PED 101 REVIEWER
 Development is a product of the interaction of the organism and the environment. -
I. Early Childhood Development
Development - defined as the process of change which the child comes to master more
complex levels of doing things.
Early Childhood Development - Refers to the different skills and milestones that
children are expected to reach by the age of 5
 Development varies from child to child.
 Development is influenced by culture in different ways and the goals for children
differ from culture to culture.
 A long term pattern of changes and milestones of children
 is considered to be the most rapid period of development in a human life
 The first five years of life are called the formative years.
II. Principles of Growth and Development
 The principles of human development explain the basic factor which governs all growth and
development.
 Hereditary factors are innate characteristics with which the child is equipped at birth
Needs of Children
 Children’s needs differ across the early childhood years
 A child’s developmental needs will vary over the first years of life in relation to his/her
maturation process.
 Prenatal and Birth
 During this period, attention is focused on the mother through maternal and
child health programs,
 Infancy (up to about 18 months)
 Sensory learning, auditory and visual, control of physical actions and
attachment to significant caregivers seem to be the central tasks.
 Toddler and post-toddler (about 18 to 36 months)
 A child’s coordination, language, ability to think, and social skills advance
rapidly
 Preschool (approximately 3,4,5,6)
 Socialization and preparation for schooling take on greater importance, and the
circle of peers and caregivers widens.
 From age four onwards
 early childhood programs are associated with education and preschools, but
health and nutrition remain key component of what young children need.
 Early primary school (roughly ages 6 to 8)
 a period of “transition” into school and the world at large. Can be relatively
easy or extremely difficult.
The Basic needs of children are
 Food and shelter - responsibility of their parents
 Physical Safety - they need others to provide physical safety
 Developmental needs- developing and learning important and useful skills
 Social skills - they need to learn the rules of society to be able to communicate their
ideas and desires.
 Emotional security - they need the help and assurance of their parents to be emotionally
secured.
 Internal skills - the need to learn self-confidence and emotional maturity.
 Career abilities - children need to learn y abilities that are useful in developing careers.
Children discover their talents and the things that motivate them.
 Physiological needs - the requirements for human survival like food etc. The attention,
acceptance, respect, love etc.
Principles of Development
The processes of hereditary and environment are interdependent and complementary.
 Developmental patterns show wide individual differences - has been observed that the
pattern of growth is to some extent predictable.
 Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex – Children use
their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. Learning relationship
between things (how things are similar) or to give description or function (both concrete
thought) between two objects. And As children develop further in cognitive skills, they
are able to understand a higher and more complex relationship between objects and things
then the child is cognitively capable of classification
 Growth and development proceeds from general to specific - In motor development,
the infant will be able to grasp an object with the whole hand before using the thumb and
forefinger.
 Growth and development are continuous processes - As a child develops, he or she
adds to the skills already acquired and the new skills become the basis for further
achievement and mastery of skills.
 Development depends on maturation and learning - Maturation refers to the sequential
characteristics of biological growth and development. The biological changes occur in
sequential order and give children new abilities. children must mature to a certain point
before they can progress to new skills.
 Development is sequential - There is a pattern of order and sequence in human growth
and development.
Understanding of the principles of development helps us plan appropriate activities and
stimulating and enriching experiences for children and provide a basis for understanding
how to encourage and support young children’s learning.
III. Theories of Development
Theory - Researchers use these theories as frameworks in their studies. An organized set
of facts and [proposals about how things operate and helps scientists explain.
Human development—refers to long term changes that occur during the person’s
lifetime and the patterns of those changes.
Theories of Human Development
Four theories relevant to the study of development
1. Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic—which emphasizes unconscious drives and motives.
a. Freud’s - Psychosexual theory
b. Erikson’s - Psychosocial theory
2. Learning—emphasizes learned responses to particular situations.
a. B.F Skinner – Operant Conditioning
b. Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning
3. Cognitive—focuses on the individual’s understanding of self and others.
a. Piaget’s Stages of cognitive Development
4. Sociocultural – deals with the cultural influences on the growth of individual learning
and competencies.
a. Lev Semanovich Vygotsky – Zone of Proximal Development
 1. Psychodynamic Development Theories
Freudian Theory
A. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) – his ideas influenced the understanding of personality
Development.
- World’s first Psychoanalyst
- Austrian Neurologist
