SOCIAL SCIENCE

Compiled by: Jonathan T. Estoquia, LPT

GENERATION TYPES
• Traditionalists 1900 - 1945
• Baby Boomers 1946 - 1964
• Generation X 1965 - 1980
• Millennials (Generation Y) 1981 - 2000
• Generation Z 2001 - present

PERIODIZATION IN HISTORY

1. Prehistoric Period – period when there were no written records of man‘s progress.
a. Paleolithic or Old Stone Age (3.7M - 8000BC)
-palaios “old” and lithos “stone”
-Greatest achievement, discovery of fire
-Java Man, Peking Man, Neanderthal Man and Cro-Magnon Man existed.
b. Neolithic or New Stone Age (8000 – 4000BC)
-neos “new” and lithos “stone”
-Period started after the disappearance of the Cro-Magnon Man.
-Greatest achievement, making of dugouts (the world’s first boats)
c. Metal Age (Copper, Bronze and Iron) (4000 – 1500BC)
-Copper was discovered near Mt. Sinai
-Tin was later discovered.
-By mixing copper and tin, bronze was produced.
-Iron was first used by the Hittites.
2. Historic Period – men’s progress were recorded.
I. Ancient
II. Medieval
III. Modern

I. ANCIENT WORLD
First Civilization were in the river alleys
• Mesopotamia – region between the Tigris and Euphrates River
• Egypt – a long the Nile River in Africa
• India – in the valley of Indus River
• Chinese – along the Huang He or “Yellow River”

THE INVENTION OF WRITING

• Ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia invented in 3500 BC the earliest writing called
cuneiform, cuneus “wedge” and forma “form”.
• Egyptians invented their own writing, hieroglyphics.
• The first alphabet was invented by the Phoenicians which consisted of 22 letters (all
consonants).
 • Later the Greeks improved it by adding the vowels.

DEFINITION OF CIVILIZATION
Most scholars define civilization as a complex culture with these five characteristics:
1. Advanced cities
2. Specialized workers (traders, government officials, priests, artisans)
3. Complex institutions (government, religion, economy)
4. Record keeping (system of writing)
5. Advanced technology (new tools and techniques to solve problems)

MESOPOTAMIA
• Mesopotamia means “land between two rivers”.
• The Cradle of Civilization. Birthplace of history and civilization.
• Refers to an area, rather than a country. Also called “fertile crescent”.
• Ruled by Sumeria, Akkadia, Babylon, Assyria and Persia.

MESOPOTAMIA’S CONTRIBUTIONS
• Invented cuneiform, the earliest form of writing.
• Invented the plow and the wheel.
• Art of irrigation. Cultivated the fertile land and tamed the floods of the twin rivers by
constructing canals and dikes. Utilized the river waters to irrigate their farms.
• Wrote the world’s earliest law codes: Ur Nammu Code and the Hammurabi Code.
• Epic of Gilgamesh – a long poem of myths and legends written during the age of the
Sumerians. It is one of the earliest works of literature in the world. The epic tells of
Gilgamesh, a legendary king, who was unsuccessful in his quest for immortality, a theme
that recurs in ancient literature.
• Sexagesimal system in Mathematics – counting by 60s. Under this system, a minute has
60 seconds, an hour has 60 minutes, and a circle has six 60s (360°)
• Architecture, Ziggurat: an ancient Babylonian skyscraper-temple and the Hanging
Gardens.

EGYPT
• The Nile River, the longest river in the world, gives abundant water for irrigation, and its
flood makes the soil fertile.
• First discovered by a woman, Egyptus, who was a daughter of Ham (son of Noah).
• Pharaoh, the eldest son of Egyptus became the first ruler of Egypt.

Egypt Unites into a Kingdom

• About 3100 BC, a strong-willed king of Upper Egypt named Menes united all of Egypt.
He established his capital, Memphis, near the spot where Upper and Lower Egypt met,
and established the first Egyptian dynasty.
• The history of ancient Egypt would consist of 31 dynasties, spanning 2,600 years.
• Little is known of Egypt’s first two dynasties, but records improve with the Third
Dynasty.
 • The Third Dynasty begins the period historians call the Old Kingdom, which lasted from
2660 to 2180 BC. The Old Kingdom set the pattern for Egypt’s great civilization.
• Society in ancient Egypt was divided into 4 social classes: (1) nobles and priests, (2)
soldiers, (3) commoners, and (4) slaves.
• Pyramid Texts, the oldest known Egyptian literature.
• The ancient Egyptian writing was called hieroglyphics. It means “sacred signs” because
it was written by the priests.

The Rosetta Stone

• In 1799, near the village of Rosetta, French scholars found a polished black stone
inscribed with a message in three languages (pure hieroglyphics, simple hieroglyphics,
and Greek).
• In 1822, a French scholar - Jean Francois Champollion, finally broke the code of the
hieroglyphics.

EGYPT’S CONTRIBUTIONS
• The Pyramid, the oldest man-made stone monument.
• World’s first builders. Erected magnificent palaces, obelisks and temples.
• Devised the first 365 day calendar, which divided the year into 12 months of 30 days
each.
• First to develop geometry.
• Increased man’s knowledge of medicine, surgery and mummification (embalming).

Mummification
First, they draw out the brains through the nostrils with an iron hook. … Then with a sharp
stone they make an incision in the side, and take out all the bowels. … Then, having filled the
belly with pure myrrh, cassia, and other perfumes, they sew it up again; and when they have
done this they steep it in natron *a mineral salt+, leaving it under for 70 days. … At the end of 70
days, they wash the corpse, and wrap the whole body in bandages of waxen cloth.
(HERODUTOS, The History of Herodutos)

INDIA
• Dravidians, dark-complexioned people, first inhabited the Indus Valley. They were
conquered by the Aryans, in about 1500 BC, and later called themselves Hindus.
• Developed the varnas (caste system), a rigid social structure which was a part of
Hinduism:
1. Brahmins – priests
2. Kshatriyas – rulers and warriors
3. Vaishyas – peasants and traders
4. Shudras – laborers
• Those who were impure because of their work (butchers, gravediggers, collectors of
trash) lived outside the caste structure. They were known as “untouchables”, since even
their touch is not pure.
 • In the 20th century, Mahatma Gandhi called the untouchables harijans, or “children of
God”.
• The 1955 Untouchability Act of India provided penalties for discrimination. However,
3,000-year-old traditions do not die easily. Most former untouchables today still suffer
from extreme poverty and caste discrimination.
• Siddhartha Gautama (563 - 483 BC), a Hindu prince, started a new religion. He did not
like the Hindu beliefs on caste system which condemned a man to a certain class for life.
• Later he was known as the Buddha, meaning “the enlightened one”.
• At the beginning of first century AD, Buddhism spread to foreign countries: Tibet, China,
Korea, Japan, Burma, Thailand and other South-east Asian nations.

INDIA’S CONTRIBUTIONS
• India gave the world 4 religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism.
• Invented “yoga”, a Hindu philosophy that teaches a person to experience inner peace by
controlling the body and mind.
• Architecture: Taj Mahal
• Enriched world literature by giving mankind:
1. Panchatantara (first fable)
2. The Clay Cart and Sakuntala (the first dramatic epics)
3. Mahabharata (longest epic with 100,000 couplets, 106,000 verses and 7x longer than
the Greek Iliad and Odyssey combined)
4. The Bhagavad Gita (world’s greatest philosophical poem)

CHINA
• The history of China began in 2000 BC when the first Chinese dynasty (Xia Dynasty) was
founded by Emperor Yu.
• Civil service examinations were rigid requirements for appointment to any government
office.
• Chinese philosophers’ Confucius, Lao Tzu and Mencius, their teachings rank with those
of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
• Confucius (551 – 479 BC) wrote the Analects which are short and witty sayings that
treat moral values and good human relations.
• Lao Tzu (604 – 517 BC) founded a new religion, Taoism. His favorite saying: “He who
overcomes others is strong, but he who overcomes himself is stronger.”
• Mencius (372 – 289 BC), the greatest pupil of Confucius. He taught that, “He who gains
the hearts of the people gains the throne, and he who loses the people’s hearts loses the
throne.”
• Emperor Shi Huangdi “First Emperor” (221 – 206 BC) built the famous Great Wall of
China to keep invaders away.

CHINA’S CONTRIBUTIONS
• Invented gun powder
• Invented the first printing press using movable blocks
 • Introduced Sericulture (silk industry) and the use of silk clothes which revolutionized
clothing
• Printed the first paper money “flying money”; the oldest known book “Diamond Sutra”;
oldest newspaper in the world “Peking Gazette”
• Introduced the Civil Service Examination
• Great Wall of China
• Great Philosophers: Confucius, Lao Tzu and Mencius

OTHER ANCIENT NATIONS OF ASIA

• Hittites. The first nation to use iron.
• Phoenicians. The greatest sailors and maritime traders of ancient times. Their greatest
contribution was the invention of the alphabet.
• Jews. The first people in history to believe in only one God, Monotheism. They wrote
the Bible, the holy book of both Judaism and Christianity.
• Persians. They practiced Zoroastrianism, a religion based on the belief that life is a
constant struggle between good and evil.

