3.
The amount of the reinforcement
Subject: FACILITATING
LEARNING
Instructor : ELIAS T. ALIAS, Ph.
D.
Learning – is an integrated, on going
process occupying within the
individual enabling him to meet the
specific aims, fulfil his needs and
interests and to cope with the living
process.
Learning - maybe defined a relatively
permanent change in behavior
potentiality that occurs due to
experience and reinforced practice.
Learning is a process that involves
change in behavior resulting from
experience. It is a process inferred
from relatively stable changes in
behavior that result through practice
or interaction with and adoption to,
environment
Characteristics of Learning
1. Learning is developmental
2. Learning is interactive
3. Learning is basic
Phases of Learning
1. Unfreezing
2. Problem Diagnosis
3. Goal setting
4. New Behavior
5. Refreezing
Principles of Learning
Ten Major Principles
1. Learning by doing is good advice.
2. One learns to do what one does.
necessary for learning is relative to
the students’ needs and abilities.
4. The principle of readiness is related
to the learners’ state development and
their previous learning.
5. The students’ self-concept and
beliefs about their abilities are
extremely important.
6. Teachers should provide
opportunities for meaningful and
appropriate practice (rehearsal).
7. Transfer of learning to new
situations can be horizontal (across
subject matter) or vertical (increased
complexity of the same subjects.)
8. Learning should be learning-
directed and focused.
9. Positive feedback, realistic praise,
and encouragement are motivating in
the teaching-learning process.
10. Metacognition is an advanced
cognitive process whereby students
acquire specific learning strategies
and also sense when they are not
learning or having trouble learning.
SEVEN THINKING SKILLS
1. Analysis (sometimes called field
dependence-independence) - the
ability to breakdown complex
information into part for the purpose
of identification and organization.
2. Focusing (Scanning) – the ability to
select relevant or information without
being distracted or confused by the
irrelevant of secondary information.
3. Comparative Analysis (Reflective-
impulsivity) – the ability to select a
correct item from among several
alternatives.
4. Narrowing (Breath of
categorization) – the ability to identify
and place new information into
categories through its attributes
(Physical characteristics, principles or
functions)
5. Complex Cognitive (Complexity-
simplicity) the ability to integrate
complex information into existing
cognitive structure (long -term
memory)
6. Sharpening (sharpening-leveling) –
the ability to maintain distinctions
between cognitive structures
(including old new information) and
to avoid confusion or overlap.
7. Tolerance (tolerant-intolerant) the
ability to monitor and modify
thinking. The ability to deal with
ambiguous or nuclear information
without getting frustrated.
TYPES OF LEARNING
SENSORY-MOTOR LEARNING –
involves understanding the external
world through the senses and muscles.
COGNITIVE LEARNING – the body.
concerned with the development of
ideas and concepts & covers much
what academic learning demands
AFFECTIVE LEARNING – involves
the experiences within which
emotions and affect takes precedence.
Teaching is the process of guiding
learning.
Teaching and learning are
psychological processes.
There are three components of the
educative process:
a. the learner
b. the learning process
c. the learning situation
The center of the educative process is
the learner.
Two general factors influence human
development:
a. Maturation or natural growth
resulting from heredity
b. Environmental influence in and
through which learning takes place.
Maturation is the process by which
heredity exerts its influence long after
birth.
The basic principles of development
are:
a. Development follows an orderly
sequence, which is predictable.
b. The rate of development is unique
to each individual.
Phylogenetic skills – those skills,
which are universally true of the
human race.
Two predictable directions during the
pre-natal and infancy periods
a. Cephalocaudal trend-development
proceeds in a head-to-foot direction in
b. Proximodistal trend- parts of the
body nearest to the center are the
earliest to develop.
The learner’s eight stages of
development:
1. Prenatal (Conception to birth)
2. Infancy (birth to 2 years)
3. Early childhood (2 years to 6 years
old)
4. Late childhood ( 6 years to 12 years
old)
5. Adolescence (puberty to 18 years
old
6. Early adulthood (18 to 40 years)
7. Middle age (40 to retirement)
8. Old age (retirement to death)
Four Aspects of Development
According to Arnold Lee Gessel
1. Motor Behavior, which refers to
posture, ability to group, movement,
general coordination of the different
parts of the body and more specific
motor coordination.
2. Adaptive Behavior, which refers to
the actions that reflect the ability to
begin new activities and take
advantage of earlier experience. It is
closely related to intelligence. 3.
Language Behavior refers to all the
ways of communicating with other
people.
4. Personal-Social Behavior which
includes the child’s reactions to other
people and to the cultural influences,
adjustments to home life, to mine and
thine, to social groups and social
conventions.
Robert Havighurst, defined
“developmental tasks” are skills and
patterns of behavior every cultural
group expect its members to master or
acquire at various ages during the life
span.
a. Physical,
b. Cultural, and
c. Psychological in nature.
Four theories of development
1. Freud’s Psychoanalytic or
Psychosexual Theory
2. Erickson’s Psychosocial
Development Theory
3. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
4. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
Freud’s
Psychoanalytic/Psychoanalysis
Theory this is also called
psychosexual theory
1. The oral stage (0 to 2 years)- the
center of pleasure is mouth (ex.
Sucking, chewing, biting)
2. The anal stage (2 to 4 years)-
children begin to receive pleasure
from the elimination process.
Attention is focused on anal region
(toilet training)
3. The phallic stage (4 to 6 years) -
pleasure gratification of children
shifts from the anal to the genital
region. children derive pleasure from
activities associated with their sex
organ.
4. The latency stage (6 to 12 years).
This stage described as a relatively
calm and stable. Focus is school
work; sex instinct are calm.
5. The genital stage (12 and up)-
Oedipal/Electra feelings are
reactivated
Oedipus/Electra complex – refers to
experience when young boys
experience rivalry with their father for
their mother’s attention and affection.
8 Stages of Erickson’s Psychosocial
Development Theory
Extension of Freud’s theory
More on social-cultural
Conflict or crisis
Trust vs Mistrust (birth – 1 yo) –
acquisition of such traits is dependent
on the child’s early experiences.
Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt (1–3
yo) – conflicting points are presented
as children venture on different tasks.
Initiative vs Guilt (3–6 yo) – Parents
and environment are the major
contributors to the development of
such traits.
Industry vs Inferiority (6 –12 yo) – At
childhood specifically elementary
years, children are molded to be
industrious or otherwise.
Identity vs Role Confusion (12 – 20
yo) – Child seeks to answer “Who am
I?
Intimacy vs Isolation (20 –40 yo) –
Erickson view intimacy as capacity to
reach out and make contact with other
people.
Generativity vs Self
Absorption/Stagnation (40 –65 yo)-
Individual as being able to work
actively productively and creatively.
Integrity vs Despair (65 –death) –
Stage of facing reality, recognizing
and accepting individuals to take
stock of the years that have gone
before.
Two Processes of Piaget’s Theory of
Cognitive Development
a. Assimilation is the process by
which an individual acquires
information or knowledge o by which
experiences are integrated into an
existing scheme.
b. Accommodation is the process of
creating a new scheme by modifying
an existing scheme after an individual
interaction with the environment
Piaget categorizes cognitive
development into four stages:
1. Sensorimotor stage (from birth to 2
years)- based primarily on immediate
experience through the senses
2. Pre-operations stage (early
childhood)- it is the emergence of
language skills
3. Concrete operations stage
(elementary years)- children begin to
learn symbol systems and concepts
and their thinking becomes more
logical and systematic.
4. Formal operations stage (high
school years). During this stage, the
young person develops full patterns of
thinking.
Three Main Levels of Moral
Development According to Kohlberg
Level One (Preconventional Morality)
Children’s judgments are based on
external criteria.
Level Two ( Conventional Morality).
Children’s judgments are based on the
norms and expectations of the group.
Level Three (Post Conventional
Morality). The individual recognizes
the arbitrariness of social and legal
conventions.
Individual differences – no two
individuals exactly alike in their
resulting development and
adjustments. Unique characteristics
and traits emerge as children pass
from one stage to another.
Specific factors influencing
differences among learners:
a. Age differences and personal
adjustment
b. Sex differences
c. Family and community background
Aspects of personality in which
learners show wide variations:
a. Physical conditions
b. Emotional response and attitudes
c. Mental abilities and specific
aptitudes
d. Social adjustment
Groupings/Types of Learners
a. Genius or mentally gifted
• With an IQ of 130 and above
• Good retention , quick response
• rapid and accurate mastery of
learning materials likely to recognized
their learning lacks and attempt to
satisfy them by asking questions.
b. Superior or bright
• with an IQ of 115
• very much like the gifted but to a
slight lower degree
• may experience also problems at
home and in school like boredom
during lectures that are too easy to
them
c. Average
• Have the ability to excel ,with an IQ
of 90-100
• With determination and concentrtion
• Can achieve academic success
d. Slow learner/Dull or borderline
• have difficulty to learn the subject
attention span is short
• functions at ability but significantly
below grade level
• have IQ between 70 and 85.
e. Mentally retarded or feebleminded
Now termed “developmental
disability” refers to significantly sub-
average general intellectual
functioning existing concurrently with
deficits in adaptive behavior which
implies social-maturity below the
developmental period or the time
between the birth or the 18th birthday.
.
Formal education is based on the
premise that the learning process can
be directed and facilitated.
Types of Learning
1. Sensory or Psychomotor learning.
It involves understanding of the
external world through the use of the
senses and muscles. A basic factor in
motor learning is accuracy of
perception, which in turn is dependent
on the past experiences of the learner
2. Cognitive learning. It covers what
is taught in school. It includes
everything from simple associations
between stimuli and responses or
association learning to the
development of complex insights as in
problem solving.
Techniques to develop sensory-motor
learning:
1. Direction
2. Imitation
3. Demonstration
4. Drill
Types of Cognitive Learning
a. Association learning involves the
development of associative patterns
by which ideas and experiences are
recognized, retained, and recalled
through the process of establishing
relationships among ideas and
experiences.
b. Problem-solving learning involves
a process of overcoming difficulties
that appear to interfere with the
attainment of a goal.
c. Affective learning. It involves
experiences, which include mental
understanding, accompanied by
emotional reactions of pleasure or
satisfaction.
Types of appreciative experiences
a. Aesthetic appreciative experiences.
Refers to the study in the field of art,
music, and literature.
b. Intellectual appreciative
experiences. Refers to the study of
problem in which the ability to
comprehend and understand is
involved to the fullest extent.
Teacher is the most important factor
in teaching for appreciation. Unless
the teacher appreciates fully what he
is teaching, he cannot expect his
students to develop appreciation.
Basic Theories of Learning
1. Behavioral or Association Learning
Theories – emphasize the
establishment and strengthening of
relationships between the stimulus (S)
and the response (R) and emphasize
the role of reinforcement in the
learning process.
2. Cognitive-field theories – focus on
the cognitive structures of man as a
basis for learning.
Classifications of Behavioral or
Association or Stimulus-Response
Learning Theories
A. Association or Stimulus-Response
Theories – emphasize the
establishment and strengthening of
relationships between the stimulus (S)
and the response (R).
a. Edward Lee Thorndike’s
Connectionism Theory. It view
learning as a process of putting
together units to form total
experiences and complex forms of
behavior.
Major Laws of learning according to
Thorndike.
Law of Readiness states that when a
person is prepared to respond or act
the result is satisfying.
Law of Exercise states that constant
repetition of a response strengthens its
connection with the stimulus.
Law of Effect states that learning
strengthened if it results is
satisfaction.
Other Laws of Learning with
Pedagogical Relevance
Law of Apperception (Herbart)- It is
characterized by a clear perception in
which there is recognized of
relationships between what is
presented and existing body of
knowledge.
Law of Association (Kant)- Learning
takes place through the connection
and functional relationship between
two psychological phenomena
established by means of experience.
Law of Belongingness (Thorndike)-
Associations are easily formed if they
belong or a part of related stimuli that
excites an organism to functional
activity.
Law of Intensity ( Carr) – This law
asserts that the strength of any
behavior or experience has a
corresponding relation or connection
to learning.
Law of Forgetting (Ebbinghaus)- It is
related to the law of disuse. the ability
to reproduce or to remember what has
been previously learned is in direct
proportion to the opportunities to use.
Ivan Pavlov’s Classical or
Respondent Conditioning. It involves
the formation or strengthening of an
association between a conditioned
stimulus, which originally elicited the
response.
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Theory
1). Excitation. This is known as the
law of acquisition. This happens when
a previously neutral stimulus acquires
the property of eliciting the
conditioned response, i.e. the buzzer
(CS) elicits salivation (CR).
2). Extinction. This process is also
called unlearning. This occurs when
the conditioned response is no longer
elicited by the conditioned stimulus
because the conditioned stimulus was
constantly presented without the
paired stimulus.
3). Stimulus generalization. This
process occurs when the conditioned
response is not only elicited by the
original condition stimulus but by
other similar to the conditioned
stimulus.
4). Spontaneous Recovery. A
conditioned response, which does not
appear for sometime, re-occurs
without further conditioning.
B). Instrumental or Operant
Conditioning Theory
1. Frederick Skinner’s Instrumental or
Operant Conditioning. It refers to an
idea of Skinner that an organism has
to do something in order to get a
reward, that is, it must operate on its
environment.
Types of Reinforcers
Primary reinforces are innately
reinforcing. They are powerful in
increasing the chance that particular
behavior will occur. Example food,
water.
Secondary reinforces are not innately
reinforcing. Their power to reinforce
behavior is acquired and not innately
present. Example money, grades,
token, & stars
Two ways of punishment according to
Skinner
1. The presentation of an unpleasant
event.
2. The removal of a pleasant event.
Shaping of behavior is the acquisition
of complex behaviors.
2. Hull’s Drive-Reduction Theory
Clark L. Hull Behavior theory means
learning as response reinforcement
occurring as a result of drive
reduction. Subjects learn the specific
response that occurs when a drive or
need is reduced. The response then
becomes a habit. For Hull habit,
which strengthens with, each added
reinforcement or stimulus responses
unit is the fundamental law of
learning.
Psychodynamic factors:
1. mental constructs
2. intervening variables
3. E. C. Tolman’s Purposive
Behaviorism
This theory abridge between rigid
behaviorism and Gestaltism, offered a
cognitivist theory of learning: the
mental processes at work in the
learning experience are more than
mere stimulus-response connections
(S-S/ significate) theory. It was called
purposive behaviorism because
Tolman insisted that, far from being
random and chaotic, learning is goal
directed. He postulated his famous
HATE variables (Heredity, Age,
Training, Endocrine) as a crucial
importance in understanding and
predicting behavior.
4. Social Learning theory (Albert
Bandura and Richard Wallace)
Their theory maintains the importance
of the stimulus response connection in
learning, but its emphasis is on
observational learning, which
includes self-instruction and self-
reinforcement, rather than of
reinforcement.
This theory embodies several basic
assumptions.
1. It is assumed that infants possess
innate or inborn reflexes.
2. Humans have a symbolizing
capacity to process/transform
experiences into internal models that
can guide future actions.
3. Forethought influences our present
actions by anticipation of
consequences and events.
4. The capacity for vicarious learning
is present in human; thus individuals
can learn by observation and not by
trial and error.
5. Humans have the capability for
reflective self-consciousness. This
involves thinking of thoughts and
attributing meaning to their
experiences.
The basic principle embodied in this
theory is the reciprocal relationship
between behavior and the conditions
that control it.
The exposure to a model may produce
different effects; namely.
1. Observational learning effect –
where an individual recombines
previously learned behavioral patterns
to produce novel responses.
2. Inhibitory effect – where the
model’s behavior either strengthens or
weakens the inhibition of responses
already available to the observer.
3. Social facilitation effect – where
the model’s behavior leads toward
acting out a response already
available to the observer.
Four sub processes of social learning
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motoric reproduction
4. Reinforcement
5. Cognitive Field Theories – interpret
learning as the organization or
reorganization of the subject’s
perceptual system into meaningful
patterns.
6. Wolfgang Kohler’s theory of
instant learning or gaining insight. It
is a gradual process of exploring,
analyzing and restructuring
perceptions until a solution is arrived
at.
Processes for gaining insight:
1. Exploring
2. Analyzing
3. Restructuring Perceptions
7. Gestalt Laws. This school of
psychology upon which most of
cognitive psychology is based was
developed by Wolfgang Kohler, Marx
Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka in 1921.
In their study, the primary focus was
perception. Their studies led to the
principles or laws that govern how
people assign meaning to visual
stimuli.
Several laws were developed from
their research.
Law of Continuity. This law states the
perceptual organization tends to
preserves smooth continuities rather
than abrupt changes.
• Law of Closure. This laws states that
incomplete figures tend to be seen as
complete.
• Law of Proximity. This law tends
that things close together are grouped
together in perception
• Law of Similarity. This law refers to
the perception of similar objects that
tend to be related.
• Law of Pregnanz. organizations
perceived from a visual stimulus, the
one that will most likely occur is the
one that possesses the best, simplest,
and most stable form.
8. Kurt Lewin Topological and Vector
Theory, which view that
psychological self and psychological
environment, motivate a person.
9. Jerome Bruner Theory of
Instrumental Conceptualism.
Three simultaneous cognitive
processes
1. Acquisition is the process of
obtaining new information that can
either replace or refine something
previously known.
2. Transformation is the manipulation
of information to fit new situation.
3. Evaluation is checking whether or
not the learned material has been
manipulated appropriately
Three major assumptions information-
processing
I. Information is processed in steps or
stages, which include:
1. Attending to a sensory input,
2. Transforming the input into some
kind of mental image,
3. Comparing the mental image with
information already stored in
memory,
4. Assigning meaning to the image,
5. Acting on the image in some way.
II. There are limits to how much
information can be processed at each
stage.
III. Human information-processing is
interactive which means that learning
occur, or is likely to occur, when there
is an interaction between
environmental input and a learner
who processes or transforms the
information.
Three components of long-term
memory
1. Semantic memory (facts, principles
and concepts)
2. Procedural memory (specific
physical abilities and skills)
3. Episodic memory (times and
places)
Metacognition is the process of
knowing about knowing. It essential
purpose is to enhance learning and
memory.
Adhesive principle means that a
response is attached to a stimulus
through the stimulus occurring just
prior to the response so that the
recurrence of the stimulus will evoke
or cause the response.
Feedback principle means that the
reduction or satisfaction of an organic
need or drive stimulus increases the
probability of occurrence of future
responses of the kind that the
organism emitted
Theories of Transfer of Learning
a. Theory of mental discipline is the
exercise of mental faculties.
b. Theory of identical elements (by
Thorndike) transfer of learning is due
to the identity of procedure
c. Theory of generalization (by
Charles Judd) transfer of learning is a
form of generalization, which can be
encouraged by training.
d. Theory of configuration (by
Gestalt) transfer of learning is the
result of the application of certain
principles of configuration.
Factors affecting the transfer of
learning
1. Mental ability
2. Similarities between subject matter
3. Motivation and effort-making
capacity
4. Method of teaching
5. Facilities
6. Background
Motivation is a process in which the
individual’s attention and interest are
aroused and directed toward definite
goals.
Mental processes:
a) perception,
b) concept attainment, and
c) reasoning
Mental health is the ability to adapt
satisfactorily to the changes and
problems met within life.
Mental hygiene refers to measure
taken to maintain and foster good
mental health.
Style of Leadership and Its Effects in
the Learning Process
1. Authoritarian/ Direction
(domineering, strict, stern, discipline
and aggression but well-organized)
2. Permissive leadership (democratic,
flexible, and creative in approach)
3. Laissez-faire (absence of control,
passive)
Aspects of Personality in which
Learners Show Wide Variations
1. Physical Conditions
2. Emotional response and attitudes
3. Mental abilities and specific
aptitudes
4. Social adjustment
Learning situation as a component of
the educative process refers to
conditions outside the learner, which
affects his learning.
Teacher is the key factor in classroom
learning situation. He assumes various
significant roles in the classroom as:
a. Teacher as a Model. The behavior
& attitude of teacher are imitated by
the learners
b. Teacher as a Classroom Manager.
It is to determine the psychosocial
climate of the classroom.
c. Teacher as a Facilitator of Student
Learning. It is main role of the
teacher.
d. Teacher as an Evaluator of
Student’s Learning. Its primary
objective is to improve learner’s
performance.
e. Teacher as a Counselor. It is to
understand the learners and attends
their need.
Motivation and communication are
two aspects of the learning function
that need attention because they
contribute to effective learning.
Kinds of Motivation
a. Extrinsic motivators are forces that
arise from outside the individual such
honors, monetary rewards, medals
and the like.
b. Intrinsic motivators arise from the
individual’s genuine desire to learn
because he realizes the benefits he
derives from what he will learn.
Theories of Motivation
1. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS theory. (Abraham Maslow)
It is helpful in understanding the
variety of pupils’ motives, their
emergence and their relationships.
One of Maslow’s most famous
concepts is that of self-actualization
or the use of one’s abilities to the
limit of one’s potentialities.
According to Maslow there are five
basic needs: physiological, safety,
love and belongingness, esteem and
self-actualization.
2. DAVID MC CLELLAND’S NEED
ACHIEVEMENT THEORY.
This theory is an explanation of
motivation that is related to
competence, judging it and increasing
it. He stated that individuals seek out
challenging, moderately difficult
tasks.
3. ATTRIBUTION THEORY.
Most of the students attribute their
success or failure to specific causes.
When they are able to get good
grades, they think that they are good
in the subject, but when they fail in
the test they attribute it to difficulty of
the test.
4. INSTINCT THEORY
An individual acts the way he does
because of his instinct. An instinct is a
descriptive term for a complex,
unlearned adaptive response, an
unlearned pattern of reflexes
appearing in all members of species.
5. PSYCHO-ANALYTIC/DRIVE
THEORY
This theory postulates that an
organism is motivated to eliminate or
reduce bodily tension.
6. INCENTIVE THEORY
This theory assumed that if a certain
desirable goal can be anticipated
following the completion of a
particular action, in effect, the
organism likely to be motivated to
perform that action.
7. AROUSAL THEORY
This theory assumed that, this is an
alternative to drive theory which
stipulates a moderate level of
stimulation is reinforcing while both
higher and lower levels of stimulation
are relatively unpleasant.
8. SOLOMON’S OPPONENT
PROCESS THEORY
This theory explains that a state of
positive feeling is followed by a
contrasting negative feeling and vice
versa.
9. WHITING and CHILD
BEHAVIOR THEORY
This theory states that a few basic
motives acquired in early infancy tend
to grow excessively and rapidly into
behavior systems in later life and
consequently, various kinds of
observable responses are influenced
by common motive.
10. COGNITIVE THEORY (HUNT)
Man is rational and consciously
decides what he will do or not do.
Motives curiosity, intention, motive to
achieve success and goals activate and
direct the individual to action.
11. SELF-EFFICACY THEORY
(Bandura)
The key to individual achievement
lies with the individual’s own belief
in his ability to organize and execute
actions required for successful
performance.
12. SELF-DETERMINATION
THEORY
An attitude of determination is the
foundation for motivated behavior.
Techniques to Motivate Students
1. Define objective.
2. Place the responsibility on the
students for learning.
3. Use students Participation.
4. Use varied teaching methods.
5. Make use of recognition.
6. Use competition
7. Give reward for good work.
8. Use punishment where means fail.
A basic tool of learning is
communication. Psychologists and
teachers agreed on the fact that
student who cannot communicate
cannot learn. An essential objective of
education, therefore, is to develop the
communication skills of students;
namely speaking, writing, listening,
reading.
Four patterns of classroom interaction
according to Lingren.
Least Effective. The teacher attempts
to maintain one-way communication
with students in the class.
More Effective. The teacher attempts
to develop two-way communication
with students in the class.
Even More Effective. The teacher
maintains two-way with
communication with students and also
permits some communication among
students on a rather formal basis.
Most Effective. The teacher becomes
a co-participant in the group and
encourages two-way communication
among all members of the group.
Models of Teaching
1. Expository Method. The teacher
lectures, explains, provides facts,
ideas and other essential information
to the class.
2. Reporting. One of the groups of
students undertakes the task of giving
a class report on the subject matter.
3. Panel Discussion. A group of
students initiates the formal
discussion.
4. Demonstration. A teacher’s
purpose is to show how something is
to be done.
5. Micro-teaching. Students teach for
short periods, which are then
videotaped for analysis and critique.
6. Role-playing, Modeling,
Dramatization. Students enact
different roles in a teaching-learning
situation to derive conclusions,
principles or concepts.
7. Simulation, Games. This involves
the creation of life-like situations
often involving dialogue.
8. Group Work, Discussion. Students
break into smaller groups to discuss a
topic or a problem, or to do a task
with the teacher as guide and
observer.
Gagne’s Conditions of Learning
1. Signal Learning – the stage where
involuntary responses are learned.
This condition is similar to classical
conditioning.
2. Stimulus-Response Learning – the
stage where voluntary responses are
learned. This is similar to operant
conditioning.
3. Chaining – in this condition, a
series of stimulus-response
connections are linked.(adding 1&2 as
3)
4. Verbal Association – This stage
entails labeling certain responses.
(Labeling as 1+1=2)
5. Discrimination Learning – This is
the condition where the learner selects
a response, which applies to certain
stimuli. (ex. Choosing 2 rather than 3
when presented with the problem 1+1
= ).
6. Concept Learning involves
classifying and organizing perception
to gain meaningful concepts. ( ex. All
dogs have four legs).
7. Principle learning involves
combining and relating concepts
already learned to form rules. ( ex.
1+2=3 is the same as 2+1=3).
8. Problem-solving which is the most
complex condition involves applying
rules to appropriate problem
situations (ex. Solving word problems
in math).
Stacy Mantle Seven Types of
Learning Styles
1. Linguistic. This type of learners
loves to read, write and tell stories.
2. Logical. These children are very
mathematically inclined.
3. Spatial. These are the visualizers.
They spend most of the day
daydreaming, watching movies and
staying as far away from reality as
possible.
4. Musical. This type of learner is best
at noticing details, pitches and
rhythms that escape the normal
listener.
5. Bodily. This type of the learner is
always on the move. They constantly
walk around; they have to touch
everything; and they use body
language.
6. Interpersonal. These are the social
butterflies. They adapt easily to any
social situation, have many friends ability that could be measured and
and are excellent leaders. numerically expressed.
7. Intrapersonal. These strong willed Primary Mental Abilities Louis
people work best alone. They pursue Thurstone His theory focused on
their own interests and have a deep seven different “primary mental
understanding of themselves. abilities.” The abilities that he
Benjamin Bloom Mastery Learning described were:
Model. In this model, aptitude quality • verbal comprehension
of instruction, ability, perseverance, • reasoning
and time for learning are significant • perceptual speed
variables, which can determine • numerical ability
teaching and learning success. Bloom • word fluency
believes that teaching begins with the • associative memory
delivery of knowledge to • spatial visualization
comprehension, application, analysis, Multiple Intelligences Howard
and synthesis. The end goal of this Gardner Gardner proposed that
model is mastery; and thus numerical expressions of human
incorporates the value of education. intelligence are not a full and accurate
INTELLIGENCE depiction of people’s abilities. His
• Lewis Terman defines it as the theory describes nine intelligences:
ability to learn in terms of abstract • Visual-spatial
ideas while Colvin viewed • Verbal0linguistic
intelligence as the ability to adjust to • Body-kinesthetic
new environment. • Logical-Mathematical
• Is an overall capacity for particular • Interpersonal
mental activities that cannot be • Musical
measured directly. • Intrapersonal
Theories of Intelligence • Naturalistic
Theories Proponents Perspectives • Existentialism
General Intelligence Charles Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Spearman In using the technique Robert Sternberg He proposed the
Spearman concluded that scores on successful intelligence comprised the
these tests were remarkable similar. three different factors:
People who performed well on one • Analytical
cognitive test tended to perform well • Creative
on other tests, while those who scored • Practical
badly on one test tended to score The Concept of Intelligence
badly on others. He concluded that Mental Age
intelligence is a general cognitive • refers to the degree of mental
development of an individual as
compared with the average person of
particular chronological age.
Chronological Age
• is the actual age of a person.
Meaningful learning occurs when
material to be learned is related to
what students already know.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
o It is the number that indicates how a
person has fared on a particular test as
compared to others in the same age
bracket.
o When the mental age is determined
it will be an easy matter to compute
the IQ of a child through the use of
the formula
IQ = MA/ CA x 100
Uses of the IQ
 Can be used as basis for
classification for school purposes or
for job placements
 Many schools use the IQ results for
admission on purposes.
Distribution of IQ based on the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
IQ Verbal Description Percent Adults
Above 130 Very Superior 2.2
120- 129 Superior 6.7
110- 119 Bright Normal 16.1
90- 109 Average 50.0
80- 89 Dull Normal 16.1
70- 79 Borderline 6.7
Below 70 Defective 2.2
Extremes of Intelligence
Two Basic Extremes of Intelligence
1. Mentally Gifted- defined as having
an intelligence of 130 or Higher
Characteristics:
 He learns very fast with minimum
direction and grasps concept easily
 He can readily understand what he
reads and could retain and recall
principles and theories presented
 He organized his thoughts
systematically
 He recognizes relationship; thinks
reflectively and critically
 He is aware of various events in the
environment that often children do not
take notice of
 He has a good command of
language or several languages and
dialects
 He has a wide range of vocabulary
 He accepts intellectual challenges
and works on his mental tasks
diligently
 He is curious of things, events and
of people’s behavior
 He is creative and initiates
activities
 He has a variety of interests on
many subjects
2. Mentally Retarded has three
essential features
 Intellectual functioning must be
significantly below-average.
 Significantly deficits in adaptive
functioning must be evident average.
 Onset must be prior to age 18
Levels of Mental Retardation
Level IQ Scores % Adaptations to
Demands of Life
Mild 50 to 70 85 May learn academic
skills up to sixth grade level. Adults
may, with assistance, achieve self-
supporting, social and vocational
skills
Moderate 35 to 40 10 May progress to
second grade level academically.
Adults may contribute to their own
support by labor in sheltered
workshops
Sever 20 to 24 2-3 May learn to talk
and to perform simple work tasks
under supervision but are generally
unable to profit from vocational
training
Profound Below 20 1-2 Require
constant aid and supervision
FACILITATING HUMAN
LEARNING
Understanding Learning and
Knowledge Acquisition
Definition of learning- is the
acquisition and development of
memories and behaviors, including
skills, knowledge, understanding,
values and wisdom. It is the goal of
education, and the product of
experience. It is therefore a relatively
permanent change in behavior.
Other Definitions:
1. A process inferred from relatively
stable changes in behavior that result
through practice of interaction with
and adaptation to the environment
(Goodwin and Klausmeier)
2. The development of new
associations as a result of experience (
Good and Grophy).
3. The modification of an organism’s
behavior as a result of maturation and
environmental experience.
Theories of Learning
A. Edward Thorndike’s
Connectionis,/Associationism Theory:
Human activity is based on
association between stimulus and
response.
a. Law of effect
b. Law of exercise
c. Law of readiness
B. Classical conditioning (Ivan
Pavlov):
It is based on ADHESIVE principle
which means that a response is
attached to a stimulus through the
stimulus occurring just prior to he
response so that the recurrence of the
stimulus will evoke or cause the
response. (ex. Dog’s salivation
experiment)
C. Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner)
Organism has to do something in
order to get reward that is, it must
operate on its environment.
 Reinforcement: is any behavioral
consequence that strengthens
behavior. It increases the likelihood of
the recurrent of a particular type of
response.
 Types of reinforcement:
-Positive Reinforcement: These
reinforcers increase frequency.
-Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens
behavior by their removal.
-Primary Reinforcement: food, water,
sleep
-Secondary Reinforcement: money,
grades, starts, tokens etc.
D. Social Learning Theory ( Albert
Bandura) –plus emphasis on
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING.
E. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Theory-
Gaining insight is a gradual processes
of exploring analyzing and
restructuring perceptions until a
solution is arrived at.
F. Gestalt Theoru (Kohlerm
Wertheimer and Koffka)- The
primary focus of this theory is on
PERCEPTION and how people assign
meanings to visual stimuli,”The
whole is more than the sum of all its
parts”
G. Kurt Lewin’s Topological and
Vector Theory (Field Theory)- the
behavior of an individual at a given
moment is the result of existing forces
operating simultaneously in his life
space. (Internal and External forces).
H. Jerome Bruner’s Theory- Also
known as Instrumental
Conceptualism. Learning involves 3
simultaneously processes: acquisition
transformation and evaluation.
I. Information processing Theory- The
theory describes the psychological
events in terms of transformations of
information form input to output. It
stresses the value of perception,
attention and memory in the learning
process.
Type of Learning:
a. Cognitive Learning- is concerned
with the development of ideas and
concepts.
b. Affective Learning- Involves
assimilation of values, emotional
reactions and acquisition of attitudes
c. Psychomotor Learning-
understanding the external world
through the senses and muscles.
Cognitive and Meta-cognitive factors
in Learning
Analogical Process and Transfer of
Learning
The Theory of Transfer of Learning
was introduced by Thorndike and
Woodworth (1901). They explored
how individuals would transfer
learning in one context to another
context that shared similar
characteristics. Their theory implied
that transfer of learning depends on
the learning task and the transfer task
being identical, also known as
“identical elements. There is a close
relationships between transfer of
learning and problem solving a
problem in a new situation.
Type Characteristics
Near Overlap between situations,
original and transfer contexts as
similar
Far Little overlap between situations,
original and transfer settings are
dissimilar
Positive What is learned in one
context enhances learning in different
setting
Negative Knowledge if a previous
topic essential to acquire new
knowledge
Vertical Knowledge of previous topic
is not essential to acquire new
knowledge
Horizontal Knowledge of a previous
topic is not essential but helpful to
learn a new topic
Literal Intact knowledge transfers to
new task
Figural Use some aspect of general
knowledge to think or learn about a
problem
Low Road Transfer of well-
established skills in almost automatic
fashion
High Road Transfer involves
abstraction so conscious formulations
of connections between contexts
High Road/Forward Abstracting
situations from learning context to a
Reaching Potential transfer context
High Road/Backward Abstracting in
the transfer context features of a
Reaching Previous situation where
new skills and knowledge were
learned
Metacogntion- refers to thinking
about cognition ( memory, perception,
calculation, association, etc.) itself or
to think/reason about one’s own
thinking.
 Metacognition involves two types
of knowledge: 1) explicit, conscious,
factual knowledge, and 2)
implicit/unconsciousness knowledge.
 The efforts of metacognition are
aimed at developing learner
autonomy, independence and self-
regulated learners.
Motivational Factors in Learning
Reward and Reinforcement
A reward is that which follows an
occurrence of a specific behavior with
the intention of acknowledging the
behavior in a positive way. A reward
often has the intent of encouraging the
behavior to happen again.
There are two kinds of rewards,
extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are
external to, or outside of, the
individual; for example, praise or
money. Intrinsic rewards are internal
to or within, the individual; for
example, satisfaction or
accomplishment.
Some authors distinguish between
two forms of intrinsic motivation: on
based on enjoyment, the other on
obligation. In this context, obligation
refers to motivation bases on what an
individual thinks ought to be done.
For, instance, a feeling of
responsibility for a mission may lead
to helping others beyond what is
easily observable, rewarded, or fun.
A reinforce is different from reward,
in that reinforcement is intended to
create a measured increase in the rate
of a desirable behavior following the
addition of something to the
environment.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is evident when
people engage in an activity for its
own sake, without some obvious
external incentive present. A hobby is
a typical example.
Intrinsic motivation has been
intensely studied by educational
psychologists since the 1970s, and
numerous studies have found it to be
associated with high educational
achievement and enjoyment by the
students.
There us currently no”grand unified
theory” to explain the origin or
elements of intrinsic motivation. Most
explanations combine elements of
Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory,
Bandura’s work on self-efficacy and
other studies relating to locus of
control and goal orientation. Thus it is
thought that students are more like to
experience intrinsic motivation if
they:
Attribute their educational results to
internal factors that they can control
(eg. The amount of effort they put in,
not fixed ability).
Believe they can be effective agents
in reaching desired goals (eg. The
results are not determined by dumb
luck).
Are motivated towards deep mastery
of a topic, instead of just rote-learning
performance to get good grades.
In knowledge-sharing communities
and organizations, people often cite
altruistic reasons for their
participation, including contributing
to a common good, a moral obligation
to the group, mentoship or giving
back”. This model if intrinsic
motivation has emerged from three
decades of research by hundreds of
educationalists and still evolving.
In work environments, money is
typically viewed as an important goal
( having food, clothes etc) may well
be more powerful than the direct
motivation provided by an enjoyable
worklace.
Learning styles vs. learning strategies.
Issues regarding learning style are
somewhat related, i.e students that
willing and able to think in more
abstract terms and/or to critically
examine what they do may show
better performance.
A learning style refers to the
relationship between individuals and
their ways of learning whereas
learning strategies refer to attitudes
and behavior that is oriented towards
goals . As an example, one could
compare/oppose.
Learning style Learning strategy
Self-assessment Self-assessment
Field-dependent Field- independent
Cognitive level Plus meta-cognitive
level
Learner preference Learner
competence
Socio-cultural Dimensions of
Learning
Theories of Situated Learning
Situated learning has antecedents in
the work of Gibson (theory of
affordances) and Vygotsky ( social
learning). In addition, the theory of
Schoenfield on mathematical problem
solving embodies some of the critical
elements of situated learning
framework. Situated learning is a
general theory of knowledge
acquisition. It has been applied in the
context of technology-based learning
activities for schools that focus in
problem-solving skills.
Principles of Situated Learning:
1. Knowledge needs to be presented
in an authentic context, i.e, setting and
applications that would normally
involve that knowledge
2. Learning requires social interaction
and collaboration.
Individual Differences in Learning
Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligence
was developed in 1983 by Dr,
Howard Gardner, professor of
education at Harvard University. It
suggests that the traditional notion of
intelligences to account for a broader
range of human potential inchildren
and adults.
Learning Preferences
Visual/Verbal
Visual/Nonverbal
Tactile/Kinesthetic
Auditory Verbal
Characterizing Students with Special
Learning Needs
An exceptional child is one that is
different in some way form the”
normal” ot”average” child. The term
“exceptional child” includes those
with special problems related to
physical disabilities, sensory
impairments, emotional disturbances,
learning disabilities and metal
retardation. Most exceptional children
require a lot of understanding and
patience as well as special education
and related services if they are to
reach their full potential development.
FACILITATING HUMAN
LEARNING
Understanding Learning and
Knowledge Acquisition
Definition of learning- is the
acquisition and development of
memories and behaviors, including
skills, knowledge, understanding,
values and wisdom. It is the goal of
education, and the product of
experience. It is therefore a relatively
permanent change in behavior.
Other Definitions:
1. A process inferred from relatively
stable changes in behavior that result
through practice of interaction with
and adaptation to the environment
(Goodwin and Klausmeier)
2. The development of new
associations as a result of experience (
Good and Grophy).
3. The modification of an organism’s
behavior as a result of maturation and
environmental experience.
Theories of Learning
A. Edward Thorndike’s
Connectionis,/Associationism Theory:
Human activity is based on
association between stimulus and
response.
a. Law of effect
b. Law of exercise
c. Law of readiness
B. Classical conditioning (Ivan
Pavlov):
It is based on ADHESIVE principle
which means that a response is
attached to a stimulus through the
stimulus occurring just prior to he
response so that the recurrence of the
stimulus will evoke or cause the
response. (ex. Dog’s salivation
experiment)
C. Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner)
Organism has to do something in
order to get reward that is, it must
operate on its environment.
 Reinforcement: is any behavioral
consequence that strengthens
behavior. It increases the likelihood of
the recurrent of a particular type of
response.
 Types of reinforcement:
-Positive Reinforcement: These
reinforcers increase frequency.
-Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens
behavior by their removal.
-Primary Reinforcement: food, water,
sleep
-Secondary Reinforcement: money,
grades, starts, tokens etc.
D. Social Learning Theory ( Albert
Bandura) –plus emphasis on
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING.
E. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Theory-
Gaining insight is a gradual processes
of exploring analyzing and
restructuring perceptions until a
solution is arrived at.
F. Gestalt Theoru (Kohlerm
Wertheimer and Koffka)- The
primary focus of this theory is on
PERCEPTION and how people assign
meanings to visual stimuli,”The
whole is more than the sum of all its
parts”
G. Kurt Lewin’s Topological and
Vector Theory (Field Theory)- the
behavior of an individual at a given
moment is the result of existing forces
operating simultaneously in his life
space. (Internal and External forces).
H. Jerome Bruner’s Theory- Also
known as Instrumental
Conceptualism. Learning involves 3
simultaneously processes: acquisition
transformation and evaluation.
I. Information processing Theory- The
theory describes the psychological
events in terms of transformations of
information form input to output. It
stresses the value of perception,
attention and memory in the learning
process.
Type of Learning:
a. Cognitive Learning- is concerned
with the development of ideas and
concepts.
b. Affective Learning- Involves
assimilation of values, emotional
reactions and acquisition of attitudes
c. Psychomotor Learning-
understanding the external world
through the senses and muscles.
Cognitive and Meta-cognitive factors
in Learning
Analogical Process and Transfer of
Learning
The Theory of Transfer of Learning
was introduced by Thorndike and
Woodworth (1901). They explored
how individuals would transfer
learning in one context to another
context that shared similar
characteristics. Their theory implied
that transfer of learning depends on
the learning task and the transfer task
being identical, also known as
“identical elements. There is a close
relationships between transfer of
learning and problem solving a
problem in a new situation.
Type Characteristics
Near Overlap between situations,
original and transfer contexts as
similar
Far Little overlap between situations,
original and transfer settings are
dissimilar
Positive What is learned in one
context enhances learning in different
setting
Negative Knowledge if a previous
topic essential to acquire new
knowledge
Vertical Knowledge of previous topic
is not essential to acquire new
knowledge
Horizontal Knowledge of a previous
topic is not essential but helpful to
learn a new topic
Literal Intact knowledge transfers to
new task
Figural Use some aspect of general
knowledge to think or learn about a
problem
Low Road Transfer of well-
established skills in almost automatic
fashion
High Road Transfer involves
abstraction so conscious formulations
of connections between contexts
High Road/Forward Abstracting
situations from learning context to a
Reaching Potential transfer context
High Road/Backward Abstracting in
the transfer context features of a
Reaching Previous situation where
new skills and knowledge were
learned
Metacogntion- refers to thinking
about cognition ( memory, perception,
calculation, association, etc.) itself or
to think/reason about one’s own
thinking.
 Metacognition involves two types
of knowledge: 1) explicit, conscious,
factual knowledge, and 2)
implicit/unconsciousness knowledge.
 The efforts of metacognition are
aimed at developing learner
autonomy, independence and self-
regulated learners.
Motivational Factors in Learning
Reward and Reinforcement
A reward is that which follows an
occurrence of a specific behavior with
the intention of acknowledging the
behavior in a positive way. A reward
often has the intent of encouraging the
behavior to happen again.
There are two kinds of rewards,
extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are
external to, or outside of, the
individual; for example, praise or
money. Intrinsic rewards are internal
to or within, the individual; for
example, satisfaction or
accomplishment.
Some authors distinguish between
two forms of intrinsic motivation: on
based on enjoyment, the other on
obligation. In this context, obligation
refers to motivation bases on what an
individual thinks ought to be done.
For, instance, a feeling of
responsibility for a mission may lead
to helping others beyond what is
easily observable, rewarded, or fun.
A reinforce is different from reward,
in that reinforcement is intended to
create a measured increase in the rate
of a desirable behavior following the
addition of something to the
environment.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is evident when
people engage in an activity for its
own sake, without some obvious
external incentive present. A hobby is
a typical example.
Intrinsic motivation has been
intensely studied by educational
psychologists since the 1970s, and
numerous studies have found it to be
associated with high educational
achievement and enjoyment by the
students.
There us currently no”grand unified
theory” to explain the origin or
elements of intrinsic motivation. Most
explanations combine elements of
Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory,
Bandura’s work on self-efficacy and
other studies relating to locus of
control and goal orientation. Thus it is
thought that students are more like to
experience intrinsic motivation if
they:
Attribute their educational results to
internal factors that they can control
(eg. The amount of effort they put in,
not fixed ability).
Believe they can be effective agents
in reaching desired goals (eg. The
results are not determined by dumb
luck).
Are motivated towards deep mastery
of a topic, instead of just rote-learning
performance to get good grades.
In knowledge-sharing communities
and organizations, people often cite
altruistic reasons for their
participation, including contributing
to a common good, a moral obligation
to the group, mentoship or giving
back”. This model if intrinsic
motivation has emerged from three
decades of research by hundreds of
educationalists and still evolving.
In work environments, money is
typically viewed as an important goal
( having food, clothes etc) may well
be more powerful than the direct
motivation provided by an enjoyable
worklace.
Learning styles vs. learning strategies.
Issues regarding learning style are
somewhat related, i.e students that
willing and able to think in more
abstract terms and/or to critically
examine what they do may show
better performance.
A learning style refers to the
relationship between individuals and
their ways of learning whereas
learning strategies refer to attitudes
and behavior that is oriented towards
goals . As an example, one could
compare/oppose.
Learning style Learning strategy
Self-assessment Self-assessment
Field-dependent Field- independent
Cognitive level Plus meta-cognitive
level
Learner preference Learner
competence
Socio-cultural Dimensions of
Learning
Theories of Situated Learning
Situated learning has antecedents in
the work of Gibson (theory of
affordances) and Vygotsky ( social
learning). In addition, the theory of
Schoenfield on mathematical problem
solving embodies some of the critical
elements of situated learning
framework. Situated learning is a
general theory of knowledge
acquisition. It has been applied in the
context of technology-based learning
activities for schools that focus in
problem-solving skills.
Principles of Situated Learning:
1. Knowledge needs to be presented Facilitating Learning
in an authentic context, i.e, setting and
applications that would normally LET Competencies:
involve that knowledge
2. Learning requires social interaction 1. Analyze the cognitive,
and collaboration. metacognitive, motivational and
Individual Differences in Learning socio-cultural factors that affect
Multiple Intelligences learning
The theory of multiple intelligence
was developed in 1983 by Dr, 2. Organize the learning environment
Howard Gardner, professor of that promotes fairness regardless of
education at Harvard University. It culture, family background and
suggests that the traditional notion of gender, responsive to learner’s needs
intelligences to account for a broader and difficulties
range of human potential inchildren
and adults. PREPARED BY: Aggarao, Marivilla
Learning Preferences Lydia B.
Visual/Verbal
Visual/Nonverbal PART I: Content Update
Tactile/Kinesthetic
Auditory Verbal Basic Concepts
Characterizing Students with Special
Learning Needs Schema - Prior knowledge
An exceptional child is one that is
different in some way form the” Principle - Universal truths/facts
normal” ot”average” child. The term
“exceptional child” includes those Theory
with special problems related to
physical disabilities, sensory Public pronouncement of what a
impairments, emotional disturbances, scientist or an independent/group of
learning disabilities and metal minds that have done something and
retardation. Most exceptional children is subject for further studies/research.
require a lot of understanding and
patience as well as special education Concepts/propositions that help to
and related services if they are to describe and explain observations that
reach their full potential development. one has made.