- creator of psychoanalysis
- psychoanalysis is the approach to understanding and treating psychological
problems
The 3 Hypothetical/Imaginary Mental Structures
 ID – (pleasure-centered) driven by instincts
 EGO – (reality-centered) rational component, perception learning and logical reasoning
 SUPER EGO – (conscience)it decides whether ego’s problem-solving strategies are
morally acceptable, internalized moral standards
if certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur
Fixation- is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Oral - Birth to 1 year- Mouth focused simulation and interaction
- If fixation occurs at this stage, the individual would have issues with dependency or
aggression
- May seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, eating.
Anal- 1-3 years – Anus focused simulation and interaction
- positive experience will result for people to be competent, productive and creative
- if parents are too lenient this will result to anal-expulsive personality. messy, wasteful or
destructive personality.
- If parents are too strict this will result to anal-retentive personality. The individual is
stringent, orderly, rigid and obsessive.
Phallic- 3-6 years – Genitals focus of simulation
- Gender role and moral development
Oedipus complex- when boys wanting to possess their mother and replace the father
Castration Anxiety- the child fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings.
Electra Complex – similar set of feelings experienced by young girls.
Latency- 6-12 years – a period of suspended sexual activity, energies shit to physical to intellectual
activities
- The development of the ego and superego contributes to this period of calm
- Develops social and communication skills and self confidence
- Fixation may result to immaturity and inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.
Genital- 12 years to adulthood – genitals focused of stimulation with the onset of puberty, mature
sexual relationships develop.
- If other stage have been completed the individual should be well balanced, warm, caring
B. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
- he studied psychoanalysis with Freud’s daughter Anna
- Erikson proposed that development occurs in a series of eight stages
- beginning with infancy and ending with old age
- Each stage is named for the particular psychosocial crisis that the child must resolve to be
able to move on to the next.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages and developmental processes
1. Trust vs. Mistrust - Birth to 1 year -
- Development of trusting relationships with caregivers and of self-trust (HOPE)
- those who aren’t able to trust their caregivers may be left feeling that the world is
unreliable
2. Autonomy vs shame and Doubt -1-3 years
- Development of control over bodily functions and activities. (WILL)
- When the child becomes self-reliant they are likely to develop a strong sense of
independence and autonomy.
- When parents do everything for the child, they will be left feeling ashamed or doubtful of
her abilities
3. Initiative vs Guilt - 3-6 years
- Focus- Locomotor-genital activity Testing limits of self-assessment and purposefulness
(purpose)
- Children who successfully resolve this conflict develop a sense of purpose
- While those who didn’t may be left with feeling of guilt
4. Industry vs Inferiority - 6-12 years
- Focus- Mastery and productivity (COMPETENCE)
- School and peers a major role in this stage
- Those who do well in socializing and in school will emerge from this stage as feeling
competent
- Those who aren’t successful may end up feeling inferior and lack self-confidence.
5. Identity vs Role Confusion - 12-20 years(adolescence)
- Focus-Formation of identity and coherent self-concept(FIDELITY)
- Handling this conflict well leads to a strong sense of personal identity
- Those who struggle may be left feeling confused about who they are and what they want
to do in their life.
6. Intimacy vc Isolation - 20-40 years (early adulthood)
- Focus- Achievement of an intimate relationship and career direction (LOVE)
- Forming strong bonds with other people particularly romantic relationships
- If succeeded they develop strong and lasting relationships
- If failed, they can end up feeling isolated and lonely.
7. Generativity vs Stagnation - 40-65 years (adulthood)
Focus- Fulfillment through creative, productive activity that contributes to future generations
(CARE)
- If successful navigation involves accomplishments like raising a family success at work
and volunteers in the community.
- People who aren’t able to do this often feel disconnected from the rest of the world
8. Ego Integrity vs Despair - 65 years and older
Focus- Belief in integrity of life including successes and failures (WISDOM)
- Older people looking back on their lives who feel satisfied with all they experienced with
a sense of wisdom
- Those who have regrets may end up being bitter.
 2. Behavioural Learning and Social Cognitive Learning Theories
Learning – is defined as relatively permanent change in observable behaviour that results from
experience.
Behaviourism - as a theory was developed by B.F. Skinner
- Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour through conditioning.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 –August 18, 1990)
- Was an American psychologist, behaviourist, author, inventor and social
philosopher.
- He was a Professor of psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until 1974.
Two types of possible conditioning:
A. Operant conditioning
- There is reinforcement of the behaviour by a reward or a punishment.
- “Operant” refers to the way which behaviour operates in the environment.
Two principal terms influence operant conditioning:
a. Reinforcements (positive or negative): increases the rate of behavior