GREECE
• The ancestors of the Greeks were the Indo-Europeans from the valley of Danube
• The 4 main Greek tribes:
1. Achaeans
2. Ionians - Athenians
3. Dorians - Spartans
4. Aetolians
• They believed that they descended from a common mythological ancestor, Hellen.
Hence they called themselves “Hellenes”, their country “Hellas” and their civilization
“Hellenic”.
• Olympic Games were held every four years at Olympia.
• The main focus of ancient Greek life was the city-state called polis which means “city”, a
political and social unit. Each city-state included the city proper and the surrounding
farms.
• “Metropolis” a mother city which founded other cities.
• The main plaza and marketplace of a city-state is the agora, their main business and
political center.
• Invented pure democracy (direct rule by the many)
• Forms of government in a city-state:
1. Monarchy <one> Tyranny
2. Aristocracy <few> Oligarchy
3. Democracy <many> Mobocracy
SPARTA
• Dictatorial form of government, led by a king.
• 3 classes of Spartan society:
Spartans – citizens and warriors
Perioeci – free-men engaged in trade and industry
 Helots – slaves who worked in farms or house servants
• A military state. All able-bodied men were obliged to acquire training in arms and fight
for their city-state.
• All male babies examined by government and only those who were healthy were
allowed to live. Sickly babies were hurled down in the mountains to die.
• At 7yrs – live in military barracks; 20yrs – become full citizens with the right to vote;
30yrs – obliged to marry. Married men enjoyed little family life for they must eat and
sleep at the barracks until they reach 60yrs old.

ATHENS
• Began the Democratic form of government.
• Largest Greek city-state.
• In 549BC, Solon, a very wise reformer, granted reforms which started a democratic form
of government. i.e. (1)poor people were given the right to vote, (2)a court of appeals
composed of citizens from all classes to review the decision of regular courts.
• Today, a wise legislator is called “solon”
• Athenians were freedom loving and cultured.
• Athenian dictum: “A sound mind in a sound body”
• They were fond of the arts, music, literature, philosophy, public speaking and debate.
• They believed that the “state must exist for the individuals and not the individuals for
the state”

GREEK - PERSIAN WARS

• 490BC -Darius of Persia declared war on Athens. The Athenians led by Miltiades, routed
the Persian invaders in the Battle of Marathon.
• 480BC -Xerxes of Persia invaded Greece. 300 Spartan warriors led by King Leonidas
defended the narrow pass of Thermopylae and died fighting unto the last.
• 479BC -The Greeks defeated the Persians in the Battle of Plataea and finally rid
themselves from Persian invaders.

HELLENIC CIVILIZATION (CONTRIBUTIONS OF ANCIENT GREECE)

• Religion. Ancient Greeks believed in numerous gods and goddesses and that they lived
on Mt. Olympus.
• Architecture. 3 architectural styles perfected by Greece:
(1) Ionian, (2)Doric, (3) Corinthian.
• Finest example of Greek architecture is the Parthenon, a magnificent marble temple on
the Acropolis in Athens.
• Poetry. The Iliad and the Odyssey, by the blind poet Homer, were the earliest
specimens of Greek poetry.
• The greatest poetess ever produced by Greece was Sappho, whom Plato called as the
“Tenth Muse”.
• Theatre. The drama, as a literary art, developed in ancient Hellas. First it was just
dancing of the chorus. Later, the dialogue was added. Thus, the drama was born.
• First Greek dramatist, Aeschylus, also known as the “Father of the Greek Tragedy”.
 • Greece developed another type of drama called “comedy”. A farce in which the actors
ridicule the leaders of the day with wit and humor.
• Greatest Greek comedian was Aristophanes.
• Herodutos “Father of History”. His masterpiece was The History of the Persian Wars.
• Oratory. Oratory attained perfection in Greece. The first teacher of oratory was Corax
who made a living by teaching public speaking to other men.
• Demosthenes “Prince of Greek Orators”
• Thales “Father of Greek Philosophy”. Founded the first Greek school of philosophy.
Taught that the universe originated from water.
• Hippocrates “Father of Medicine”

GREEK PHILOSOPHERS
Socrates
• Wisest man in Athens.
• Master of the Socratic dialectic, reasoning by questions and answers.
Plato
• Student of Socrates.
• His masterpiece was The Republic, which portrays an ideal state.
Aristotle
• Student of Plato.
• A versatile genius and tutor of Alexander the Great.
Phytagoras
• Popularized the number doctrine; some numbers are lucky like 3, 5 and 7.
• Developed the Phytagorean Theorem.
Protagoras
• Taught that “man is the measure of all things”

ROME
• Indo-European tribes were the early settlers of Rome.
• The Etruscans were the earliest rulers of Rome who conquered it on 600 BC.
• In 509 BC, the Romans fought with the Etruscans and drove them away.
• They then established a republic which lasted 500 years.
• Roman republic, aristocratic form of government.
• Senate was controlled by “patricians” (upper class). Poor people called “plebeians”
(lower class).
• “12 Tablets of Laws”, Romans first written code.
• The Triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus and Julius Caesar.
• Caesar became the most successful member of the Triumvirate and expanded Rome’s
territory.
• “Veni, vidi, vici” (I came, I saw, I conquered), his famous message to the Roman Senate
after he conquered Egypt.
• Had a romance with Queen Cleopatra, “Serpent of the Nile”
• Caesar was assassinated by his two friends, Brutus and Cassius, inside the Senate.
• Second Triumvirate: Mark Anthony, Lepidus, Octavian.
 • Battle in Actium on 31 BC, Octavian defeated the combined forces of Anthony and
Cleopatra which ended the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire.
• Octavian (Augustus Caesar) became the first emperor of the Roman Empire on 27 BC.
• Corrupt emperors: Tiberius, Caligula, Nero.
• 4 good Emperors: Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius.
• Rome’s Grandeur. Pax Romana (Roman Peace), period of the Good Emperors in which
the people enjoyed: economic prosperity, good government and good social life.
• Diocletian, “the last great Roman Emperor”. He divided the empire into two, east
(Byzantium-Istanbul) and west.
• East Empire was led by Constantine, founder of the Byzantine Empire. West Empire was
led by Romulus Augustus(last emperor of Rome)
• Rome’s downfall ushered in the “Dark Ages”

ROMAN CONTRIBUTIONS
• The Roman Law (Jurisprudence) which is the basis of legal systems of modern nations.
• Latin, the language of the Middle Ages which influenced modern languages.
• The Colosseum, the predecessor of the modern gymnasium.
• The Republican form of government, in which the citizens vote for their representatives
to governing bodies.

II. MEDIEVAL PERIOD (MIDDLE AGES)

• Dark Ages – barbaric tribes, the Goths, the Vandals and the Huns dominated.
• Triumph of Christianity – Constantine united Christianity and state. He called for the
Council of Nicea, a great ecumenical council in 325 AD.
• Feudalism – socio political economic system in Europe, a manorial system; period of
chivalry and knighthood.
• Crusades – military expeditions by Christians against Muslims to take back Holy Land.

III. MODERN PERIOD

• The Renaissance (14th – 16th century) - Means “rebirth”, “reawakening” or “revival” of
learning.
• Italy was located halfway between the Middle East and Western Europe. This
geographical position gave Italian city-states the opportunity to become rich, enabling
them to patronize arts and letters.

FAMOUS POETS
• Elizabeth Barrett Browning – How Do I Love Thee?
• Lewis Carroll – Jabberwocky
• Robert Frost – The Road Not Taken
• William Shakespeare – Seven Ages Of Man
• Edgar Allan Poe – The Bells
• Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – Excelsior
FAMOUS NOVELS
• Wuthering Heights – Emily Brontë
• Middlemarch – George Eliot
• The Hunchback of Notre-Dame – Victor Hugo
• The Lord of the Rings – John Ronald Reuel Tolkien
• Nineteen Eighty-Four – George Orwell
• Great Expectations – Charles Dickens
• Moby Dick – Herman Melville
• Robinson Crusoe – Daniel Defoe
• The Da Vinci Code – Dan Brown

FAMOUS WRITERS IN THE PHILIPPINES

• Nick Joaquin – How My Brother Leon Brought Home A Wife
• Jose Rizal – Noli Me Tangere
• Rustica C. Carpio – Talinhaga, Hinaing at Pag-ibig ng Isang Makata
• Lualhati Bautista – Dekada ‘70, Bata, Bata, Pa’no Ka Ginawa?
• Francisco Balagtas – “Father of the Tagalog Poem”; Florante at Laura
• Lope K. Santos – Banaag at Sikat

FAMOUS MUSIC COMPOSERS

• George Frideric Handel (1685 – 1759)
• Johann Sebastian Bach (1685 – 1750)
• Joseph Haydn (1732 – 1809)
• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 – 1791)
• Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 – 1827)

FAMOUS PHILIPPINE MUSICIANS

• Cecile Licad – World Class classical pianist
• Armando Salarza – titular organist of the Bamboo Organ of Las Piñas City
• Nicanor Abelardo – Father of Philippine Sonata, composer of Kundiman songs; “Bituing
Marikit”
• Ryan Cayabyab – composer, the Maestro of Philippine music
• Levi Celerio – lyricist, “leaf player”; “Sa Ugoy ng Duyan”
• George Canseco – composer of the song: “Ako ay Pilipino”
• Julian Felipe – Father of Philippine National Anthem
• Lito Molina – Father of Philippine Jazz

PAINTING

Mediums of Painting
• Pigment – part of the paint which supplies the color, a fine powder ground from some
clay, stone, or mineral extracted from plants or trees.
• Tempera – earth or mineral pigments mixed with egg yolk and egg white. Since the
paint dries quickly, corrections are difficult to make.
 • Oil – the pigment is mixed with linseed oil applied to primed canvas. It is flexible. Oil
paints are slow to dry and the painting can be changed and worked over a long period of
time.

FAMOUS PAINTERS
• Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 – 1519)
• Michelangelo (1475 – 1564)
• Raphael (1483 – 1520)
• Rembrandt (1606 – 1669)
• Claude Monet (1840 – 1926)
• Vincent Van Gogh (1853 – 1890)
• Pablo Picasso (1881 – 1973)

FAMOUS FILIPINO PAINTERS

• Juan N. Luna (1857 - 1899)
• Fernando Amorsolo (1892 - 1972)
• Carlos “Botong” Francisco (1912 - 1969)
• Fabián de la Rosa - mentor of Fernando Amorsolo
• Victorio Edades - leader of the revolutionary art group: 13 Moderns
• Felix Hidalgo - won the silver medal, behind Juan Luna’s gold, in the 1884 Madrid Art
Exposition
• Benedicto Cabrera - noted as "arguably the best-selling painter of his generation of
Filipino artists.