Learning
FOCUS: Professional Education
- involves acquisition of new elements
of knowledge, skills, beliefs and
specific behavior
- - may mean one or
- more of all these things:
the act of gaining knowledge (to learn
something), the knowledge gained by
virtue of that act (that which is
known) the process of gaining
knowledge (learning how). -Banner
and Cannon, 1997
LEARNING - It is an ongoing
process of continued adaptation to our
environment, assimilation of new
information and accommodation of
new input to fit prior knowledge.
Adaptation - to become adjusted to
new or different conditions
Assimilation - to make or become
similar; to become absorbed, as
knowledge
Accommodation - to settle; reconcile,
adapt, adjust
Learning
- is characterized by:
a change in behavior or the capacity
to change one’s behavior in the future
a relatively permanent
observable/demonstrable change in
the behavior of a person as a result of
interaction of the environment
occurring through practice or
experience
it is not being the same as thinking as
its focus is on manifest behavior
rather than simply on
thoughts
Principles/Conditions of Learning
1. Learning is an active, continuous
process: it involves more than
acquiring information.
2. Styles and rates of learning vary:
learners may be auditory, visual, or
tactile/kinesthetic.
3. Readiness affects motivation and
desire to learn.
4. Learning is very effective when
there is immediate application of what
is being taught.
5. Life experiences influence learning.
6. Learning is facilitated when
learners have knowledge of their
progress towards a goal.
7. Repetition (practice) helps perfect
learning.
8. Principle of effect: learning is
strengthened when accompanied by
satisfying feeling.
9. Principle of primacy: what is taught
must be taught right at the first time.
10. Principle of intensity: teaching
requires provision of vivid, exciting
learning of experiences.
11. Principle of recency: the things
most recently learned are the best
remembered.
Learning Theories
They are sets of conjectures and
hypothesis that explain the process of
learning or how learning takes place
Conjectures -to conclude or suppose
from incomplete evidence; guess; an
indecisive opinion
Hypothesis - a set of assumptions,
provisionally accepted as a basis of
reasoning or unsupported or ill
supported theory
A. Behaviorism/Associative Learning
Theory
It operates on a principle of
“Stimulus-Response”
Prefers to concentrate on actual
behavior
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’sClassical
Conditioning
Classical means “in the established
manner”
Individual learns when a previously
neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired
with an unconditioned stimulus until a
neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned
response.
Feature of Classical Conditioning
Classroom Implications
1. Stimulus – Generalization – a
process by which the conditioned
response transfers to other stimuli that
is similar to the original conditioned
stimulus.
Ex. stern teacher • A child should be
convinced that not all teachers in
school are bad or anything that
associates to school matters are bad.
2. Discrimination – a process by
which one learns not to respond to
similar stimuli in an identical manner
because of previous experiences. •
Help the child to distinguish the
difference between two or three
identical stimuli or to discriminate
their distinct differences.
3. Extinction – a process by which a
conditioned response is lost.
Ex. anxiousness • Fear of anxiety
towards a terror teacher gradually
vanishes if in the succeeding days you
experience pleasant treatment with the
teacher.
Classroom Application
Relate learning activities with
pleasant events.
Build positive associations between
teaching and learning activities.
Edward Lee Thorndike’s
Connectionism
Connectionism means learning by
selecting and connecting
Thorndike Theory of Learning
Classroom Implications
1. Multiple response – variation of
responses that would lead to
conclusion or arrival of an answer A
child tries multiple responses to solve
a certain problem.
2. Law of Set and Attitude – attitude
means “disposition”, “pre-judgment”,
and prior instruction/experience
affects towards a given task. Giving
of homework, advanced reading
affects learning
3. Law of Readiness – interfering with
oral directed behavior causes
frustration, causing someone to do
something they do not want to do is
also frustrating.
a. When someone is ready to perform
some act, to do is satisfying.
b. When someone is ready to perform
some act, not to do is annoying.
c. When someone is not ready to
perform some act and is forced to do,
it is annoying. Asking a child to write
the alphabets when he/she did not
learn the basic strokes of writing gets
frustrated and annoyed.
4. Law of Exercise – the organism
learns by doing and forgets by not
doing.
a. Law of use – connections between
stimulus and response are
strengthened as they are used.
b. Law of disuse – connections
between a stimulus and response are
weakened when practice is
discontinued. Practice makes perfect
Provide varied enhancement
activities/exercises, seatwork.
5. Law of Effect – reward increases
the strength of a connection whereas
punishment does nothing. Praise
students’ achievements; encourage
those low performing students to do
better.
Classroom Application
Do not force the child to go to school
if he/she is not yet ready. Indications
of readiness: sustained interest,
improved performance (Ex. Writing,
reading)
Practice what has been learned
Consider individual differences.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning and Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning - using pleasant
or unpleasant consequences to control
the occurrence of behavior.
Reinforcers– any consequence that
strengthen a behavior
Primary reinforcer– related to basic
needs. Ex. food
Secondary reinforcer – value of
something is acquired when
associated with primary reinforcer.
Ex. money to buy food
Positive reinforcer– consequence
given to strengthen a behavior
Negative reinforcer – release from an
unpleasant situation to strengthen
behavior.
Reinforcement –it is a key element to
explain why and how learning occurs.
Verbal – praise, encouragement
Physical – touch, pats, hugs
Non-verbal – smiles, winks, warm
looks
Activity – games, enjoyments
Token – points, stars
Consumable – cookies
Punishment – any unpleasant
consequence to weaken a behavior
Classroom Application
Teachers may use pleasant or
unpleasant consequence to control the
occurrence of behavior
Act on a situation right away. Be sure
to make students understand why they
are being reinforced or punished
B. Cognitive and Metacognition
Main focus is on memory (the storage
and retrieval of information)
Prefer to concentrate on analyzing
cognitive processes
Believe in the non-observable
behavior
Basic Concepts:
1. Perception - a person’s
interpretation of stimuli.
2. Encoding – putting information in
memory