b. Punishments (positive or negative): decrease the rate of behavior
B. Classical or respondent Conditioning
- is where the behaviour becomes a reflex response to a stimulus.
- Even though there was no food in sight, his dogs still drooled and was reacting to the lab
coats as every time the person feeds the dogs, he was wearing a lab coat.
Ivan Pavlov (September 14, 1849 – February 27, 1936)
– He was interested in studying reflexes
- Russian Psychologist
- Known for his development of concept of Conditional Reflex
 3. Cognitive Theory
  is a theory of psychology that attempts to explain human behaviour by understanding the
thought processes
 “Information processing” a commonly used description of the mental processes,
comparing the human mind to a computer
The Cognitive Development Theory
Developed by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1990)
- He proposed that there are four distinct, increasingly sophisticated stages of
mental representation that children must pass through on their way to adulthood.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
 Sensorimotor - Birth to 2 years
- this period involve children figuring out how to make use of their bodies
- They do this by experiencing everything with their five senses hence, “sensory”
- learning to crawl and then walk, point and the grasp, hence, “motion”
 Pre-operational - 2 to 7 year
- Children start use mental symbols to understand and to interact with the world
- begin to learn language and to engage in pretend play
 Operational - 7 to 11 years
- Children gain the ability to think logically to solve problems and to organize
information they learn. However, they remain limited to considering only
concrete, not abstract information.
 Formal Operational - 11 years onward
- Adolescents learn how to think more abstractly to solve problems and to thinks
symbolically.
 4. Sociocultural Theory/Cultural Contextual Theory
Lev Semanovich Vygotsky (1896-1934)
 Russian psychologist
 One of the first developmentalists who considered the influence of a child’s social and
cultural context.
 Children are endowed of “elementary functions”
(Perception, memory, attention, language) that’s transformed into higher mental functions
through interaction with others.
His theory focusing on the sociocultural aspect contributed ideas to help teachers in
education. Some of these are:
 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
- The concept is the level of difficulty at which problems are too hard for children to
solve alone but not to hard when given support from adults or more competent peers.
 The role of play
- Teachers need to provide children many opportunities to play.
- Through play and imagination, a child’s conceptual abilities are stretched and leads to
development.
 Language
- It is essential to the development of thinking
- That the school needs to provide opportunities to develop this third stage of speech
which is inner speech
- it is the stage which is responsible for all higher levels of functioning.
This Theory:
 Highlights how children incorporate culture into their reasoning, social interaction, and
self-understanding.
 explains why children growing up in different societies are likely to have significantly
different skills
 Focuses on how culture is transmitted to the next generation through tools such as
language and social interaction.
 working with adults and more skilled peers is essential for children to acquire the ways
of thinking, knowing, and behaving that make up a community’s culture.
IV. Children with Special Needs
 Global Development Delay – Typically presents with a delay in multiple developmental
areas, areas of delay may include speech, language, social, cognition play and motor skills.
 Mental Retardation – characterized by severe delayed development in the acquisition of
cognitive, language, motor or social skills.
 Down syndrome – a form of mental retardation from genetic abnormality, an extra twenty first
chromosomes.
 Autism – is a very serious lifelong developmental disorder characterized by severe impairment
in the development of verbal and non-verbal communication skills, marked impairment in
reciprocal social interaction (a lack of responsiveness or interest in people) and almost non-
existent imaginative ability.
 Specific Learning Disability – a severe learning problem due to a disorder in one or more of
the basic psychological processes involved in acquiring, organizing or expressing information
that manifests itself in school as an impaired ability to listen, reason, speak, read, write or spell.
 ADHD – with a persistent pattern of problems in the areas of inattention, hyperactivity, and
impulsivity that is more frequent and severe than a typically observed in individual at a
comparable level of development and also significantly inappropriate for their age levels.
 Conduct Disorder – characterized by a persistent pattern of behavior that intrudes and violates
the basic rights of others without concern or fear of implications.
 Oppositional Defiant Disorder – characterized by patterns of negativistic, hostile and defiant
behaviours with peers as well as adults and with argumentative behaviours toward adults. It is
less serious than conduct disorder because of the absence of serious behaviors that violate the
basic rights of others.
 Traumatic Brain Injury/TBI – an insult to the brain, not a degenerative or congenital nature
but caused by an external physical force, that may produce a diminished or altered state of
consciousness, which results in impairment of cognitive abilities or physical functioning.
 Cerebral Palsy – a term used to describe a group of chronic conditions affecting body
movements and muscle coordination.
 Tourette syndrome – an inherited neurological disorder that develops in childhood