SCULPTURE
FAMOUS SCULPTORS
• Donatello (1386 - 1466)
• Michelangelo (1475 – 1564)
• Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598 - 1680)
• Auguste Rodin (1840 - 1917)
FAMOUS FILIPINO SCULPTORS
• Guillermo Tolentino (1890 – 1976)
• NapoleonAbueva(1930 – present) “Father of Modern Philippine Sculpture”
• Abdulmari Imao (1936 – 2014)
• Eduardo Castrillo (1942 – 2016)
• Ramon Orlina (1944 – present)

REFORMATION
The Reformation, also referred to as the Protestant Reformation and the European
Reformation, was a schism from the Roman Catholic Church initiated by Martin Luther, and
continued by John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other early Protestant Reformers in 16 th
century Europe.
Protestant Reformers
John Wycliffe (England)
• Denounced the corruption and abuses of the Catholic church and condemned the pope
as anti-Christ.
• Translated the scriptures and circulated them among the common people.
• He was strongly condemned by the church, but his teachings were widely accepted
among his countrymen.
Ulrich Zwingli (Switzerland)
• Zwingli convinced the citizens of Zurich that the Bible should be the only standard of
religious truth.
• Using the Bible as standard, he rejected life in a monastery, celibacy, the mass, and
other Catholic practices.
John Calvin (Switzerland)
• At Geneva, he attempted to create a holy city around biblical models.
• Founded a religion, Calvinism, which became predominant in many parts of Switzerland
and spread to France, England, Scotland, Holland and Germany.
Martin Luther (Germany)
• A law student but abandoned his legal training to enter the monastery of the
Augustinian Order.
• Seemed to have been tormented by the wide discrepancy between the doctrines and
teachings of the scriptures and the practices of Catholicism.
• His intensive study of the Bible led him to the doctrinal position that later came to mark
the reform movement.
• Luther’s direct opposition to the Church in Rome was the sale of indulgences by the
agents of Pope Leo X.
• These indulgences were offered to repay Albert of Mainz his cost in acquiring the
archbishopric of Mainz and to continue work on St. Peter’s unfinished Basilica.
• 31 Oct 1517, Luther nailed to the church door at Wittenberg his Ninety-five Theses,
which challenged the church to debate on the efficacy of indulgences and the church’s
sacramental practices.
• His resistance led to his excommunication from the church and was banned in the
empire, which made him an outlaw.
• He was protected by German royals who wanted more political autonomy from Rome.
• When it was evident the Catholic church would not reform, Luther’s followers founded
the Lutheran church.

WORLD WARS

WORLD WAR I (1914-1918)

Underlying causes:
• Nationalism – the desire to be a free nation degenerated to jingoism or chauvinism,
such bigoted kind of nationalism existed in many European countries. German jingoists
considered themselves “superior race” hence; they aspired to dominate the world.
 • Imperialism – the policy of extending national power by acquiring colonies and
economic advantages. Rivalry among European powers for colonies and trade produced
tensions between nations.
• Militarism – a powerful army and a great navy are required to support nationalism and
imperialism. The European arms race produced pressure. England had long been the
“Mistress of the Sea”, but Germany challenged it by building a strong fleet. England
accepted the German challenge by constructing more warships, and so the naval race
was on.

Rival Alliances – competition between nations in Europe led to the formation of two rival
alliances - Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria & Italy; Triple Entente (1907): Britain,
France & Russia. These rival alliances divided Europe into two hostile armed groups. Any war
between them would involve the whole world, for both alliances had friends among other
nations of the world.

Assassination of the Austrian Archduke – Francis Ferdinand, heir to Austria’s throne was
assassinated on June 18, 1914 by a Serbian patriot, Gavrilo Princip. Austria rejected Serbia’s
offer for a peaceful settlement, and promptly declared war to Serbia on July 18, 1914.

Allies versus Central Powers

Allies (France, Russia, Britain, Serbia)
Central Powers (Austria, Hungary, Germany, Turkey, Bulgaria)

War ended, with the Allies winning, on November 11, 1918. In accordance with this armistice,
all hostilities ceased at 11 am of the same day – “the eleventh hour on the eleventh day of the
eleventh month of the year”.

“League of Nations”
The League was established in Geneva, Switzerland on January 10, 1920 with 62 member
states. Its aims: (1) prevent war, (2) protect member countries against aggression, (3) arbitrate
all disputes between nations, (4) promote international cooperation, & (5) implement the
provisions of the peace treaties ending World War I.

WORLD WAR II (1939-1945)

Underlying causes:
• Clash between two rival political ideologies – democracy & totalitarianism.
• The unchecked aggressions of Germany, Italy & Japan.
• The foolish dream of Hitler and Mussolini to be masters of the world.
• Failure of the League of Nations to settle international crisis.
• The outbreak of war started when Nazi Germany attacked Poland in the summer of
1939. Countries in Europe were rampaged by Germany.
• USA entered war when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, America’s base in Hawaii, on
December 8, 1941. Japan then conquered the Philippines, which was under the
American Commonwealth Government.
 • War ended in the Pacific after US forces dropped atomic bombs in Hiroshima (August 6,
1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945).

HISTORY OF HUMAN RIGHTS

• Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon in 539 BC
• He declared that “slaves are free and that they have the freedom to choose their
religion.
• His words were documented in clay known as “the Cyrus Cylinder”
• Romans noticed that people naturally followed certain laws even if they weren't told to.
They call this, the Natural Law.
• 1215 AD Magna Carta “Great Charter” (England) - They finally let a king (King John) to
agree that no one can overrule the rights of the people…not even a king.
• 1776 U.S. Declaration of Independence - “All men are created equal, that they are
endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life,
liberty and the pursuit of happiness” (4 July 1776)
• 1789 Rights of Man and of the children (France, 1789) - France insisted that these rights
are not made up…they are NATURAL. (26 August 1789)
• Mahatma Gandhi (India)
• Gandhi led India Protests in 1915 against the British Government.
• In the face of violence, he insisted that all of the earth have rights…not just in Europe.
• Gandhi – Irwin Pact (1931) - Europeans agree Gandhi’s declarations

UNITED NATIONS ESTABLISHED (1945)

• Nations agreed on a set of rights that apply absolutely to everyone: “Universal
Declaration of Human Rights” (1946)

UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Article 1 Right to Equality
Article 2 Freedom from Discrimination
Article 3 Right to Life, Liberty, Personal Security
Article 4 Freedom from Slavery
Article 5 Freedom from Torture and Degrading Treatment
Article 6 Right to Recognition as a Person before the Law
Article 7 Right to Equality before the Law
Article 8 Right to Remedy by Competent Tribunal
Article 9 Freedom from Arbitrary Arrest and Exile
Article 10 Right to Fair Public Hearing
Article 11 Right to be Considered Innocent until Proven Guilty
Article 12 Freedom from Interference with Privacy, Family, Home and Correspondence
Article 13 Right to Free Movement in and out of the Country
Article 14 Right to Asylum in other Countries from Persecution
Article 15 Right to a Nationality and the Freedom to Change It
Article 16 Right to Marriage and Family
Article 17 Right to Own Property
Article 18 Freedom of Belief and Religion
Article 19 Freedom of Opinion and Information
Article 20 Right of Peaceful Assembly and Association
Article 21 Right to Participate in Government and in Free Elections
Article 22 Right to Social Security
Article 23 Right to Desirable Work and to Join Trade Unions
Article 24 Right to Rest and Leisure
Article 25 Right to Adequate Living Standard
Article 26 Right to Education
Article 27 Right to Participate in the Cultural Life of Community
Article 28 Right to a Social Order that Articulates this Document
Article 29 Community Duties Essential to Free and Full Development
Article 30 Freedom from State or Personal Interference in the above Rights

PHILIPPINE HISTORY
Historical names of the Philippines
• Ma-i (“country of the Blacks”) - historians claimed that Ma-i was not an island, but all
the south of South Sea islands groups and Manila itself, which was known to be an
overseas Chinese settlement, Mindoro being the center, which was in constant contact
with the Chinese mainland as early as the 9th century AD.
• Las Islas de San Lazaro (St. Lazaru’s Islands) - Named by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521
when he reached the islands of Homonhon in Samar (now Eastern Samar) on the feast
day of Saint Lazarus of Bethany.
• Islas del Poniente (Islands of the West).
• Las Islas Felipinas (Philippine Islands/Islands belonging to Philip). Named by Ruy López
de Villalobos in 1543 to Samar and Leyte, honoring the Prince of Asturias, the then Philip
II of Spain.
• Filipinas (Philippines). Vernacular corruption of Las islas Felipinas; irrevocably became
the archipelago's name.

Theories on the origins of ancient Filipinos

• H. Otley Beyer (Wave Migration Theory) – the ancestors of the Filipinos came to the
islands first via land bridges which would occur during times when the sea level was low,
and then later in seagoing vessels such as the balangay.
• F. Landa Jocano - theorizes that the ancestors of the Filipinos evolved locally.
• Wilhelm Solheim (Island Origin Theory) - postulates that the peopling of the
archipelago transpired via trade networks originating in the Sundaland area around
48,000 to 5000 BC rather than by wide-scale migration.