3. Storage – changing the format of
new information as it is being stored
in memory
4. Rehearsal – mental repetition of
information
5. Dual Coding – holds the complex
networks or verbal representations
and images to promote long term
retention.
6. Retrieval – finding information
previously stored in memory;
recalling
Meaningful learning occurs when new
experiences are related to what a
learner already knows.
May occur through:
reception
rote learning
discovery learning
David Ausubel’s Meaningful
Reception Theory
Meaningful learning occurs when new
experiences are related to what a
learner already knows.
May occur through:
reception
rote learning
discovery learning
Two Dimensions of Learning
Processes:
The first dimension relates to the two
ways by which knowledge to be
learned is made available to the
learner The second dimension relates
to the two ways by which the learner
incorporate new information into his
existing cognitive structure
1. Meaningful Reception Learning
2. Rote Reception Learning 3.
Meaningful Discovery Learning
4. Rote Discovery Learning
Meaningful Reception Learning
material is presented to the learner in
a well-organized/final form and
relates it to his/her existing
knowledge
Rote Reception Learning
material is presented to the learner in
a well-organized/final form and is
memorized
Meaningful Discovery Learning
learner arrives at the solution to a
problem or other outcome
independently and relates it to his/her
existing knowledge.
Rote Discovery Learning
the solution is arrived at
independently but is committed to
memory
Classroom Application
Teachers to take note that before
actual learning is expected, the
teachers may use advance organizers
Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning
Theory or
Inquiry Method/Theory of Instruction
Posits that learning is more
meaningful to learners when they
have the opportunity to discover on
their own the relationships among the
concepts or to actively search for a
solution to a problem
An approach to instruction through
which students interact with their
environment by exploring and
manipulating objects, wrestling with
questions and controversies or
performing experiments. The idea is
that students are more likely to
remember concepts they discover on
their own.
Calls his view of learning
“instrumental conceptualism”
Scaffolding
Classroom Application
Teachers must strive to see a problem
as the learner sees it and provide
information that is consistent with
learner’s perspective.
Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight
Learning/Problem – Solving Theory
Insight – the capacity to discern the
true nature of situation
- imaginative power to see into and
understand immediately
• Gaining insight is a gradual process
of exploring, analyzing, and
structuring perception until a solution
is arrived at.
The more intelligent a person and the
more experiences he has, the more
capable he will be for gaining insight.
Held that animals and human beings
are capable of seeing relationships
between objects and events and act
accordingly to achieve their needs.
The power of looking into
relationships involved in a problem
and in coming up with a solution
Classroom Application
Allow students to go through trial and
error method especially in doing
laboratory experiments and in solving
mathematical equations
Teachers should help students in
gaining insights by giving/presenting
activities/situations to do so, they will
be able to solve their problems.
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive
Constructivism
It emphasizes the active role of the
learner in building understanding and
making sense of information.
It is about how the individual learner
understands things, in terms of
developmental stages and learning
styles
Two major parts:
1. Ages – what children can and
cannot understand at different ages
2. Stages – how children develop
cognitive abilities through
developmental stages
Developmental Stages - it is a distinct
period in the life cycle characterized
by a particular sets of abilities,
motives, behavior and emotion that
occur together and form a coherent
pattern.
Classroom Application
Consider the developmental stages
and learning styles of learners in
presenting ideas
Teachers should provide necessary
resources and rich environment filled
with interesting things to explore, thus
become active instructor of their own
knowledge
Richard Atkinson’s and Richard
Shiffrin’s Information Processing
Theory
The individual learns when the human
mind takes in information (encoding),
performs operation in it, stores the
information (storage), and retrieves it
when needed (retrieval)
Memory – the ability to store
information so that it can be used at a
later time.
Stages of Human Memory
1. Sensory Memory – utilizes sense
organs such as visual, auditory; lasts
less than a second
Ex. color, shape, blowing of horn
2. Short Term Memory (STM) –
selected by attention; lasts up to 13-30
seconds
Ex. telephone number
3. Long Term Memory (LTM) –
lasting retention of information
- Minutes to lifetime
- Information on The LTM, if not
rehearsed, can be forgotten through
trace decay
Three components:
Episodic Memory – associated with
our recall of particular times and
places and a storage place for many
personal experiences.
Procedural Memory – refers to
“knowing how” as opposed to
“knowing that”
Semantic Memory – knowledge of
general facts, principles and concepts
that are not connected to particular
times and places.Organized in
networks of connected ideas or
relationships referred grouped under
larger more generic categories.
Forgetting
To be unable to recall (something
previously known) to the mind
Causes of Forgetting
1. Retrieval Failure- forgetting is due
to inability to recall the information.
2. Decay Theory – information stored
in LTM gradually fades when it is not
used.
3. Interference Theory – forgetting in
LTM is due to the influence of other
learning
Retention- the ability to recall or
recognize what has been learned or
experienced.
Interference – the act or an instance of
hindering, obstructing or impeding.
Classroom Application
Hold learner’s attention in all
cognitive tasks.
Assist learner to assess materials
considered most important to learn
Employ interesting rehearsal activities
Organize information to be learned
Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning
Learning skills are hierarchically
arranged
Progression from stimulus-response
associations to concepts, principles
and problem solving.
7 Levels of Learning
1. Signal Learning – involuntary
responses are learned
Ex. hot surface touched
2. Stimulus-response Learning
voluntary responses are learned.
Ex. Getting ready to move at the
sound of a fire alarm
3. Chaining/Motor – two or more
separate motor/verbal responses
maybe combined or chained to
develop a more complex shell
Ex. house + wife = housewife
4. Discrimination Learning – learner
selects a response which applies to
stimuli.
Ex. sound of fire engine is different
from other sounds/sirens
5. Concept Learning – involves
classifying and organizing perceptions
to gain meaningful concepts
Ex. Concept of “triangle”,
discriminate triangle from other
shapes and deduce commonality
among different shapes
6. Principle Learning (Rule Learning)
– involves combining and relating
concepts to form rules
Ex. Equilateral triangles are similar in
shapes
7. Problem Solving – considered the
most complex condition: involves
applying rules to appropriate problem
situations
–
Ex. Solving mathematical problems
using a given formula (find the area of
a square A = 1xW)
Teaching for Transfer (Gagne)
Transfer – to convey or cause to pass
from
one place, person or things to another;
direct
(a person) elsewhere for help or
information.
Transfer of Learning
Types:
1. Lateral transfer – occurs when the
individual is able to perform a new
task about the same level. (e.g.
solving word problems given in text
and later solving a similar problem on
the board)
2. Vertical transfer – occurs when the
individual is able to learn more
advanced/complex skills (e.g. being
able to add and multiply; being able to
read and write)
Classroom Application
Observe strictly sequence in teaching
in terms of level of learning skills and
capabilities required.
Check students’ capabilities in each
level before moving to the next level.
Make sure that pre-requisite learning
is required before proceeding to the
target level.
Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory
Known for the terms: “life space”
(reality, need, aspirations, desires,
goals) and “field theory” (forces-
social environment; function of both
the person and environment
“Learning is more effective when it is
an active rather than a passive
process”
Classroom Application
In a classroom for instance teachers
must try to suit the goals of the
activities of the lessons to the
learner’s needs along with his
environment.
C. Socio-cultural
Concepts:
Learning involves participation in a
community of practice
Society and culture affects learning
Social learners become involved in a
community of practice, which
embodies certain beliefs and
behaviors to be acquired; social
interaction.
Culture and Learner Diversity
Relationship of culture and learning
style affect students’
learning/achievement.
* student’s color, “way of life” vs.
cultural values, beliefs and norms of
schools
Teacher’s cultures
- teacher’s own cultural orientations
impede successful learners guided by
another cultural orientation.
Albert Bandura’s Social /
Observational Learning Theory
Known for his “Bobo doll”
experiment
People learn through observation,
simulation, modeling which means
watching (observing), another called a
model and later imitating the model’s
behavior.
Concentrates on the power of example
Models are classified as:
Real life– exemplified by teachers,
parents and significant others
Symbolic – presented through
oral/written symbols, e.g. books