characterized by tics – involuntary, rapid, sudden, repetitive muscle movements or
vocalizations and often accompanied by other disorders (e.g, ADHD, OCD), lack of impulse
control and other behavioural problems.
 Obsessive Compulsive Disorder – is a disorder in which people have recurring unwanted
thoughts, ideas, sensations (obsessions) that make them feel driven to do something
repetitively(compulsions) the repetitive behaviours such as hand washing, checking on things
or cleaning, can significantly interfere with a person’s daily activities and social interactions.
 Hearing Impairments – also referred to as hard of hearing or deaf.
 Visual Impairments – a loss of vision that even when corrected affects educational
performance. It may be mild to moderate to severe in nature. Learners who are blind that are
able to read print and usually learn to read and write using braille.
 Deaf Blindness – individuals in this category have moderate to severe impairments in both
vision and hearing.
 Communication disorder - a disorder of articulation, fluency, voice, or language that
adversely affects educational performance; or a severe communication deficit that may require
the use of an augmentative or alternative communication system such as sign language
communication boards or electronic devices.
 Multiple Disabilities – these include individuals with two or more disabling conditions; this
category usually includes mental retardation as one of the categories and is usually used when
disorders are serious and interrelated to such an extent that it is difficult to identify the primary
area of disability. Does not include deaf-blindness.
 Orthopaedic impairment – associated with physical conditions that seriously impair mobility  Cephalocaudal – states that growth follows a pattern that begins with the head and upper
or motor activity. body parts and proceeds to the rest of the body.
 Serious Emotional Disturbance – includes individuals with a condition in one or more of the  Proximodistal – development proceeds from the center of the body outward
following areas during an extended period of time:  Hierarchical integration – simple skills developed separately and independently
a. inability to learn, not due to intellectual, sensory or health problem
 Independence of the systems – different body systems grow at different rates.
b. inability to build or maintain social relationships
c. inappropriate behavior Brain and reflex behavior
d. depression or unhappiness
e. tendency to develop fears or physical symptoms associated with school and personal Cerebellum - part of the brain responsible for such basic bodily functions as breathing, heart rate,
problems
body temperature, and sleep-wake cycle
 Other health impairments – means having limited strength, vitality or alertness including a
heightened alertness to environmental stimuli that results in limited alertness with respect to
the educational environment that is due to chronic or acute health problems such as:Asthma, Left Hemisphere - mainly concerned with language and logical thinking
attention deficit disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, haemophilia, leukemia
etc. Right Hemisphere - visual and spacial functions
 Role of Heredity and Environment
Behavior genetics - is the scientific study of how genetic inheritance (gentype) and environmental Corpus Callosum - a band of tissue joined the hemisphere which allows them to share information
experiences and coordinate commands.
jointly influence physical and behavioral development (phenotype).
Some Characteristics Influenced by Hereditary and Environment Occipital - processes visual information
 Physical and Psychological Traits - not only monozygotic twins generally look alike, they
are also more concordant than dizygotic twins in their risk for such medical disorders. Parietal - allows an infant to receive touch sensations and spatial information, which facilitates eye-
 Obesity - is a multifactorial condition, as 80% of the risk of obesity is genetic, the kind and hand coordination
amount of food eaten in a particular home, social or ethnic group if exercise is encouraged, can
increase or decrease the likelihood that a person can become obese. Temporal - helps with hearing and language
 Intelligence and school achievement - heredity exerts a strong influence on general
intelligence and also on specific abilities. An enriched or impoverished environment can Frontal - permitting such higher-level functions such as speech and reasoning
substantially affect the development and expression of innate ability.
 Personality—certain aspects of personality appear to be inherited at least in past. Neurons - send and receive information
 Temperament - appears largely to be born, it may respond to special or parental handling.
 Psychopathology - there is a strong evidence for strong hereditary influence on such Glial cells - support and protect neurons
conditions as schizophrenia, autism, alcoholism, and depression. However, heredity alone does
not produce such disorder, as inherent tendency can be triggered by environmental factors.
Myelination - enables the signal to travel faster and more smoothly permitting the achievement of
 Schizophrenia - is a disorder characterized by loss of contact with reality and by such
symptoms as hallucinations and delusions, has a strong genetic component. This increase risk mature functioning
comes from shared genes, not sharing environments.
 Autism—a severe disorder o brain functioning. Autism runs in families and seems to have Sense of touch - the first sense to develop
strong genetic basis. Environmental factors such as exposure to certain viruses or chemical
may trigger inherited tendency toward autism. Visual pathways - slower to mature, begins at birth, and continue to the first five months of life