PREHISTORY
• Callao Man – the earliest, 67,000 year-old, known human remains in the Philippines
discovered in 2007 in the Callao Caves in Cagayan. The find consisted of a single 61 mm
metatarsal which believed to be from the remains of Homo sapiens.
 • Tabon Man – 22,000 year-old fossilized fragments of a skull and jawbone of three
individuals found in Palawan.
• By about 30,000 BC, the Negritos were early settlers, but their appearance in the
Philippines has not been reliably dated.
• They were followed by the Indonesians and Malays, who began to arrive in successive
waves beginning about 4000 BC.
• By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago had developed into four
distinct kinds of peoples: (1) tribal groups, such as the Aetas, Hanunoo, Ilongots and the
Mangyan who depended on hunter-gathering and were concentrated in forests; (2)
warrior societies, such as the Isneg and Kalinga who practiced social ranking and
ritualized warfare and roamed the plains; (3) petty plutocracy of the Ifugao Cordillera
Highlanders, who occupied the mountain ranges of Luzon; (4) harbor principalities of
the estuarine civilizations that grew along rivers and seashores while participating in
trans-island maritime trade.
• Around 300–700 AD, the seafaring people of the islands traveling in balangays (boat)
began to trade with the Indianized kingdoms in the Malay Archipelago and the nearby
East Asian principalities, adopting influences from both Buddhism and Hinduism.
• Barangay was the socio-political unit with Datu as chieftain. Social classes existed:
nobles, freeman and slaves (Aliping namamahay and aliping sagui-guilid).
• The archipelago was divided into barangays, each barangay comprising of 40 - 100
families. Contacts with other nations such as Chinese, Indians and Malays existed. Arab
influence Islam religion was brought by Malays.

PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD (900 AD – 1565)

• Kingdom of Tondo - led by kings under the title “Lakan” which belongs to the caste of
the Maharlika. They were called Hidalgos by the Spaniards.
• Wangdom of Pangasinan - was a sovereign Prehispanic Philippine state, notable for
having traded with the Kingdom of Ryukyu, Japan. It was locally known the Luyag na
Kaboloan which existed in the fertile Agno River valley. Urduja, a legendary woman
warrior, is believed to have ruled in Pangasinan around the 14th century.
• The Nation of Ma-i - the nation of Ma-i, a pre-Hispanic Philippine island-state centered
in Mindoro, flourished as an entrepôt, attracting traders and shipping from the Kingdom
of Ryukyu to the Yamato Empire of Japan.
• The Kedatuan of Madja-as - During the 11th century several exiled datus led by Datu
Puti led a mass migration to the central islands of the Philippines, fleeing from Rajah
Makatunao of the island of Borneo. Upon reaching the island of Panay and purchasing
the island from Negrito chieftain Marikudo, they established a confederation of states
and named it the Kedatuan of Madja-as centered in Aklan.
• The Rajahnate of Cebu - The Rajahnate of Cebu was founded by Sri Lumay otherwise
known as Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince of the Hindu Chola dynasty which
happened to occupy Sumatra. He was sent by the maharajah to establish a base for
expeditionary forces to subdue the local kingdoms but he rebelled and established his
own independent Rajahnate instead.
 • The Rajahnate of Butuan – founded by Rajah Sri Bata Shaja, the monarch of the
Indianized Rajahnate of Butuan. Evidence of the existence of this rajahnate is given by
the Butuan Silver Paleograph.
• The Sultanate of Sulu - In 1380, Karim ul' Makdum and Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr,
an Arab trader born in Johore (present-day Malaysia), arrived in Sulu from Malacca and
established the Sultanate of Sulu. This sultanate eventually gained great wealth due to
its diving for fine pearls.
• The Sultanate of Maguindanao - The Sultanate of Maguindanao rose to prominence at
the end of the 15th century, Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johor introduced
Islam in the island of Mindanao and he subsequently married Paramisuli, an Iranun
Princess from Mindanao, and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao.
• The Sultanate of Lanao - The Sultanates of Lanao were founded in the 16th century
through the influence of Shariff Kabungsuwan, who was enthroned as first Sultan of
Maguindanao in 1520. Islam was introduced to the area by Muslim missionaries and
traders from the Middle East, Indian and Malay regions who propagated Islam to Sulu
and Maguindanao.

RULERS
• Rajah – translated means “king”. A Rajah is a king, or princely ruler from
Kshatriya/Rajput lineages. The title has a long history in the Indian subcontinent and
Southeast Asia, being attested from Rigveda.
• Sultan – an Islamic title, with several historical meanings. Originally it was an Arabic
language abstract noun meaning “strength”, “authority”, or “rulership”.
• Viceroy – a royal official who governs a country or province in the name of and as
representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix “vice” meaning
“in the place of” and French “roi” meaning “king”.
• Tribal Chief – leader of a tribe, or the head of a tribal form of self-government.

SPANISH SETTLEMENT AND RULE (1521–1898)

Parts of the Philippine Islands were known to Europeans before the 1521 Spanish expedition
around the world led by Portuguese-born Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan who reached
Maluku Islands. He landed on the island called Homonhon, claiming the islands he saw for
Spain, and naming them Islas de San Lázaro. They anchored on Homonhon and later sailed to
an islet south of Leyte where they had the first mass on March 31, 1521 celebrated by Fr. Pedro
de Valderrama. However, Magellan was killed on April 27 during the Battle of Mactan against
the local datu, Lapu-Lapu.
• The first single voyage of global circumnavigation was that of the ship Victoria,
between 1519 and 1522, known as the Magellan–Elcano expedition.
• It was a Castilian (Spanish) voyage of discovery, led initially by Ferdinand Magellan, and
then by the Juan Sebastián Elcano.
• The voyage started in Seville, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, and after several stopovers
rounded the southern tip of South America where the expedition discovered the Strait
of Magellan, named after the fleet's captain. It then continued across the Pacific
 discovering a number of islands on its way, including Guam before arriving in
the Philippines.
• After Magellan's death in the Philippines in 1521, Elcano took command of the
expedition and continued the journey across the Indian Ocean, round the Cape of Good
Hope, north along the Atlantic Ocean, and back to Spain in 1522. Elcano and a small
group of 18 men were actually the only members of the expedition to make the full
circumnavigation.

Other Spanish Expeditions in the Philippines:

• Loaisa Expedition (1525) - Garcia Jofre De Loaisa
• Cabot Expedition (1526) - Sebastian Cabot
• Saavedra Expedition (1527) - Alvaro de Saavedra
• Villalobos Expedition (1542-1546) - Ruy Lopez de Villalobos. Reached Mindanaw in
Februay 1543. He named the islands of Samar and Leyte Las Islas Filipinas in honor of
Prince Phillip II of Spain. The name was then extended to the entire archipelago later on
in the Spanish era.
• Legazpi Expedition (1565) - Miguel López de Legazpi
European colonization began in earnest when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi
arrived in 1565 and formed the first European settlements in Cebu. Beginning with just 5 ships
and 500 men accompanied by Augustinian monks, and further strengthened in 1567 by two
hundred soldiers. He concluded blood compact with Sikatuna, chief of Bohol, then a treaty of
friendship with Rajah Tupas of Cebu where the first Spanish settlement (San Miguel) was
established. Further colonization was made in Visayas and up north. In 1571, Legazpi
established Manila as the capital of the Philippines.

Political changes
• Government was centralized. For 250 years, Philippines was administered through the
Council of Indies which transmitted to the Governor General of the Philippines the royal
decree that served as guide in the administration of the colony.
• Provincial governments started with encomiendas which were rewards given by the
Spaniards who helped in the pacification of the country. Encomenderos were
empowered to collect taxes, protect and convert natives to Catholicism.
• Due to abuses perpetrated by encomenderos, encomiendas were abolished and
replaced by a system of provincial governments:
1. Provinces are called Alcaldia headed by Alcalde Mayor for pacified areas and
Corregimentos headed by Corregidors for unpacified areas.
2. Cities are called Ayuntamiento headed by two Alcalde.
3. Towns are called Pueblos headed by a Gobernadorcillo.
4. Barangays were retained and headed by a Cabeza de Barangay.

Notable Spanish Governor Generals of the Philippines

• Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1st Governor General).
• Narciso Clavería (responsible for the use of Spanish Surname by the Filipinos).
• Eulogio Despujol (responsible for Rizal’s exile in Dapitan)
 • Jose Basco (implemented the Tobacco Monopoly)
• Diego de los Rios (last Spanish Governor General)

British Occupation of Manila (1762 – 1764)

The British occupation of Manila was an episode in Philippine colonial history when the British
Empire occupied the Spanish colonial capital of Manila and the nearby principal port of Cavite
for twenty months between 1762 and 1764. The British wanted to use Manila as an entrepôt
for trade in the region, particularly with China. In addition, a ransom for the city was delivered
to the Spanish on the basis that the city would not be sacked or burnt. The resistance from the
provisional Spanish colonial government and their Filipino allies prevented British forces from
taking control of territory beyond the neighboring towns. The British occupation ended as part
of the peace settlement of the Seven Years' War.

British Governor Generals (1762 – 1764)

1. Simón de Anda y Salazar (Oct 6, 1762 – Feb 10, 1764)
2. Dawsonne Drake (Nov 2, 1762 – May 31, 1764)

Spanish Economic Policies

• Mostly characterized by monopoly that favored and benefited the Spaniards.
• Taxation - started as a tribute of 1 peso (Spanish reales). This was abolished in 1884 and
personal cedula, a poll tax based on income, was instituted for residents 18 years of age
and above. Taxes were excessive and most of which went into pockets of officials.
• Forced Labor - male from 16 to 66 years were required to render service to the
government for 40 days supposedly with daily allowances and meager food ration.
• Encomienda - became the source of corruption of officials, particularly in the sharing of
produce between encomienderos, workers and landowners. Encomienda means land
granted to deserving Spaniards who served the government.
• Galeon Trade or Manila-Acapulco Trade - Doctrine of Mercantilism (monopoly of goods
from colonies) was imposed by Spain. Philippines traded with Acapulco, Mexico in the
16th century and goods were shipped by the Spanish galleons. Tobacco was in great
demand in Europe.
• Tobacco Monopoly - The 1782 economic program of Spanish Governor General Jose V.
Basco that lasted for 100 years. Tobacco production in the Philippines was under total
control of the government. La Union, Ilocos, Abra, Cagayan Valley and Nueva Ecija
became centers for planting, growing, harvesting and processing tobacco. As the
tobacco monopoly fueled further unrest, Spain finally abolished it on 3 Dec 1882.