Representational– presented through
audio-visual measures, e.g. films
Concepts in Social Learning Theory
1. Vicarious Learning – learning is
acquired from observing the
consequences of other’s behavior.
2. Self – regulated Learning – occurs
when individuals observe, assess and
judge their own behavior against their
own standards, and subsequently
reward or punish themselves.
4 Phases of Observational Learning
1. Attention – mere exposure does not
ensure acquisition of behavior.
Observer must attend to recognize the
distinctive features of the model’s
response.
2. Retention –reproduction of the
desired behavior implies that student
symbolically retains that observed
behavior
3. Motor Reproduction Process– after
observation, physical skills and
coordination are needed for
reproduction of the behavior learned.
4. Motivation al Process– although
observer acquires and retains ability
to perform the modeled behavior,
there will be no overt performance
unless conditions are favorable
Classroom application:
Model desirable behaviors, making
sure that the students are paying
attention while doing so
Make sure that the students are
physically capable of doing the
modeled behavior and that they know
why they should demonstrate this
behavior
Expose students to a variety of
exemplary models
Situated Learning by Jean Lave and
Wenger
Concepts
The nature of the situation impacts
significantly on the process of
learning.
Learning involves social relationships
– situations of co-participation.
Learning is in the relationships
between people.
Learning does not belong to
individual persons, but to the various
conversations they share.
Classroom Application
Engage students in group
activities/participatory works
Allow students to do/participate in
community – based activities
Relate teaching- learning to real life
situations
UrieBrofenbrenner’s Ecological
Systems Theory/Environmental
Contexts
Learning is greatly affected by the
kind of environment we are in.
Learners are understood within the
context of their environment.
These environmental contexts are
interrelated.
Environmental Contexts: Major
Levels
1. Microsystem – innermost level
- contains the structure that has direct
contact with child
2.Mesosystem– connection between
the structures of the child’s
microsystem
3.Exosystem – 3rd level
- social system which the child does
not function directly
4.Macrosystem– outermost level
- values, customs, laws, beliefs and
resources of a culture/society
5 . Chronosystem–
If the relationships in the immediate
microsystem break down, the child
will not have the tools to explore
other parts of his environment
resulting to behavioral deficiencies.
Learning tends to regress / slow down
when the environment of the child is
in turmoil
Classroom Application
School and teachers should work to
support primary needs of the learner
to create an environment that
welcomes and nurtures school – home
relationship through: parent-teacher
conferencing, home visitation,
telephone brigade, family day
Lev Vygotsky’s Social
Constructivism
It emphasizes how meaning and
understanding grow out of social
encounters.
Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD) - gap between actual and
potential development
*Actual development – what children
can do on their own
* Potential development – what
children can do with help
Scaffolding –

