financially challenged scenario is currently motivating
investors to seek more efficient ways of meeting such
demand. This situation is spurring on the ever increasing
uses of high efficiency high speed generators. The latter is
only possible through the continuous advancement in
available materials as highlighted in section 1. Some of the
salient areas of application and research of such machines
was also presented followed by some design considerations
for the three most reported topologies in the field of high
speed generation. From the above it can be concluded that
the design of such systems, requires a multi disciplined
approach involving not only the electromagnetic designer,
but thermal and mechanical designers as well.
Table IX
Trade-off study summary
Design Number A1 A2 B C1 C2 C41 C42

Topology
considered used water jacket cooling, and the temperature

System
Machine IM SRM SMPM SMPM IPM

variations of the loss components have been accounted for. Converter 2 Level 3 Level Asym. H
bridge
2 Level 2 Level 2 Level 3 Level

The motor losses at nominal power at different speeds Electromagnetic Mass 14.1kg 21.4kg 14.4kg 12.8kg 15.9kg
along with the respective worst case temperature rise are Bore diameter 93.5mm 95mm 84 96 92

tabulated in Table IX. Active Length (D=160mm) 100mm 175mm 110mm 100mm 130mm

Table VIII
Sleeve None None Inconel Carbon None
fibre
Dimension summary for the motors considered At 20 Motor 1.87kW 1.63kW 0.99kW 1.2kW 1.2kW
at Pnom at 180oC

Krpm
Switched Induction Surface Interior Convertor 2.1kW 1.3kW 9.5kW 5.4kW 1.5kW 2.1kW 2.6kW
Losses

reluctance machine mount PM Mount PM

At 32 Motor 1.77kW 1.63kW 0.93kW 1.375kW 1.3kW
Stator Krpm
outer 160mm 160mm 160mm 160mm Convertor 2.2kW 1.4kW 2.1kW 3.7kW 2.1kW 1.5kW 0.984kW
diameter
Rotor Stator 231oC 170oC 170oC 160oC 135oC
95mm 93mm 96mm 92mm
diameter
Worst-case Rotor 268oC 196oC 199oC 183oC 196oC
Pole
6/4 4 4 4 Temperature
number
Stack Speed 20Krpm 20Krpm 20Krpm 20Krpm 20Krpm
175mm 100mm 100mm 130mm
Length
PEC: Num of Devices 12 30 12 12 12 12 30
Airgap 1mm 0.5mm 1mm 1mm

Stator slot Faults Manageable? Possible Yes Difficult Difficult Difficult

6 36 24 24
number
Reliability (based on component Good Fair Excellent Good Good Good Fair
Winding count and short circuit performance)
Tooth wound Distributed Distributed Distributed
type
Torque ripple Good Good Poor Good Good Good Good

A second SR machine was designed using Hiperco50HS

achieving a 19.5% reduction in weight to 17.26kg with a
reduced stack length of 113.5mm. Table VIII, shows that
the SR generator is robust, fault tolerant and efficient at
high speeds however its power density is low and has a
high torque ripple. Due to the required high peak currents
this solution also offered a poor convertor KVA/kW ratio
when compared to other solutions, this is reflected in the
high convertor losses incurred. The Induction generator is
an all rounder as it meets all the criteria including failure
management. However presents low fault tolerant
capability and requires rotor cooling. The surface mount
Permanent Magnet solution offers highest power density
(C2) and lower convertor losses. Winding failure
probability is reduced through the use of high build
insulation systems, whilst terminal over voltage in case of
faults is limited through controlled demagnetization of the
rotor. Magnet segmentation is also being employed to
significantly reduce rotor losses.
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