Del Superior Govierno - first Philippine newspaper established in 1811 to 1832. It was primarily
published and edited by the Spanish Governor General himself. The newspaper was printed in
movable type and intended for local Spaniard readers.

Doctrina Christiana – first published book in the Philippines (1593)

RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE
• Christian religion was introduced replacing the paganist anito worship. Friars were
responsible for spreading the religion such as Franciscans, Jesuits (1851), Dominicans
(1857) and Recollects (1606). Early missionaries learned the dialects of the people and
introduced highly church-oriented literature.
• Education was controlled by friars. Religious orders found the first school and colleges.
University of Sto. Tomas was the first university founded in 1611.

GROWTH OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM

• It was in the 19th century when national consciousness developed the Sporadic
Uprisings started as early as 1574 by Lakandula and followed by Sulayman then by
Magalat in 1596. Revolts by Tamblot, Bangkaw, Palaris, Dagohoy, Diego Silang and many
others grew intensely about 200 years later.
• Nationalism (devotion to or advocacy of national unity and independence) developed
due to the following factors: opening the Philippines to World Trade; rise of the middle
class; racial prejudice; Cavite mutiny and the execution of Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora
(GOMBURZA)
• Campaign for reforms started with the formation by the middle class Propaganda
Movement. Foremost among them where Lopez Jaena, Mariano Ponce, M.H. Del Pilar,
and Rizal that clamored for adequate representation to the Spanish law-making body,
the Cortes and later for independence.
• The movement failed to attain the reforms they demanded. José Rizal, the most
celebrated intellectual and radical ilustrado of the era, wrote the novels "Noli Me
Tángere", and "El filibusterismo", which greatly inspired the movement for
independence.
• Andres Bonifacio founded the Katipunan (Kataastaasang, Kagalang-galangang Katipunan
ng mga Anak ng Bayan) in July 7, 1892 on a radial platform: to secure independence and
freedom of the Philippines by force.
• The society remained secret until Teodoro Patinio exposed the society to Fr. Mariano Gil
on August 19, 1896. On August 23, 1896, the Katipuneros tore up their cedulas shouting
– “Long Lived the Philippines” thus making the so-called “Cry of Pugad Lawin”.

PEN NAMES OF PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT AND KKK LEADERS

• Dr. Jose Rizal Dimasalang, Laong Laan
• Marcelo del Pilar Plaridel, Dolores Manapat
• Graciano Lopez-Jaena Diego Laura
• Mariano Ponce Tikbalang, Naning, Kalipulako
• Antonio Luna Taga-ilog
• Jose Maria Panganiban Jomapa
• Emilio Jacinto Dimasilaw, Pingkian
• Andres Bonifacio Agapito Bagumbayan, May pag-asa
• Pio Valenzuela Madlang-away
• Apolinario Mabini Bini, Paralitico
 • Juan Luna Buan
• Emilio Aguinaldo Magdalo

• The Katipunan in Cavite split into two groups, Magdiwang, led by Mariano Álvarez (a
relative of Bonifacio's by marriage), and Magdalo, led by Emilio Aguinaldo.
• March 22, 1897 - The Tejeros Convention. The Magdalo faction under Aguinaldo and
Magdiwang under Mariano Alvarez agreed to convene in Tejeros (now part of Gen.
Trias) to settle their differences and to establish a new government that would replace
the Katipunan.
• May 10, 1897 – Andres Bonifacio and his brother Procopio were executed after being
found guilty of treason and sedition by a military court.
• November 1, 1897 – The Biak-na-Bato Constitution was signed. It was prepared by Felix
Ferrer and Isabelo Artacho, who copied, almost word for word the Cuban constitution. It
has effectively established the Biak-na-Bato Republic under Emilio Aguinaldo as the
President.
• December 15, 1897 - Pact of Biak-na-Bato, a ceasefire between the Spanish colonial
Governor General Fernando Primo de Rivera and the revolutionary leader Emilio
Aguinaldo was signed. The terms of the pact called for Aguinaldo and his militia to
surrender. Other revolutionary leaders were given amnesty and a monetary indemnity
by the Spanish government in return for which the rebel government agreed to go into
exile in Hong Kong.

SPANISH – AMERICAN WAR

April 25, 1898 – The USS Maine, having been sent to Cuba because of U.S. concerns for the
safety of its citizens during an ongoing Cuban revolution, exploded and sank in Havana harbor.
This event precipitated the Spanish–American War.
May 1, 1898 - George Dewey led a U.S. naval squadron into Manila Bay in the Philippines and
destroyed the anchored Spanish fleet in a leisurely morning engagement that cost only seven
American seamen wounded. Manila itself was occupied by U.S. troops by August.
• The U.S. invited Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines in the hope he would rally
Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19, 1898,
via transport provided by Dewey.
• June 12, 1898 - Between 4 and 5 in the afternoon, Aguinaldo, in the presence of a huge
crowd, proclaimed the independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite, establishing
the First Philippine Republic. The Philippine National Flag made in Hongkong by Marcela
Agoncillo was officially hoisted for the first time and Marcha Nacional Filipina
composed by Julian Felipe was played by the San Francisco de Malabon Band.
• December 10, 1898 - The Spanish-American War ended with the signing of the Treaty of
Paris. It established the independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the
United States, and allowed the victorious power to purchase the Philippine Islands from
Spain for $20 million.
• December 11, 1898 - US President McKinley proclaimed the policy "a gift from the gods"
and that since "they were unfit for self-government, … there was nothing left for us to do
but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize
 them". The First Philippine Republic resisted the U.S. occupation, resulting in the
Philippine–American War.

PHILIPPINE–AMERICAN WAR (1899 – 1902)

Filipinos initially saw their relationship with the United States as that of two nations joined in a
common struggle against Spain. However, the United States later distanced itself from the
interests of the Filipino insurgents. Emilio Aguinaldo was unhappy that the United States would
not commit to paper a statement of support for Philippine independence. Relations
deteriorated and tensions heightened as it became clear that the Americans were in the islands
to stay.

US Military Government (1898 – 1901)

The American military government was established following the defeat of Spain in the
Spanish–American War. During the transition period, executive authority in all civil affairs in the
Philippine government was exercised by the military governor.
• Wesley Merritt (Aug 14 – 30, 1898)
• Elwell S. Otis (Aug 30, 1898 – May 5, 1900)
• Arthur MacArthur, Jr. (May 5, 1900 – Jul 4, 1901)
• Adna Chaffee (Jul 4, 1901 – Jul 4, 1902)

On February 4, 1899, an American soldier, Private William Grayson, shot a Filipino soldier at
the bridge of San Juan, Manila. This marked the beginning of the Philippine-American War,
which lasted for three years and resulted in the death of over 4,200 American soldiers and over
20,000 Filipino combatants. As many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine,
and disease.

Insular Government (1901–1935)

• The Philippine Organic Act was the basic law for the Insular Government, so called
because civil administration was under the authority of the U.S. Bureau of Insular
Affairs. This government saw its mission as one of tutelage, preparing the Philippines for
eventual independence. On July 4, 1902 the office of military governor was abolished
and full executive power passed from Adna Chaffee, the last military governor, to Taft,
who became the first U.S. Governor-General of the Philippines.
• In socio-economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. Foreign
trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in 1895, 13% of which was with the United
States. By 1920, it had increased to 601 million pesos, 66% of which was with the United
States.
• A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the mortality rate from
all causes, including various tropical diseases, to a level similar to that of the United
States itself. The practices of slavery, piracy and headhunting were suppressed but not
entirely extinguished.
Commonwealth
• Enacted 24 on Mar 1934, the Tydings–McDuffie Act (Sen. Millard Tydings, John
McDuffie) provided for the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines with
transition to full independence after a ten-year period.
• The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15,
1935. The Tydings–McDuffie Act meant that the date of full independence for the
Philippines was set for July 4, 1946.

High Commissioners (1935 – 1942 and 1945 – 46)

• Frank Murphy (1935 – 1937)
• Paul V. McNutt (1937 – 1939)
• Francis Bowes Sayre, Sr. (1939 – 1942)
• *Paul V. McNutt (1945 – 1946) - *Following Philippine independence, became 1st U.S.
Ambassador to the Philippines

WWII and Japanese Occupation

• On Dec. 7, 1941, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor, the US naval base in Hawaii. On the same
day, they attacked Baguio, Pampanga, Manila and other parts of the Philippines. The
following day, Dec. 8, the US Congress declared war against Japan. This mark starts
World War II in the Pacific. General MacArthur declared Manila as an Open City to avoid
further destruction.
Japanese Military Governors (1942 – 1945)
• Masaharu Homma (Jan 3, 1942 – Jun 8, 1942)
• Shizuichi Tanaka (Jun 8, 1942 – May 28, 1943)
• Shigenori Kuroda (May 28, 1943 – Sep 26, 1944)
• Tomoyuki Yamashita (Sep 26, 1944 – Sep 2, 1945)
• Japan successfully occupied the Philippines after the fall of Bataan on April 9, 1942 and
Corregidor on May 6.
• 80,000 prisoners of war captured by the Japanese at Bataan were forced to undertake
the infamous Bataan Death March to a prison camp 105 kilometers to the north. About
10,000 Filipinos and 1,200 Americans died before reaching their destination.
• On October 14, 1943, the Japanese sponsored Philippine Republic was proclaimed with
Jose P. Laurel as President.
• Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerilla
activity. One element of resistance in Central Luzon area was furnished by the
Hukbalahap, led by Luis Taruc.
• Japan finally surrendered after Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9,
1945) were destroyed by atomic bombs.

POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political science is the systematic study of the State and Government. The word political is
derived from the Greek word “polis” meaning a city, the word “science” comes from the Latin
word ‘scire’ meaning to know.
State - a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite
portion of the territory, independent from outside or external control and possessing a
government wherein a great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.