competent assistance or support
through mediation of the environment
(significant others) in which
cognitive, socio-emotional and
behavioral development can occur.
Classroom Application
Engage students in group activities
and let them share their schema on a
particular subject within the groups
(small groups) and synthesize it in the
big group
Howard Gardner's Multiple
Intelligences
Intelligence – refers to general mental
ability of a person
- capacity to resolve problems or to
fashion products that are valued in a
more cultural setting
Achievements – refers to the previous
learning of a person in a certain
subject area.
Multiple Intelligence – capacity of a
person to possess and adapt two or
more intelligences.
Intelligence Competence Examples
1. Linguistic – sensitivity to spoken
and written language - Ability to learn
language
- Capacity to use language to
accomplish certain goals Writers,
poets, lawyers, speakers
2.Logical/mathematical – analyzes
problems logically, carry out
mathematical operations, and
investigate issues scientifically. -
Ability to detect patters, reason
deductively and think logically.
Scientists, mathematicians
3. Musical – skill in the performance,
composition and appreciation of
musical patterns. - Capacity to
recognize and compose musical
pitches, tones and rhythms.
Musicians, composers
4. Bodily kinesthetic – using one’s
whole body or body parts to solve and
convey ideas. - Ability to use mental
abilities to coordinate bodily
movements. Athletes, dancers
5. Spatial – recognize and use patterns
of wide space and more confined
areas. Capacity to understand,
appreciate and maximize the use of
spaces • Engineers
6. Interpersonal – working effectively
with others. - Capacity to understand
the intentions, motivations and desires
of other people. Educators, sales
people, religious counselors,
politicians
7. Intrapersonal – working effectively
with oneself - Capacity to understand
oneself, appreciate one’s feelings, knowledge-acquisition components
fears and motivations that help to steer cognitive processes.