Physical Development Hearing - may begin to myelinated as early as the fifth month until age 4

Physical and motor development Hippocampus - structure deep in the temporal lobe that plays a key role in memory until least age
70
 Physical change – occur from birth to two years are rapid and amazing
 Monitoring growth – critical during infancy Reflex Behavior - are automatic, involuntary, innate responses to stimulation
1. Vulnerability to growth problems and diseases
2. Regular monthly visit pediatrician to spot what is wrong
3. A need to meet the recommended schedule of immunizations Early sensory development
 Average new-born – weighs just over 7 pounds Touch and pain – are the sense to develop and for the first several months it is the most
 Not all parts of an infant’s body grow at the same time mature sensory system.
Hearing – is functional at birth
Major principles governing growth
 Smell and taste – begin to develop in the womb Gestalt Principles
Sight – vision is the last developed sense at birth
Binocular vision - usually does not develop until four to five months Law of proximity – objects near each other tend to be grouped together
Law of similarity – similar items tend to be grouped together
Law of closure – objects grouped together are seen as whole
Law of good continuation – lines are seen as following the smoothest path
Cognitive Development Law of pragnanz - stimulus will be organized into as good as figure as possible
Law of figure/ground - stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
1. Visual-Spatial Intelligence - These individuals are often good with directions as well as
maps, charts, videos, and pictures. Albert Bandura

2. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence - These individuals are typically very good at writing - Canadian-American psychologist
stories, memorizing information, and reading. - Proposed the learning is derived from one’s interaction with the environment
- Proposed that people can also learn by observing other people
3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence - These individuals tend to think conceptually about
numbers, relationships, and patterns. Social Learning Theory

4. Bodily-Kinesthetics Intelligence - Those who have high bodily-kinesthetics intelligence Observational learning – who witnessed aggressive behaviour by adults also
are said to be good at body movement, performing actions, and physical control. demonstrated aggressive behaviour
 Live model
5. Musical Intelligence - They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at
 Symbolic model
musical composition and performance.  Verbal instructional model
6. Interpersonal Intelligence - These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, Intrinsic reinforcement - internal State of mind and motivation are as important a factor
influencing your learning
motivations, desires, and intentions of those around them. Learning independent of behavior change - Learning doesn’t necessarily come only
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence - Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are when someone’s behaviour is permanently changed
good at being aware of their own emotional states, feelings, and motivations.  Observation
 Imitation
8. Naturalistic Intelligence - These individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle  Modelling (or learning in other words)
changes to their environments.

Factors that ensure success in learning

Gestalt Theory Attention - Relatable behaviour increases likelihood of us paying good attention
Retention - Rehearsal is one way of retaining information
Founders
Reproduction - Depends on how physically and mentally prepared the observer is
Motivation - Reinforcement and punishment become important aspects
 Wolfgang Kohler
 Max Wertheimer – father or gestalt pyschology
 Kurt Koffka
Gagne’s Condition of Learning

Gestalt psychology Robert Mills Gagne

- Means shape, form, essence, or whole
- Unified whole - An American educational psychologist
- “The whole is different from the sum of its part” - His theory describes that through analysis of perceived behaviour, necessary components
to acquire a specific skill can be identified.

Five categories of learning

 Intellectual learning – knowing how something must be done David Ausubel
 Discrimination
 Concrete concept - Believed that an understanding of concepts, principles and ideas is achieved through
 Define concept deductive reasoning.
 Rule
 Problem solving Theories
Verbal skills – student’s linguistic abilities
Cognitive strategies - mechanism for students to gain control over the processes 1. Meaningful verbal learning - meaning is created through some forms of representational
Motor skills - improvement in the smoothness of an action, the timing, and the motion as equivalence between language and mental context
a result of practice. Reception – activating a sensory receptor by a stimuli
Attitude - Internal conditions that can't always be seen Discovery – concept formation and problem solving
2. Subsumption theory - focuses on how individuals acquire and learn large chunks of
information through visual means or text materials
Correlative - new material is an extension or elaboration of what is already
The 9 levels of learning known
Derivative - new material or relationships can be derived from the existing
1. Gain attention - achieved by mentioning the students by name structure
2. Identify objectives - achieve by describing the required performance or criteria 3. Motivation theory - the cognitive drives achievement motivation, self-improving internal
3. Recall prior learning - achieve by asking questions about the previous experience driving force, and the subsidiary internal driving composition
4. Present stimulus - achieve by providing examples
5. Guide learning - achieve by using model varied learning such as role playing 4 key principles of subsumption theory
6. Elicit performance - achieve by using recall strategies
7. Provide feedback - achieve by using corrective and remedial feedback 1. Learners should be presented with the most general concepts first, and then their analysis.
8. Assess performance - achieve by conducting a post-test to check for mastery of content 2. The instructional materials should include new, as well as previously acquired
or skills information.
9. Enhance retention/transfer - achieve by creating concept maps or outlines 3. Existing cognitive structures should be developed but merely reorganized within the
learners' memory.
4. The role of the instructor is to bridge the gap between what's already known and what is
about to learned.
Bruner’s Theory of Learning
4 types of advanced organizers
Jerome Bruner
 Expository – provides a description of new knowledge
- An American psychologist  Narrative -presents new information in a story format
 Skimming – flick through the information
Scaffolding - carefully programmed guidance; reducing the amount of assistance as the student  Graphic – includes pictographs, descriptive or concept patterns and concept maps
progresses through task learning. 

Spiral curriculum - curriculum design in which key concepts are presented repeatedly throughout
the curriculum, but with deepening layers of complexity, or in different applications.

3 stages of representation

Enactive representation (action-based) – when one learns something by doing

Iconic representation (image-based) – the use of pictorial image
Symbolic representation (language-based) – process of mentally representing objects
and experience through symbols

Ausubel Theory