Government
• Government is a system of people, laws, and officials that define and control the
country that you live in.
• The group of people who officially control a country.
• The government is the agent through which the will of the state is carried out.

Origin of the State

• Divine Theory – it holds that the state of divine creation and the ruler is obtained by
God to govern the people. Reference has been made by advocates of this theory to the
laws which Moses received at Mt. Sinai.
• Necessity or Force Theory – it maintains that states must have been created through
force by some great warriors who imposed their will up on the weak.
• Paternalistic Theory – it attributes the origin of states to the enlargement of the family,
which remained under the authority of the father or the mother. By natural stages, the
family grew into a clan , then developed into a tribe which broadened into a nation then
becomes a state.
• Social Contract Theory – it asserts that the early states must have been formed by
deliberate and voluntary compact among the people to form a society and organize
government for their common good. This theory justifies the right of the people to
revolt against a bad ruler.

Three Inherent Powers of the State

1. Police Power - it is the power of the state to regulate individual’s rights and property for
the general welfare.
2. Eminent Domain or Power of Expropriation – it is the power of the state to take
possession of private property for public purpose and after payment of just
compensation.
3. Power of Taxation - the power of the state to enforce proportionate contributions from
the people for support of all government programs and services.

Elements of a State
• Population – the most essential and indispensable element of a state. This is the mass
of the population, or the number of people living within the state. There is no specific
number of people required living within a state so that it could be called a state.
• Territory – the established area that rightly belongs to the people of the state. This is
the aerial (air), terrestrial (land), fluvial (stream/river), and maritime (water) domains of
the state.
• Government – The agency, to which the will of the state is expressed, created and
administered. This is a group of people or institutions which run and rule the society.
 • Sovereignty – It is the soul of a state. It implies that the state is independent from
external interference, as well as can maintain integrity within itself. India could not be
referred to as a state prior to 1947, as it did not have an independent government.

FORMS of GOVERNMENT
As to number of persons exercising sovereign powers:
• Monarchy – a form of government wherein the power or sovereignty is exercised by
one person only, usually a king or a queen. It could either be absolute or limited
monarchy.
• Aristocracy – a form of government wherein the power is exercised by a limited few or
the so-called elite.
• Democracy – It is a form of government wherein the power or sovereignty is exercised
and or resides in the people. It may be classified as pure or representative democracy.
As to extent of powers exercised by the central or national government:
• Unitary Government - control of national and local government is exercised by the
central or national government.
• Federal – a form of government where the power of the state is divided into two
namely: national for national affairs and local for local affairs. Each organ is independent
in its own sphere.
As to relationship between the executive and legislative branches of the government:
• Parliamentary – a form of government wherein the President serves as nominal or
titular head. It is the Prime Minister that runs the affairs of the State. He is directly
accountable to the people. Under this system the ministry is legally responsible to
legislature and consequently to the electorate.
• Presidential – a form of government wherein the President is the chief executive of the
state and independent of the legislature with respect to his tenure, acts and policies.

De Jure – a form of government that is founded on existing legal or constitutional basis.

De Facto – a form of government that is not founded on constitutional law. It exists in fact but
not in law.

Democracy
• ‘‘government of the People, by the People and for the People.’’ (Abraham Lincoln,
Gettysburg Address).
• demos ‘‘people’’ and kratia ‘‘government.’’
• The Government of the Philippines is a unitary state presidential, representative, and
democratic republic.

Constitution - body of rules and maxims in accordance with which the power of sovereignty is
habitually exercised.
Functions:
• To prescribe the permanent framework of the system of government assigned to the
different departments their respective powers and duties, and established certain fixed
first principles on which the government is founded
 • To promote public welfare, which involves the safety, prosperity, health, and happiness
of the people.

Kinds:
• Written or rigid – the provisions of which have been reduced to writing and embodied
in one or more instruments at a particular time.
Example: Philippine and U.S Constitutions
• Unwritten or flexible – is one which has not been committed to writing at any specific
time but is the collective product and accumulation of customary rules, judicial
decisions, dicta of statements and legislative enactments of fundamental character
written but scattered in various records without having any compact form in writing.
Requisites of a good written constitution:
• Broad – because it must outline an organization of the government for the whole State.
• Brief – because its nature requires that only its great outlines should be marked. Its
important objects designated and the ingredients which compose those objects be
reduced.

EVOLUTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE PHILIPPINES

• 1897 Constitution of Biak-na-Bato - established the Republic of Biak-na-Bato.
• 1899 Malolos Constitution – the 1st republic and the 1st republican constitution in Asia.
• Philippine Organic Act of 1902 – enacted by the US Congress.
• Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 – “Jones Law”
• Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934) - Commonwealth
• 1935 Constitution – Commonwealth.
• 1943 Constitution - 2nd Republic, “Puppet Republic”.
• 1935 Constitution (1946-1972) – 3rd Republic
• 1973 Constitution – 4th Republic, modified parliamentary-style government, “the new
republic”
• 1986 Freedom Constitution – provisional constitution.
• 1987 Constitution – 5th Republic

Changing the Constitution

Amendment or revision?
• Amendment - an isolated or piecemeal change in the Constitution.
• Revision - the revamp or the rewriting of the entire instrument.
How?
Proposal
• By Congress – ¾ vote of both houses (Senate and House of Representatives)
• Constitutional Convention – “CON-CON”
• People’s Initiative
Ratification - which means the submission of the draft constitution to the electorate. A
proposal made by the people‘s initiative requires at least 12% of the entire electorate and 3%
must come from every legislative district.
THE 1987 CONSTITUTION - STRUCTURE
Preamble (“preambulare” ‘to walk before’)
We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to build a just
and humane society, and establish a Government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations,
promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and
our posterity, the blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of law and a regime
of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace, do ordain and promulgate this
Constitution.
• Article I – National Territory
• Article II – Declaration of Principles and State Policies
• Article III – Bill of Rights
• Article IV – Citizenship
• Article V – Suffrage
• Article VI – Legislative Department
• Article VII – Executive Department
• Article VIII – Judicial Department
• Article IX – Constitutional Commissions
• Article X – Local Government
• Article XI – Accountability of Public Officers
• Article XII – National Economy and Patrimony
• Article XIII – Social Justice and Human Rights
• Article XIV – Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports
• Article XV – The Family
• Article XVI – General Provisions
• Article XVII – Amendments or Revisions
• Article XVIII – Transitory Provisions

Forms of Suffrage
• Election - the means by which the people choose their officials for definite and fixed
period and to whom they entrust the exercise of powers of government.
• Plebiscite – It refers to a vote of the people expressing their choice for or against a
proposed law or enactment submitted to them.
• Referendum – It is the submission of a law or part thereof passed by legislative body to
the voting citizens of a country for ratification or rejection.
• Initiative – the process whereby the people directly propose and enact laws or
amendments to the Constitution.
• Recall – It is a method by which a public officer may be removed from office during his
tenure or before the expiration of his term by a vote of the people.

Classes of rights
• Natural Rights – possessed by every citizen conferred upon him by God as a human
being.
Ex: right to life, right to live
 • Constitutional Rights - rights conferred and protected by the Constitution part of the
fundamental law cannot be modified or taken away by the law making body.
• Statutory Rights – it is provided by laws promulgated by the law making body. It can be
abolished by the same body.

WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS

Habeas corpus is a writ which requires a person under arrest to be brought before a judge or
into court. This ensures that a prisoner can be released from unlawful detention, in other
words, detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence. The remedy can be sought by the
prisoner or by another person coming to the prisoner’s aid. The legal right to apply for a habeas
corpus is also called by the same name. This right originated in the English legal system to assist
wealthy landowners, but it is now available in many nations. It has historically been an
important legal instrument safeguarding individual freedom of certain individuals against
arbitrary state action.

WRIT OF HABEAS DATA

The writ of habeas data is a remedy available to any person whose right to privacy in life,
liberty or security is violated or threatened by an unlawful act or omission of a public official
or employee, or of a private individual or entity engaged in the gathering, collecting or
storing of data or information regarding the person, family, home and correspondence of the
aggrieved party.

WRIT OF AMPARO
The writ of amparo is a remedy for the protection of constitutional rights, found in certain
jurisdictions. In some legal systems, the amparo remedy or action is an effective and
inexpensive instrument for the protection of individual rights.
Amparo, generally granted by a supreme or constitutional court, serves a dual protective
purpose: it protects the citizen and his basic guarantees, and protects the constitution itself by
ensuring that its principles are not violated by statutes or actions of the state that undermine
the basic rights enshrined therein. Thus, in the same way that habeas corpus guarantees
physical freedom, amparo protects other basic rights.

WRIT OF KALIKASAN
A Writ of Kalikasan is a legal remedy under Philippine law which provides for the protection of
one’s right to “a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of
nature,” as provided for in Section 16, Article II of the Philippine Constitution. It is compared
with the writ of amparo but protects one’s right for a healthy environment rather than
constitutional rights. The writ of Kalikasan may be sought to deal with environmental damage
of such magnitude that it threatens life, health, or property of inhabitants in two or more
cities or provinces.

Who May File?

• Any aggrieved party may file a petition. However, in cases of extralegal killings and
enforced disappearances, the petition may be filed by:
 • Any member of the immediate family of the aggrieved party, namely: the spouse,
children and parents; or
• Any ascendant, descendant or collateral relative of the aggrieved party within the fourth
civil degree of consanguinity or affinity.
Where to File?
• The petition may be filed with the Regional Trial Court where the petitioner or
respondent resides, or that which has jurisdiction over the place where the data or
information is gathered, collected or stored, at the option of the petitioner.
• The petition may also be filed with the Supreme Court or the Court of Appeals or the
Sandiganbayan when the action concerns public data files of government offices.

BRANCHES OF THE GOVERNMENT

LEGISLATIVE - Congress is a bicameral legislature. The upper house, the Senate, is composed of
24 senators elected via the plurality-at-large voting with the country as one at-large "district."
The senators elect amongst themselves a Senate President. The lower house is the House of
Representatives, currently composed of 292 representatives, with no more than 20% elected
via party-list system, with the rest elected from legislative districts. The House of
Representatives is headed by the Speaker.