8. Naturalist – appreciation of the Classroom Application

environment/nature. - Ability to
recognize, categorize and grow upon Engage students in practical,
certain features of the environment experiential and classroom-based
Nature lover, environmentalist activities.

Classroom Application Daniel Goleman’s Emotional

Make use of various activities which
will address the different intelligences
of your students in the class (e.g. art
activities to accommodate art inclined
students, song writing for musically
inclined, etc)
Robert Sternberg Triarchic
Intelligence (1988), focuses on three
main components of intelligence:
Practical intelligence--the ability to do
well in informal and formal
educational settings; adapting to and
shaping one's environment; street
smarts.
Intelligence
Highlights the role of emotion in the
success or happiness of an individual
which eventually affects behavior or
learning.
Classroom Application
Surface the emotions manifested by
students in a certain situation. Don’t
suppress it.
William Glasser’s Control Theory
Behavior is inspired by what satisfies
a person’s want at any given time.

Experiential intelligence--the ability Classroom Application

to deal with novel situations; the
ability to effectively automate ways of Make schoolwork relevant to
dealing with novel situations so they student’s basic human needs.
are easily handled in the future; the
ability to think in novel ways. David Kolb’s Learning Styles

Componential intelligence--the ability Learning Styles – are tools utilized by

to process information learners to cope and adjust to the
effectively.Includes metacognitive, learning environment
executive, performance, and
Four learning styles

Learning Styles Educational
Implications
1. Convergers– rely on abstract
conceptualizing and experimenting
- they like to find specific, concrete
answers and move quickly to solution
- unemotional, since they prefer to
deal with things rather than with
people.
Ex. physical sciences and engineering
Teacher should provide learning tasks
that have specific answers like
numbers and figures/units.
2. Assimilators – rely most on abstract
conceptualizing and reflective
observation
- interested in theoretical concerns
than in applications.
Ex. research and planning Teacher
should provide learning tasks that call
for integration of materials/situational
activities
3. Divergers – rely on concrete
experience and active participation
- generate ideas and enjoy working
with people.
Ex. counseling and consulting
Teacher should provide group
activities since learners enjoy working
in groups.
4. Accommodators – rely on concrete
experience and active experimentation
- risk – taking, action oriented,
adoptable in new situations.
Ex. marketing, business, sales
Teacher should provide learning tasks
that call for hands-on approach.
Types of Learners
Types of Learners/Perceptual Channel
Educational Implications/Learning
Preferences
1. Auditory learners – prefer to learn
by listening/auditory perceptual
channel. Lecturing is the teaching
approach that works best for them.
Songs/poems are useful and effective
learning tools.
2. Visual learners – prefer print
materials/visual perceptual channel
Reading/responding to visual cues,
such as the chalkboard or
transparencies
Textbooks and pictures are useful and
effective learning tools.
3. Tactile learners – like to manipulate
objects/tactile perceptual channel
Hands-on or laboratory methods of
learning are most appropriate for
learners.
Tracing diagrams or using texture
examples.
4. Kinesthetic or whole body learners
– like to learn through experiential
activities/kinesthetic perceptual
channel. Simulations, exploratory
activities and problem-solving
approach of teaching.
Pacing or dancing while learning new
material.
Part II
MOTIVATION
What is meant by Motivation?
An internal state or condition
(sometimes described as a need,
desire or want) that serves to activate
or energize behavior and give it
direction.
Although motivation cannot be seen
directly, it can be inferred from
behavior we ordinarily refer to as
ability. Ability refers to what a person
wants to do.
In order to do this effectively, it is
necessary to understand that
motivation comes in two forms.
Two Kinds of Motivation:
Extrinsic Motivation
– When students work hard to win
their parents’ favour, gain teachers’
praise or earn high grades; their
reasons for work and study lie
primarily outside themselves.
- Is fuelled by the anticipation and
expectation of some kind of payoff
from an external source
Intrinsic Motivation
– when students study because they
enjoy the subject and desire to learn
it, irrespective of the praise won or
grades earned; the reasons for
learning reside primarily inside
themselves
- Fuelled by one’s own goal or
ambitions
Principles of Motivation
The environment can be used to focus
the student’s attention on what needs
to be learned.
Incentives motivate learning
Internal motivation is longer lasting
and more self – directive than is
external motivation, which must be
repeatedly reinforced by praise or
concrete rewards.
Learning is most effective when an
individual is ready to learn, that is
when one want to know something.
Motivation is enhanced by the way in
which the instructional material is
organized.
Theories of Motivation
1. Drive Theory (Clark Hull)
• Drive is a condition of arousal on
tension that motivates behavior
• Drives most typically have been
considered to involve
physiological survival needs; hunger,
thirst, sleep, pain, sex.
• A drive results from the activation
of a need
• Need – a physiological deficiency
that creates condition of
disequilibrium in the body
2.Self – Efficacy (Albert Bandura)
Self – efficacy – it is the belief that
one has capabilities to execute the
courses of actions required to manage
prospective situations. Unlike
efficacy, which is the power to
produce an effect (in essence
competence) self – efficacy is the
belief (whether or not accurate) that
one has the power to produce that
effect.
Self – efficacy relates to a person’s
perception of his/her ability to reach a
goal while, self – esteem relates to a
person’s sense of self – worth.
3. Self – Determination (E. Deci)
Self – determination – comes from the
sense of autonomy that a person has
when it comes to things that he does
and the choices he makes.
4. Theory of Achievement Motivation
(Atkinson)
Motivation to perform is affected by
two variables
Expectancy – people must believe
than they can accomplish a task, that
is, they should have expectancy about
what they want to achieve.
Value – they should place an
importance or value in what they are
doing.
5. Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)
People’s various explanations for
successes and failures – their beliefs
about what causes attributions.
Dimensions underlying people’s
attribution. People can explain events
in many different ways. For example,
a tennis player may attribute his/her
wins and successes in matches to
things like – luck, health, effort,
mood, strengths and weaknesses of
his/her opponents, climate, his/her
fans etc.
TECHNIQUES IN MOTIVATING
LEARNERS
Challenge them - offer student’s
opportunities to undertake real
challenges. Encourage them to take
intellectual risks.
Build on strengths first - Opportunity
to use their talents to achieve success.
Offer choices - offering choices
develop ownership. When child
makes decisions he/she is more likely
to accept ownership and control of the
results.
Provide a secure environment which
permits children to fail without
penalty. Learning how to deal with
failure is critical for developing
motivation and successful learning.
III. ACHIEVING LEARNING
OUTCOMES
A. Definitions
- Learning outcomes specify what a
learner is expected to know,
understand or to be able to do as a
result of a learning process.
- Measuring learning outcomes
provides information on what
particular knowledge (cognitive); skill
or behavior (psychomotor and
affective). Students have gained after
instruction is completed.
B. Importance
• Communicate expectations to
learners
• Review curriculum and content
• Design appropriate assessment
• Evaluate the effectiveness of
learning
C. Three learning domains (KSA)
C.1. Cognitive Learning Domain
– development of knowledge and
intellectual skills
- mental skills (knowledge)
Basic Concepts: Cognitive Learning
1.Fact – something that is true,
something that actually exists
2. Concept – basically the main idea
3. Generalization –the formation of a
general notion by putting together
general concepts
4. Thinking – rational; reasoning
Types of Thinking
1 Problem Solving – process involved
in the solution of a problem.
2. Critical Thinking
a. Careful and deliberate
determination of whether to accept,
reject, suspend judgement on a claim
b. Reasonable reflective thinking that
is focused in deciding whether to
believe or do
c. Comprises the mental processes,
strategies and representations people
use to solve problems, make
decisions, and learn new concepts
3. Creative Thinking
Involves the ability to produce new
forms in an art or mechanics or to
solve problems by novel methods
Creativity consist in coming up with a
new and relevant ideas
Creativity has two kinds
a. Cognitive – involved in problem
solving
b. Aesthetic – relating to artistic
creation
4. Metacognition
-meta– after; beyond; higher
-cognition– way of thinking;
perceiving; knowing
Refers to the idea of “knowing about
knowing”, involves the study of how
we think about our own thinking in
order to develop strategies for
learning.
Is the capacity to monitor and regulate
one’s own thinking or mental
capacity.
From of thinking in which an
individual develops an awareness of
his characteristics, attitudes, beliefs,
and actions.
Principles in Achieving Cognitive
Learning and Their Classroom
Implications
Content: Teach tacit heuristic
knowledge as well as textbook
knowledge.
Situated Learning: Teach knowledge
and skills that reflect the way the
knowledge will be useful in real life.
Modeling and Explaining: Show how
a process unfolds and tell reasons why
it happens that way.
Coaching and Feedback: Pay
personalized attention to performance,
coupled with appropriate hints, helps,
and encouraging feedback.
Articulation and Reflection: make
students think about and give reasons
for their actions/own performance.
Exploration: Encourage students to
try out different strategies and observe
their effects.
Sequence: Proceed in an order from
simple to complex, with increasingly
diversity.
C.2. Affective Learning Domain
(Krathwol)
- deals with attitudes, motivation,
willingness to participate
- valuing what is being learned
- incorporating the values of a
discipline as a way of life
- growth in feeling or emotional areas
(attitude)
Basic Concepts: Affective Learning
Beliefs – an accepting of something
or someone as true or reliable without
asking for proof.
Attitudes – a particular feeling or way
of thinking about something.
Values – important and enduring
beliefs or ideals shared by the
members of a culture about what is
good or desirable and what is not.
Principles in Achieving the
Development of Attitudes and Values
and Their Classroom Implications
Every interaction with children
provides an opportunity to teach
values.
Children learn about our values
through daily interaction with us.
Children learn through our example
Children learn values through the way
we do things as a family.
Children learn values and beliefs
through their exposure to the larger
world.
Children learn values through our
explanations of the world.
C.3 Psychomotor Learning Domain
(Anita J. Harrow)
Includes physical movement that
involves coordination of the mind and
body
Manual of physical skills
Basic Concepts: Psychomotor
Learning
Capacity – the facility or power to
produce, perform or deploy.
Ability – competence in an activity or
occupation because of ones’ skill,
training, or other qualification.
Skill – learned capacity to carry out
predetermined results often with the
minimum outlay of time, energy, or
both.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN
ACHIEVING PSYCHOMOTOR
LEARNING AND THEIR
CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS
1. The psychomotor domain is best
assessed in a face to face situation.
2. It focuses on performing sequences
of motor activities to a specified level
of motor operations for a child of
given age.
3. Learning materials and activities
should involve the appropriate level
of motor capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively
involve students and present
challenges.
5. Psychomotor learning is facilitated
by providing activities or situations
that engage learners to perform.
Acknowledgement goes to various
authors
/mlba
PRACTICE TEST
Facilitating Learning
1. Which theory operates in
“stimulus-response principle, which
means all behaviors are caused by
external stimuli?
A. Contextual theory C. Cognitive
theory
B. Behaviorist theory D.
Constructivist theory
2. Ms. Erika in her Biology class
accompanies her discussion with
interesting visual aids. She strongly
believes that students learn better
when lessons are presented with
images, real or imagined aside from
mere lecture method or verbal
representations. Which learning
theory she upholds to?
3. Which of the following learning
theories in Thorndike states that an
organism learns by doing and forgets
by not doing, in other words, it refers
to the law of use and law of disuse?
A. Law of Effect C. Law of Readiness
B. Law of Set and Attitude D. Law of
Exercise
4. Why should learning be aided by
formulating and asking questions? So
that
A. the teacher will not always do the
talking but the students will be given
a chance to do the same thing.
B. students will develop their self-
confidence
C. the teacher will know who among
the students can communicate very
well
D. students will have a grade in
recitation
5. A child is ready to learn if he / she
shows
A. interest C. improvement in
performance
B. sustained interest D. all of the
above
6. Which of the following principles
of learning applies to considering
student’s age and in presenting certain
content and cognitive process?
A. Principle of readiness
B. Principle of learning by doing
C. Principle of presenting challenging
tasks
D. Principle of learning aided by
formulating and asking questions
7. Which of the theories of learning
presents or states that learning skills
are hierarchically arranged?
A. Theory of Instruction C.
Cumulative Learning B. Meaningful
Learning D. Social Cognitive
Learning
8. Which of the following best
describes what meaningful learning
is?
A. When what is to be learned is new
and easy for the students
B. Materials presented are difficult
and challenging to the students
C. When the materials to be learned is
related to what students already know
D. Students find the lessons easy and
relevant to what was assigned to them
9. Ms. Jones, after learning the
statements made by her colleague
about their newly appointed principal,
she is carefully deliberating of
whether to accept, reject or suspend
judgement in such claim. What type f
thinking Ms. Jones has?
A. Creative thinking C. Reflective
thinking
B. Critical thinking D. Logical
thinking
10. When the nature of situation has
significant effect on the process of
learning, this statement is supported
by what theory?
A. Situated Learning
B. Individual Differences in Learning
C. Learning Modalities
D. Learning Styles
11. Which is an application of
cognitive approach to motivation?
A. Begin lessons with challenging
questions and conflicting events
B. Create a supportive classroom
climate for students
C. Provide clear and prompt feedback
on assignments
D. Explain the reasons for studying
the topic
12. Most students will cheat if the
pressure to perform well is great and
the chances of being caught are slim.
How can teachers prevent cheating?
A. Giving difficult and tricky
questions
B. Putting students in high-pressure
situations
C. Being inconsistent in enforcing
policies regarding cheating
D. Preparing the students for tests,
projects and assignments so they can
do reasonably well.
13. When Kaka was in Grade I, every
time she goes home with a perfect
score in a test, her parents give her
extra allowance. Every time she does
something wrong, she is reprimanded.
Now that she is in Grade II, she tries
her best to get perfect scores in the
tests because of the reward and avoids
doing something wrong because of
the punishment. What does the
situation illustrate?
A. Cognitive learning C. Operant
conditioning
B. Associative learning D. Classical
conditioning
14. Andrei is a transferee and feels
uneasy with his new school. His
teacher is very accommodating, warm
and caring. Alvin felt comfortable
with the teacher’s display of genuine
warmth. The teacher is consistent in
his manner and Alvin began to
associate school with the teacher’s
warmth. Which theory is being
illustrated?
A. Meaningful learning C. Operant
conditioning
B. Classical conditioning
Observational learning
15. Alma and Anna,who are Grade II
pupils, observed their teacher after
taking her lunch. They see her brush
her teeth, comb her hair, put powder
on her face, after one week, it was
observed that the two girls did the
same thing, brush their teeth, comb
their hair and put powder on their
faces. Which of the following applies
in this situation?
A. Children learn by doing C.
Children learn by observing
B. Children learn by repeating D.
Children like to behave like adults
16. Jewel found a wrist watch in the
library. She gave it to the librarian.
The librarian was very appreciative
with her deed. What would Jewel do
when she finds anything?
A. Always returns the things she
finds.
B. Not return the things she finds.
C. Gives the things she finds to
others.
D. Keeps the things she finds.
17. How would you help a student
who is intelligent but he is
underachieving in class?
D. A. Provide challenging activities
which he / she can excel
B. Recognize his talents by asking
him to help students in the work in
class.
C. Identify the immediate causes of
difficulties that cause his being an
underachiever.
D. Allow him to work with the slow
learner group of students to cope with
the academic needs of the lesson.
18. Perci, a Grade VI pupil is actively
involved various co-curricular
activities. His attention was called
regarding his poor performance in the
academic subjects. If you were the
teacher, what would you tell him?
A. Request for special project.
B. Prioritize his concerns with focus
on academics
C. Terminate all his co-curricular
activities and stay home for good D.
Ask for excuse letters to attend other
activities.
19. The teacher conferred with the
parents of Madeleine regarding her
academic performance in the school.
This move of the teacher is
commended because
A. There is an open communication
between the teacher and the parents