Senate of the Philippines

• Founded on October 16, 1916.
• Composed of 24 senators who are elected at large by qualified voters as may be
provided by law.
• Term of Office – six (6) years.
• Term limits – 2 consecutive terms (12 years).
Prominent Senators
Presidents
• Manuel L. Quezon – 2nd President.
• Jose P. Laurel – 3rd President.
• Sergio Osmeña – 4th President.
• Manuel Roxas – 5th President.
• Elpidio Quirino – 6th President.
• Carlos P. Garcia – 8th President.
• Ferdinand E. Marcos – 10th President.
• Joseph Ejercito Estrada – 13th President.
• Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo – 14th President.
• Benigno S. Aquino III – 15th President.
• Geronima Josefa Tomelden Pecson – 1st woman senator.

House of Representatives
• Currently composed of 292 representatives, with no more than 20% elected via party-
list system, with the rest elected from legislative districts.
• Term of Office – three (3) years.
How a bill becomes a LAW?
1. The bill is assigned a number. First reading.
2. Referral to appropriate committee.
3. Second reading. Period of amendments.
4. Debates.
5. Printing and distribution.
6. Third reading.
7. Referral to the other House.
8. Submission to joint Bicameral Committee.
9. Submission to the President. If signed, bill becomes LAW. If the President fails
to communicate his veto of the bill within 30 days after the receipt thereof, the
bill automatically becomes a LAW.
• If the president vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds
supermajority. If either house voted down on a bill or fails to act on it after an
adjournment sine die, the bill is lost and would have to be proposed to the next
congress, with the process starting all over again.
• Each house has its own inherent power, with the Senate given the power to vote on
treaties, while the House of Representatives can only introduce money bills.
• The constitution provides Congress with impeachment powers, with the House of
Representatives having the power to impeach, and the Senate having the power to try
the impeached official.

Impeachment
Impeachment has been defined as a method of national inquest into the conduct of public men.
It aims to protect form official delinquencies or malfeasance.

Officials removable by Impeachment

• The president and vice-president
• Members of the Supreme Court
• Members of the Constitutional Commissions (COMELEC, COA, CSC)
• The Ombudsman (Tanodbayan)
Grounds for Impeachment
• Culpable violation of the constitution
• Treason
• Bribery
• Graft and corruption
• Betrayal of public trust – (new ground for impeachment)

EXECUTIVE - Executive power is vested to the President; in practice however, the president delegates his
power to a cabinet. The cabinet is mostly composed of the heads of the executive departments, which
provide services to the people, and other cabinet-level officials.
 • The president, who is both the head of state and head of government, is directly elected
to a single six-year term. In case of death, resignation or incapacitation, the Vice
President acts as the president until the expiration of the term.

JUDICIARY - The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court and other lower courts. The
Supreme Court is the court of last resort, and decides on constitutionality of laws via judicial
review. It is composed of a Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. The Court of Appeals is the
second highest appellate court, the Court of Tax Appeals rules on tax matters, and the
Sandiganbayan (People's Advocate) is a special court for alleged government irregularities. The
Regional Trial Courts (RTC) are the main trial courts. The Regional Trial Courts are based on
judicial regions, which almost correspond to the administrative regions.

PRINCIPLE OF CHECKS AND BALANCES

1. Executive branch has the power to check the legislative branch by vetoing laws that
Congress wants to pass.
2. Legislative branch may check the executive branch by passing laws over the veto by
two-thirds vote in each house.
3. Judicial branch may check both the legislative and executive by declaring laws
unconstitutional.

Other checks and balances:

• Executive over the judicial branch. The president appoints all supreme court justices.
• Legislative over the executive branch. The legislative branch must approve
appointments that the president makes; the Senate must approve treaties that the
president makes; and the legislative branch may investigate the executive branch.
• Legislative over the judicial branch. The legislative branch must approve the president’s
choice of judges to the judicial branch; may propose constitutional amendments to
overturn judicial decisions.
• Legislative over the executive and judicial branches. The Congress has impeachment
powers with the House of Representatives having the power to impeach, and the Senate
having the power to try the impeached official.
• Judicial over the executive branch. Supreme Court justices cannot be fired by the
president.

ECONOMICS
• “Oikonomia” Greek word meaning “management of the household”.
• Economics is the study of how scarce resources are allocated to fulfill the infinite wants
of consumers.

NEEDS: are the basic necessities that a person must have in order to survive.
e.g. food, water, shelter and clothing.
WANTS: something we would like to have but is not necessary for survival.
e.g. things that people would like to have, such as bigger homes, iphones, etc.
Microeconomics – the study of the economic decisions and actions of individual people,
companies, etc.

Macroeconomics – the study of the large economic systems of a country or region.

Factors of Production
• Land – the “gifts of nature”, or natural resources not created by human effort.
• Capital – tools, equipment, machinery, and factories used in production.
• Labor – includes people with all their efforts, abilities, and skills.
• Entrepreneurs – risk-taking individuals in search of profits.

Types of Products
• Consumer goods – products sold to general public.
e.g. rice, milk, sugar
• Capital goods - products purchased by other businesses to produce other goods and
services.
e.g. computers, machines, tools
• Services - intangible products provided by businesses.
e.g. barber, teacher (education), doctor (health care)

INFLATION
Inflation – a continuing rise in the general price level usually attributed to an increase in the
volume of money and credit relative to available goods and services.

Effects of Inflation
• Decrease in the value of money (Purchasing Power of the Peso).
• Inflation Losers – fixed salary worker, retirees living on pension.
• Inflation Gainers – People with flexible income, debtors.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

• Gross domestic product is the best way to measure a country’s economy. GDP is the
total value of everything produced by all the people and companies in the country. It
doesn’t matter if they are citizens or foreign-owned companies. If they are located
within the country’s boundaries, the government counts their production as GDP.
Gross National Product (GNP)
• An estimated value of the total worth of production and services, by citizens of a
country, on its land or on foreign land, calculated over the course on one year.
• Total value of Goods and Services produced by all nationals of a country (whether within
or outside the country).
Philippine Economy
• 33rd largest economy in the world.
• El Banco Español Filipino de Isabel II (Bank of the Philippine Islands) – 1st bank opened
in the Philippines in 1851.
 • The Philippines is the world’s largest producer of coconuts producing 19,500,000 tons in
2009, and pineapples producing 2,458,420 metric tons in 2013.
• In 2008, the Philippines has surpassed India as the world leader in business process
outsourcing (BPO).

GEOGRAPHY
• “Geo” (earth), “graphien” (to describe or write about)
• Geography literally means “to write about the earth”.
• Geography is devoted to the study of the Earth’s landforms, oceans, environment and
ecosystems, and the interactions between the human society and their environment.

Notable geographers
• Erastosthenes - calculated the equatorial circumference of the Earth at 40,233
kilometers using simple geometric relationships. Measurements of the Earth using
modern satellite technology have computed the circumference to be 40,072 kilometers.
• Strabo – wrote Geographica, one of the first books outlining the study of geography.
• Alexander von Humboldt – considered as Father of modern geography.
• William Morris Davis – father of American geography and developer of the cycle of
erosion.
MAPS
• A map is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some
space, such as objects, regions, or themes.
• The word "map" comes from the medieval Latin Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant
napkin or cloth and mundi the world.
• Cartography is the study and practice of crafting representations of the Earth upon a flat
surface, and one who makes maps is called a cartographer.

Types of maps

Physical Map
• Has colors that make natural patterns stand out.
• The colors on the map can stand for types of vegetation, mountain, and natural
features.
• Names of big natural features are easy to see.
• Physical maps also include some political information, such as boundaries.
Political Map
• Usually colored by country or by state.
• Political colors make it easy to compare size, shape, and location.
• Bold letters often make the country names stand out.
• Symbols make it easy to tell capitals from other cities.
• Political maps also name certain physical features, such as rivers and lakes.
Climate Map
• The climate of a place.
• Rainfall and temperature are climate’s main ingredients.
 • Climate is affected by elevation, distance from the ocean, and latitude.
Topographic Maps
• These maps generally represent a small area with a lot of detail. They show elevation
with contour lines, natural and man-made features.
Economic or Resource Maps
• An economic or resource map shows the specific types of economic activity or natural
resources present in an area through the use of different symbols or colors depending
on what is being shown on the map.
Road Map
• A road map or route map is a map that primarily displays roads and transport links
rather than natural geographical information. In addition to roads and boundaries, road
maps often include points of interest, such as prominent businesses or buildings,
tourism sites, parks and recreational facilities, hotels and restaurants, as well as airports
and train stations.