B. There is no more time to improve
the grade of Madeleine
C. The principal asked for the parents
of Madeleine
D. The teacher does not want to pass
Madeleine
20. How can you help your student
who seems to be timid and withdrawn
because of his physical defect or
abnormality?
A. Provide him a wheelchair so that
he can join the group
B. Advise his parents to give him a
companion always.
C. Let him go to the doctor for some
advice
D. Treat him like other students and
let him join friendly and accepting
classmates
21. One of your students just came
from the province and he seems to
have a speech defect. How will you
assist him when the whole class
laughs at him the moment he is called
to recite?
A. Explain to your class his speech
disorder
B. Laugh also with them
C. Shout at your class and stop them
D. Encourage the whole class that he
is also a learner and he should be
accepted
22. John has been absent for his
Makabayan class for six consecutive
days. What is the best thing to do
when he reports back to school?
A. Ask an excuse letter approved by
his adviser
B. Send him to the principal
C. Valuing the advantages of
reporting to school regularly
D. Give him many tasks to do for
make-up
23. Schools and teachers should work
to support the primary relationship of
the child and create an environment
that welcomes family relationship.
What could be the best activities that
would demonstrate strong relationship
and close collaboration between home
and school?
A. Giving of report card and outing
B. Parent-conferencing and ticket
selling
C. Home visitation and parent-
conferencing
D. Telephone brigade and interview

24. The change of behaviour as a
result of some form of experience is
known as
A. Maturation C. Conditioning
B. Learning D. Development
25. Ruth was crying and was sent by
the teacher to the guidance center. She
told the counselor that her money was
lost and she suspected her friend took
it. What should be done first?
A. Scold the classmate of Ruth
B. Suspend the friend of Ruth for one
day
C. Confer with Ruth and her friend to
discuss the problems objectively
D. Call for the parents of Ruth
26. Which of the following changes is
an instance of learning?
A. growing heavier
B. learning to walk
C. feeling drowsy after taking drug
D. associating red light with stop
27. All are outcomes of learning,
EXCEPT one. Which is the
exception?
A. maturation and development
B. knowledge and understanding
C. habits and attitudes
D. abilities and skills
28. In classical conditioning, which
are paired together in order to elicit
the desired response?
A. CS and NS
B. UCS and CS
C. UCS and NS
D. UCR and NS
29. Two hyperactive pupils, Rose Ann
and Ronna are seated next to each
other. Every time Rose Ann pays
attention and completes her tasks,
Teacher Bert praises her. In this
condition, the teacher notes that
Ronna’sbehavior has also improved
even without specific reinforcement
from her. What is demonstrated by
Ronna?
A. observational learning
B. social learning
C. vicarious learning
D. self-regulated learning
30. In observation and imitation D. 2-1-4-3
learning, what should be the learner’s
response when the teacher initially 33. Which is essential in meaningful
models the behavior? reception learning?

A. reproduce and match A. concepts are presented to learner

and received by them.
B. imitate and practice
B. concepts are discovered by them.
C. shows satisfaction
C. concepts are related to one another.
D. pay attention
D. concepts are solicited from the
31. What is the correct sequence of learners.
information processing?
34. Which of the following
A. Sensory register-STM-LTM instructional events support learning
at retrieval phase?
B. STM-sensory register- LTM
A. gaining attention
C. Sensory register- LTM-STM
B. informing learners of the
D. LTM-sensory register-STM objectives

32. Arrange the ff. types of learning C. recalling prior knowledge

according to the cumulative learning
theory. D. presenting the stimulus materials

1) problem solving learning 3) rule 35. With what prototypes would you
learning start your lesson on concept of liquid?

2) discrimination learning 4) concept A. shampoo and honey

learning
B. water or juice
A. 2-1-3-4
C. cake butter and cement mixture
B. 2-4-3-1
D. any exemplar will do
C. 2-3-4-1
36. Marko was praised for writing
legibly and continues to do so. Which
principle of behavioral learning is
observed?
A. Premack
B. Primary reinforcement
C. Contingency
D. Consequence
37. A child is able to read the word
“chair” after pairing it with a picture
of chair. In classical conditioning,
which makes this possible?
A. positive association
B. neutral stimulus
C. unconditioned stimulus
D. act of reading
38. To remember the six digits
8,4,3,9,4,5, the Math teacher puts
them together in two’s 84, 39, 45 or,
in threes, 843, 945. This control
process of retaining information is
referred to as _____________.
A. Rehearsing
B. Interfering
C. Remembering
D. chunking
39. In developing the concept of
transparency, the teacher can prevent
overgeneralization by including
_____________.
A. plywood among the examples
B. clear plastic among the examples
C. glass among the examples
D. clear cellophane among the
examples
40. Ms. Mandela asked her pupils to
use the Atlas in correcting their
answers to the quiz on capital cities of
the world. Which teaching principle is
exemplified by such teacher’s action?
A. organize material into appropriate
learning units
B. encourage for independent
evaluation
C. provide for correct responding on
the first time
D. arrange for appropriate practice
41. After giving a story problem to
your Math class, the first task you will
ask your pupils is to understand
_______________.
A. the whole problem and elements
B. the meaning of each sentence

C. what is asked
D. the symbols used in the problem
42. When assessing students work for
creativity, what will be your first
concern?
A. the notion of newness
B. quality of production
C. the aesthetic elements
D. the degree of intellectual contents
43. Mrs. Aggarao, the Home
Economics teacher, constantly gives
verbal guidance to her pupils while
practicing a sewing skill. What is the
value of giving verbal guidance in
improving pupils learning behavior?
A. it promotes the growth of interest
in the new learning tasks
B. it serves as informational feedback
C. t facilitates perfection of skills
D. it directs pupils’ attention to more
adequate and better techniques
44. Ms. Edz, a PE teacher begins a
complicated dance step by simple
swaying of arms
and body in slow motion guiding her
students through the intended
movements. What principle is applied
by the teacher?
A. present only tasks that students can
perform successfully
B. provide opportunities for students
to test their learning effort
C. model effective learning and study
strategies
D. provide sufficient support
(scaffolding)
45. Giving Maria a piece of candy
every time she answers a question
correctly is an example of provide
exemplary models
A. secondary reinforcement
B. primary reinforcement
C. partial reinforcement
D. none of these
46. Ms. Caira has observed that
several of her pupils do not work on
their homework. Which of the
following would best help her?
A. vary levels of reward for those
who have completed their homework
B. hold rewards until everyone in her
class completes his/her homework
C. Maintain the same level of rewards
for all pupils who have completed
their homework
D. Use more rewards initially with the
pupils who submitted complete
homework for the first time
47. Motivation should precede certain
types of learning. How is this applied
in the classroom?
A. follow the interest of the students
in assigning tasks
B. concepts should be taught from
simple to complex
C. consider age level of students in
teaching certain concepts
D. give the same task to all students in
a particular grade level
48. Why should teachers provide
positive feedback and realistic praise?
A. to motivate the students to study
B. so the students will know what to
do
C. to be liked and loved by the
students
D. so the students will praise him/her
49. Kindergarten and elementary
grade pupils are often engaged in
various games as their learning
activities. What principle is best
observed in the situation?
A. Children need game to relax and
enjoy.
B. Teaches need to relax while the
children are at play.
C. Games provide a wide range of
social and cognitive experiences
D. Games as a formulized expression
of play are natural.
50. The principle of individual
differences requires teachers to
______.
A. Give greater attention to gifted
learners
B. Provide for a variety of learning
activities
C. Prepare modules for slow learners
in class
D. Treat all learners alike while in the
classroom
51. Which practice negates teacher’s
role as facilitator of learning?
A. Teacher does more talk so learners
talk less.
B. Teacher does less talk for learners
to talk more.
C. Teacher makes use of interactive
teaching strategies
D. Teacher caters to multiple
intelligences in the classroom.
52. Which statement does not refer to
cognitive theories?
A. Believe in non-observable
behaviour
B. Prefer to concentrate on analyzing
cognitive process
C. Study of the structures and
components of information processing
D. Conclusions are based on
observation of external manifestations
of learning
53. It refers to the acquisition of fine
and gross motor skills in conjunction
with muscular developments as they
relate to the mental processes.
A. Cognitive learning
B. Affective learning
C. Psychomotor learning
D. Social learning
54. Which one will most likely
increase student participation?
A. Feeling or emotions are not
permitted in the discussion
B. The teacher models good listening
habit
C. The group leader allows quiet
members to remain quiet
D. Repeat directions over and over
until everyone listens
55. Cognitive psychologists regard
learner as one who comes into the
classroom _____
A. Knowing nothing
B. Full of experiences
C. Uninterested to learn
D. Ignorant of schooling
56. Abel has had difficulty getting the
right solution to a problem in Algebra.
Suddenly he “saw” how to solve the
problem. Which of the following
explains this situation?
A. Revelation
B. Insight
C. Memory gap
D. Interference
57. A person who has painful
experiences at the dentist’s clinic may
become fearful at the mere sight of
the dentist’s clinic building. Which
theory explains this?
A. Operant conditioning
B. Attribution theory
C. Values and expectancy theory
D. Classical conditioning
58. Vygotsky claimed that social
interaction is important for learning.
What does this imply?
A. Children learn from adults and
other children
B. Children are independent problem
solvers
C. Since they are not capable of
instruction, children in the crib have
no learning yet
D. Children learn well by passive
presentation of information
59. Which principle is observed by
Ausubel’s schema theory
A. There is no need to provide
background information
B. Children can be taught on how to
study
C. Learners have stock knowledge of
things based on background
information and experience
D. Teachers must presume that
learners know everything
60. The use of drills in the classroom
is rooted on Thorndike’s law of
A. Effect
B. Readiness
C. Premack
D. Exercise
61. Daniel Goleman’s theory on
Emotional Intelligence highlights the
role of emotion in the success or
happiness of an individual. In which
situation can the teacher best cultivate
empathy in case students are fighting
in the classroom?
A. Make them realize how fighting
negatively affects themselves and
others
B. Reprimand the students so that
others will not follow the
misbehaviour
C. Establish roles and responsibilities
to avoid arguments among them
D. Tell the students to stop fighting so
that there will be peace in the
classroom
62. William Glassers Control Theory
states that behaviour is inspired by
what satisfies a person’s want at any
given time. What then must a teacher
do to motivate students?
A. Make teaching-learning
complicated
B. Avoid giving assignments
C. Make schoolwork relevant to
student’s needs
D. Organize a curriculum in a spiral
form
63. What does Robert Gagne’s
hierarchy theory propose for effective
instruction?
A. Reward good behaviour
B. Sequence instruction
C. Be concerned with the socio-
emotional climate in the classroom
D. Teach beginning with the concrete
64. Which statement on motivation is
backed up by research?
A. Incentives for learning are more
important for high-achieving students
B. Activities that enhance success and
reduce failure increase motivation
C. Incentives are important only for
average students when content is
difficult
D. More motivational devices are
needed for intrinsically-motivated
students
65. Hannah excels in classifying
different types of leaves and rocks.
She loves to collect specimens and
catalogues them. Her strength is
A. Intrapersonal intelligence
B. Existential intelligence
C. Spatial intelligence
D. Naturalistic intelligence
Ren Rosadia ▶ LET Review (PRC-
Board Exam Reviewer for Teachers)
1. According to Erikson, identity and
role confusion occurs during
A. Elementary Years
●B. High school years
2. According to Jerome Bruner,
learning is a simultaneous process of
acquisition, transformation
and_______________.
●A. Evaluation
B. Question
3. Who among the following
developed the Social Learning
Theory?
●A. Bandura
B. Kohlberg
4. When a teacher present a morally
ambiguous situation to his students
and ask them what to do, the teacher’s
technique is based on the theory of?
●A. Kohlberg
B. Piaget
5. According to Maslow, the highest
of the need in the Hierarchy of Needs
theory is
A. Psychological need
●B. Self actualization
6. Based on Freud’s theory, which
operates when a person is in the
height of anger?
A. Ego
●B. Id
7. Operant conditioning can be
applied to classroom by
●A. Using reinforcement
B. Using manipulative devices
8. “Women should not study since
they will be marrying soon”. If a
father tells his daughter this, can we
consider his premise morally right?
A. Depends on the family social status
●B. No, there is gender equality in
education
9. In Piaget’s concrete operational
stage, teacher Maritel should
provide_______________.
A. Activities of hypothesis
formulation
●B. Learning activities that involve
problems of classification and order
10. A student is finding it hard to
read. When the guidance counselor
traced the child’s history, the
counselor was able to find out that the
student came from a dysfunctional
family, aside from that, the child was
abused and neglected. What could
have caused the student’s reading
disability?
●A. Emotional Factors
B. Poor teaching
11. A child was punished for cheating
in an exam. For sure the child wont
cheat again in short span of time, but
this does not guarantee that the child
won’t cheat ever again Based on
Thorndike’s theory on punishment
and learning, this shows that
______________.
A. Punishment strengthens a response
●B. Punishment weakens a response
12. Laughing at a two-year-old child
who uttered a bad word is not a
proper thing to do because in this
stage of the child’s, the child
is_______________.
A. Considering the views of others
●B. Distinguishing right from wrong
13. According to Sigmund Freud, the
main proponent of Psychoanalytic
Theory, the superego is mainly
concerned with
●A. The idea of right and wrong
B. The development of healthy
psyche
14. Modeling is a teaching rooted
on______________________
learning theory.
●A. Bandura
B. Skinner
15. Teacher Marissa would like to
employ Operant Conditioning on her
students to increase the probabilities
of greater participation during
discussion. It is highly possible that
teacher Marissa will
A. Put more emphasis on sharing and
consistently guide them to new ideas
●B. Give a star token to those who
will participate
16. One of the traits of many students
is putting more emphasis on “porma”
over substance. This is likely to be
shown when
A. A written report was submitted by
a student with shabby cover but
comprehensive content
●B. A written report was submitted
by a student using “perfumed”
stationary but poor content
17. Providing variety of learning
activities to students is a characteristic
of a teacher who understand the
principle of
●A. Facilitating learning with
emphasis on individual differences
B. Allowing the student to be exposed
to various teaching techniques
18. The best example of Operant
Conditioning among the following is
●A. Using reinforcement
B. Using manipulative devices
19. A child receives a STAR STAMP
after correctly completing his task.
The child always tries to complete all
tasks correctly for him to have a
stamp once again. What is being
shown in the situation?
●A. Operant Conditioning
B. Classical conditioning
20. A child submitted a poor written
report but packaged with brightly
colored paper cover. This
showcases__________________.
A. Art over academics
● B. “porma” over substance
21. He is considered as the first
special education student.
●A. Victor of Aveyron
B. Tarzan of the Jungle
22. The Father of modern psychology
● A. Sigmund Freud
B. Aristotle
23. He is postulated that man psyche
is composed of animus and the anima
A. Karen Horney
●B. Carl Jung
24. He pioneered in NON-Directive
Counseling?
●A. Carl Rogers
B. Erik Erikson
25. This educator proposed 3 modes
of representation,enactive, iconic and
symbolic
A. Bandura
●B. Bruner
26. This premier behaviorist once
said: Give me a dozen healthy infants,
well-formed and my own specified
world to bring them up in and I’ll
guarantee to take any one of random
and train him to become any type of
specialist I might select – doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes
even beggar-man and chief, regardless
of his talents, penchants, tendencies,
abilities, vacations, and race of his
ancestors”
A. Bandura
●B. Watson
27. His best contribution to the world
of education is the 3 laws (law of
effect, law or readiness and law of
exercise)
●A. Thorndike
B. Pavlov
28. The teachers’ widely accepted
view of giving rewards to students is
the legacy of
A. Dewey
●B. Skinner
29. He believes that learning is based
on Adhesive principle
A. Dewey C. Kounin
B. Bruner ●D. Koffka
30. One of main proponent of Gestalt
and who believes that the whole is
more than the sum of all its parts
●A. Wertheimer
B. Thorndike
31. “the child learns from what he
sees in the environment” is the main
thesis of this famous educational
psychologist
● A. Bandura
B. Locke
32. According to this theorist, our
behavior at a particular time is a
product of the interaction of two
factors, internal and external forces
●A. Lewin
B. Wertheimer
33. According to this developmental
psychologist, children’s thinking
skills move from simplicity to
complexity
●A. Piaget
B. Thorndike
34. The inventor of the first usable
intelligence test
A. Freud
●B. Binet
35. This particular theorist believes
that the mind is blank at birth
●A. Locke
B. Skinner
36. He is generally considered as the
father of modern education
A. Collin
●B. Comenius
37. Kindergarten movement is the
legacy of this man who is considered
the father of kindergarten
A. Pestalozzi
●B. Froebel
38. He once said: “education is not a
preparation for life…it is life”
A. Montessori
●B. Dewey
39. He proposed that every child is
born with a unique potential, his
individuality, but that potential
remained unfulfilled until it was
analyzed and transformed by
education
●C. Herbart
B. Kohler
40. He pioneered in coming up with a
list of development task as individuals
pass through the developmental stages
●A. Havigburst
B. Hurlock
41. This educator is famous for
applying classical education to
impoverished children of Chicago
Illinois.
●A. Collins
B. Montessori
42. This educator opposes the
traditional notion that students are
empty vessels. He call this traditional
technique as banking system
●A. Freire
B.Locke
43. He pioneered in the study of
language acquisition of children
●A. Rousseau
B. Freire
44. He introduced the notion of zone
of proximal development and
“scaffolding”
●A. Vygotsky
B. Tyler
45. This condition is also known as
trisomy 21
●B. Down Syndrome
B. Patau Syndrome
46. This condition is characterized by
poor spelling and pervasive difficulty
in reading
A. Mental retardation
●D. dyslexia
47. Certain injury to the language area
of the brain can cause the total loss of
the ability to produce and/ or
understand language, this condition is
known as
A. Mutism
●B. Aphasia
48. ___________is a disorder of
neural development characterized by
impaired social interaction and
communication and by restricted and
repetitive behavior.
A. Mental retardation
●B. Autism
49. __________ refers to quantitative
changes in an individual as he
progresses in chronological age.
A. Development
●B. Growth
50. __________ refers to progressive
series of changes of an orderly
coherent type leading to the
individual’s maturation.
●A. Development
B. Growth