CONTINENTS OF THE WORLD

Asia
• Largest continent and includes within its limits an area of 44,444,100 km2 (17,159,995
mi2), or about 33% of the world‘s total land surface.
• Most populous of all the continents, with a population of 4,436,224,000 (2016), or
59.69% of the world‘s total population.
• The nations of Asia are usually grouped into five main geographical and political-cultural
subdivisions: (1)Southwest Asia, (2)South Asia, (3)East Asia, (4) Southeast Asia and (5)
Central/North Asia.
• The highest point is in Mount Everest, which towers to 8,848 m (29,029 ft) in Nepal; the
lowest point is 395 m (1,296 ft) below sea level along the shores of the Dead Sea in
Israel and Jordan.
Africa
• Second-largest continent after Asia.
• Total population as of 2016 is 1,216,130,000 or 16.36% of the world’s total population.
• Europeans called Africa the “Dark Continent”
• Africa has a number of outstanding natural features. The northern coastal area is
separated from the rest of the continent by the Sahara, the largest desert in the world.
• Mount Kilimanjaro (5,895 m/19,340 ft), a semi-active volcano, is Africa‘s highest peak.
• The Nile, the world’s longest river (6650 km/4,132 mi) can be found in this continent.
• Africa is the most rural and least urbanized of the continents.
North America
• The continent‘s land area places its third in size among the seven continents.
• Total population is 579,024,000 or 7.79% of the world’s total population.
• It is extended in the northwest by the peninsula of Alaska and its Aleutian Island chain,
in the northeast by the world‘s largest island (Greenland), in the southeast by Florida‘s
peninsula, and in the southwest by Mexico and the land bridge to South America.
• Of the more than 400 million people in North America, almost 60% are located in the
United Sates and another 20% live in Mexico.
 • In North America, the overwhelming majority are Christians.
South America
• South America is the world‘s fourth-largest continent; it is smaller than North America
but larger than Antarctica.
• The Amazon River surpasses all others in volume of flow, and the Amazon Basin is the
world‘s largest area of tropical rain forest.
• South America‘s racial heritage stems from three basic sources: Caucasian, African and
Indian.
• The continent is part of Latin America, so named because most of its settlers during the
colonial period came from the Iberian Peninsula.
• Roman Catholicism is found throughout South America.
Antarctica
• Antarctica is the fifth-largest and southernmost continent. Its position at the South Pole,
together with its elevation and ice-and-snow cover, generates the coldest climate on
Earth.
• Total population is 4,490 (2016).
• The summer population is several thousand, but only a few hundred scientists and
support personnel stay during the winter. They live in semitransparent bases.
Europe
• Europe is the second to the smallest continent. It is physically attached to Asia and
forms the western end of the immense Eurasian land mass. For historical reasons it has
been treated as a separate continent.
• The highest elevations in Europe are in the Caucasus Mountains (Mount Elbrus,
5,633m/18,481 feet) and the Alps (Mont Blanc, 4,807 m/15,771 ft).
• Vatican City with around 1,000 people is the world‘s smallest sovereign state.
Australia
• Australia is the world’s smallest continent, it is the sixth-largest country, one of the
world‘s oldest landmasses, and the flattest continent.
• In 1996, Australia‘s population was more than double that of 1945. Immigration
continues to play an important role in population increase. Prior to permanent
European settlement in Australia, the continent was populated by a number of diverse
groups of hunter-gatherer peoples, who as usually referred to as “Aborigines”.

Oceania - Refers to a group of island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean, together
with the continent of Australia.
1. Melanesia (“black islands”) includes the large quasi-continental islands
immediately north and east of Australia, from New Guinea to New Caledonia.
2. Micronesia (“little islands”) is almost exclusively composed of tiny atolls dotting
the western Pacific.
3. Polynesia (“many islands”) is an immense region in the central Pacific, those
islands farthest removed from Asia. It includes both large volcanic islands and
coral atolls within a triangle connecting Hawaii, Easter Island, and New Zealand.
MAJOR OCEANS

Pacific Ocean
• The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's oceans, extending from the Arctic in the
north to Antarctica in the south. Covering 169.2 million k², it is larger than all of the
Earth's land area combined.
• The Pacific's greatest asset is its fish. The shoreline waters of the continents and the
more temperate islands yield herring, salmon, sardines, snapper, swordfish, and tuna, as
well as shellfish.
Atlantic Ocean
• The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest ocean covering 106.4 million k². It occupies
about one-fifth of the Earth's surface.
• The major species of fish caught are cod, haddock, hake, herring, and mackerel. Eel,
lobster, and whales have also been taken in great quantities.
Indian Ocean
• The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean, covering 73.56 million k², or about twenty
percent of the water on the Earth's surface.
• Endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales. Oil and ship
pollution threatens the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea.
Southern Ocean
• The Southern Ocean is the fourth-largest ocean, covering 20.32 million k². It is typically
between 4,000 and 5,000 meters deep with only limited areas of shallow water.
• The Antarctic Circumpolar Current at 21,000 kilometers is the world's longest ocean
current, transporting 130 million cubic meters per second - 100 times the flow of all the
world's rivers.
Arctic Ocean
• The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's five major oceans and the shallowest.
• It is largely covered by sea ice throughout the year.
• Endangered marine species include walruses and whales. Phytoplankton are a crucial
part of the ocean and there are massive amounts of them in the Arctic.

WORLD ENERGY RESOURCES

• Coal is a fossil fuel that forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat, which in
turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal, and
lastly anthracite. The geological processes take place over millions of years.
• Natural gas is primarily methane with smaller quantities of other hydrocarbons. It was
formed millions of years ago when dead organisms sunk to the bottom of the ocean and
were buried under deposits of sedimentary rock. Subject to intense heat and pressure
these organisms underwent a transformation in which they were converted to gas over
millions of years.
• Oil otherwise known as petroleum or crude is a thick, black liquid composed primarily of
hydrogen and carbon. Petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms,
 usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock and subjected
to both intense heat and pressure. It is commonly refined into various types of fuels.
• The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil fuels
produces around 21.3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year. It is estimated
that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net
increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year.
• Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes
to global warming.
World’s largest dam - Three Gorges Dam in Central China.
• Opened in 2003 which provided electrical power equivalent to ten nuclear power plants.
• It can produce up to 22,500 MW of electricity.
• Chinese officials hail the dam as an engineering achievement that ranks with the 2,000-
year-old Great Wall of China.

RELIGION
3 Major World Religions

• Judaism - 14 million followers

• Christianity - 2.4 billion followers (largest in the world)
• Islam - 1.8 billion followers
- 2nd largest religion
- fastest growing major religion in the world

Judaism - The Hebrew leader Abraham founded Judaism around 3,000 B.C. Judaism is
considered one of the oldest monotheistic faiths (religions with one God).
• Judaism is around 3,000 years old and is one of the oldest of the monotheistic religions.
It is also the smallest with only about 14 million followers around the world.
• Its holy city is Jerusalem.
• The Jewish calendar is based on 29 or 30 days therefore they have 12.13 months.
Beliefs
• Jews believe that there is a single God who not only created the universe, but with
whom every Jew can have an individual and personal relationship.
• They await the Messiah, who will be an earthly king. They believe in heaven, but that
God determines where they go after life on earth.
• They give a tithe (10%). Ten Commandments is the basic code of law.
Holy Book
• The most holy Jewish book is the Torah (the first five books of the Christian Bible).
Others include Judaism's oral tradition, the written form of which is known as the
Talmud.
• The Torah (scroll of teachings) contains the five books revealed to Moses by God on
Mount Sinai.
• Torah - Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy
• Hebrew is read right to left.
Worship
• Jews worship in Synagogues or temples. Men and women usually sit separately.
• Worship is led by a Rabbi (“My Master”).
• Friday evening is time for worship.

Christianity - Founded by Jesus Christ, who was crucified around A.D. 30 in Jerusalem. It was
after his death that many accepted his teachings through the ministering of his apostles. His
followers came to believe in him as the Christ, the promised Messiah.
• Christianity is the world's biggest religion, with about 2.4 billion followers worldwide. It
is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ who lived in the Holy Land 2,000 years ago.

Beliefs
• Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God.
• God sent his Son to earth to save humanity from the consequences of sin.
• Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his Crucifixion (the Resurrection).
• Christians believe that Jesus is the Messiah promised in the Old Testament.
• Christians believe that God created the earth.
• Christians believe that they can have a personal relationship with God, and that they are
saved by faith in Christ and following His teachings.
• They believe in actual heaven and hell.
• They believe that the Bible is the inspired word of God.
• They give tithes or offerings.
Holy Book
• The Bible is the Christian holy book. It is divided into the Old and New Testaments. Parts
of the writing contained in the Old Testament are also sacred to Jewish and Muslim
people.
Worship
• The Christian place of worship is called a Church. Services are led by a priest, bishop,
pastor or reverend.
• Day of worship is normally Sunday but most recently Saturday has been added.

Islam
• Islam is the second most popular religion in the world with over a billion followers. Islam
began in Arabia and was revealed to humanity by the Prophet Muhammad. Those who
follow Islam are called Muslims. Muslims believe that there is only one God, called Allah.
Holy Book
• The Muslim scripture is the Holy Qur'an. It is 'the word of God'. Muslim beliefs and
practices are rooted in the Qur'an.
• Muslims treat the Qur'an with great respect because they believe that the Qur'an is
from Allah, and every word and every letter is sacred.
• Muslims regard the Qur'an as the unaltered word of God.
• It is read from right to left and written in Arabic.
Worship
• The Muslim building for communal worship is called a Mosque/Masjid. The word comes
from the Arabic for "place of prostration".
• Worshippers are called to prayer 5 times a day from minarets – towers on the mosque
corners.
• Normal day of worship is Friday.

The Five Pillars

To be a Muslim, all believers have to carry out five duties. These duties demonstrate a Muslim’s
submission to the will of God. These duties are known as the Five Pillars of Islam.
• Faith To become a Muslim, a person has to testify to the following statement of faith:
“There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.” This simple
statement is heard again and again in Islamic rituals and in Muslim daily life.
• Prayer Five times a day. Muslims face toward Mecca to pray. They may assemble at a
mosque, an Islamic house of worship. Or they may pray wherever they find themselves.
The duty of praying serves to bring Muslims closer to God.
• Alms Muhammad taught that all Muslims have a responsibility by giving alms, or money
for the poor, through a special religious tax.
• Fasting During the Islamic holy month of Ramadan, Muslims fast. They eat and drink
nothing between dawn and sunset. A simple meal is eaten at the end of the day. The
duty of fasting reminds Muslims that they have “greater needs than bread.” The most
important night of Ramadan is called Laylat al-Qadr (Night of Power). This is believed to
be the night the angel Gabriel, the messenger of God, first spoke to Muhammad.
• Pilgrimage All Muslims perform the hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once in a
lifetime. In the past, this involved a grueling journey across deserts, mountains, and
seas. Today, many pilgrims arrive by airplane. During the pilgrimage events in Mecca,
pilgrims wear identical garments so that all stand as equals before God.