CBE 2021 –

PROF EDUC 102 CALLP

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PROF EDUC 102 - CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING
PRINCIPLES

PRESENTED BY: CRISTIE MARIE C. DALISAY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

LINGAYEN CAMPUS
BE GUIDED BY THE FOLLOWING:

• Join on time and dress right.

• Stay muted if not asked to speak.
• Respect the speaker by listening attentively.
• Stay focused, avoid multitasking.
• Do not leave the virtual conference room without
permission.
• Use the chat box if you have some concerns,
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

The American Psychological Association put together the learner centered principles that consider the learner and
the learning process. Moreover, these principles have the following characteristics:

1. Internally and externally based. Psychological factors are under the control of the learner at the same time as
external or contextual factors interact with the internal factors.
2. Holistic approach. An understanding of the learners and the context in a holistic way is intended, hence no
principle should be viewed in isolation.
3. Categorized. The principles are classified as cognitive and metacognitive, motivational and affective,
developmental and social and individual differences factors.
4. Inclusive. Intended to apply to all learners – children, teachers, administrators, parents, and community
members involved in the educational system.
 
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS
 

Nature of the learning process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of
constructing meaning from information and experience.

Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful,
coherent representations of knowledge.

Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
 
Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve
complex learning goals.

Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical
thinking.

Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional
practices.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS

Motivational and emotional influences on learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by
the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.

Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn.
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests,
and providing for personal choice and control.
 
Effects of motivation on effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without
learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS

Developmental influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. – Learning is
most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional,
and social domains is taken into account.
 
Social influences on learning
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with
others.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS

Individual differences in learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior
experience and heredity.

Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken
into account.
 
Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning progress
-- including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment -- are integral parts of the learning process.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Human development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and
continues through the life span.
Development includes growth and decline. Development can be positive or negative.
PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. Development is relatively orderly.

- proximodistal
- cephalocaudal
2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of
developmental processes and the rate of development are likely to vary among
individuals.
3. Development takes place gradually.
4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive
and socio-emotional processes.
Biological processes involve changes in the individual’s physical nature.
Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, language.
Socio-emotional processes include changes in the individual’s relationships with other
people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality.
Developmental Tasks
- Robert Havighurst
- “arises at a certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads
happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness, social
disapproval and difficulty with later tasks.”
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES (SANTROCK, 2002)

1. Prenatal period – from conception to birth

2. Infancy – from birth to 18-24 months
3. Early childhood – end of infancy to 5-6 years
4. Middle and late childhood – 6 to 11 years of age
5. Adolescence – ten to twelve years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age
6. Early adulthood – from late teens or early 20’s lasting through 30’s
7. Middle adulthood – 40 to 60 years of age
8. Late adulthood – 60’s and above
FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Stages of Psychosexual Development

1. Oral Stage (birth – 18 mos) – mouth is the center of pleasure where the infant needs
gratification from the mother.
2. Anal Stage (18 mos - 3 yrs) – anal region is the center of pleasure
3. Phallic Stage (3-6 yrs) – the preschooler finds gratification involving the genitals or
manipulation of sex organs
4. Latency stage (6-12 yrs.). Sexual desires are repressed and all the child’s available id
(libido) is channeled into socially acceptable outlets such as school work or various
plays children engage in to which they devote most of their time.
5. Genital Stage (12 onwards). Starts with the onset of puberty where the individual is
now attracted to the opposite sex.
FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS

• Id – the first to emerge; child is born with the id; operates on the on the pleasure principle
or satisfaction of its needs
• Ego – as the baby turns into a toddler and then into preschooler, he relates more with the
environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge; operates using the reality principle
• Superego – near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage; embodies
a person’s moral aspect
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
• Stage 1: Sensori-Motor Stage

• the first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is the

stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping,
sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his
movement and activity. Focuses on the prominence of the
senses and muscle movements through which the infant comes
to learn about himself and the world.
• Object Permanence

• This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even
when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.
• Stage 2: Pre-Operational Stage

• Covers from about two to seven years old, roughly corresponding to

the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature.
• Symbolic Function

• The ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a

thing that represents something else.
• Egocentrism

• The tendency of the child to only see is point of view and

to assume that everyone also has his same point of view.
The child cannot take the perspective of others.
Centration
• Refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or
event and exclude other aspects
Irreversibility
• Pre – operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking.
Animism
• The tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics to
inanimate objects.
• Stage 3: Concrete-Operational Stage

• Characterized by the ability of the child to think

logically but only in terms of concrete objects.
Covers approximately between 8-11 years or the
elementary school years.
THE CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE IS MARKED BY THE
FOLLOWING:

* Decentering -Refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects
and situations.
• Reversibility – child can now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse.
• Conservation – the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass,
volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance
• Seriation – refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on dimension
such as weight, volume or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage
• Ages 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical
• Can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize
• Hypothetical reasoning – the ability to come up with different hypothesis about problem
and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgment.
• The individual can now deal with “What if” questions.
• Analogical reasoning – the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then
use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or
problem.
• Deductive Reasoning – the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a
particular instance or situation.
ERIKSON’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY

• Eight basic developmental stages that the individual has to pass through in his life.
• Each of these stages has a specific psychological crisis that affects the development of the
child.
• Malignancy
• Maladaptation
 KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
Level Stage
Pre-conventional Level
Moral reasoning is based on the
consequence/result of the act, not on the
whether the act itself is good or bad.
Conventional
Moral reasoning is based on the
conventions or “norms” of society. This
may include approval of others, law and
order.
Post-conventional
Moral reasoning is based on enduring
or consistent principles. It is not just
recognizing the law but the principles
behind the law.
Description
1  Punishment/Obedience. One is motivated by fear of
  punishment.
2 Mutual Benefit. One is motivated to act by the benefit that one
  may get later.
3  Social Approval. One is motivated by what others expect in
  behaviour; the person gives importance on what people will
  think or say.
4 Law and order. One is motivated to act in order to uphold law
and order. The person will follow the law because it is the law.
5  Social Contract. Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will
  act based on social justice and the common good.
6 Universal Principles. This is associated with the development
of one’s conscience. Having a set of standards that drives one
to possess moral responsibility to make societal changes
regardless of consequences to oneself. E.g. Mother Teresa,
Martin Luther King Jr.
 BRONFENBRENNER’ S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

- explains development in terms of relationships between people and their environments or

contexts. The theory attempts to classify all the individual and contextual variables that affect
development and to specify how they interact.
1. The outermost circle, the macrosystem (or the cultural context), contains the values and beliefs
of the culture in which a child is growing up. For example, a society’s beliefs about the importance
of education exist in the cultural context.
2. The next level, the exosystem (the socio-economic context) are the cultural institutions which
have indirect influence on the child’s development. This includes the government, the workplace
and the mass media. The structures in this layer may influence the child’s development by
somehow affecting some structure in the child’s microsystem.
3. The mesosystem is the layer that serves as the connection between the structures of the
child’s microsystem.
4. The microsystem, the layer nearest to the child comprises structures which the child
directly interacts with. It includes the family, school, and neighbourhood. This system
then, covers the most basic relationships and interactions that a child has in his/her
environment.
5. The chronosystem covers the element of time as it relates to the child’s environment.
This involves pattern of change and stability in the child’s life as well as proper timing.
PRENATAL PERIOD

Human life begins from the moment of conception.

An unborn baby of eight weeks is not essentially different from
one of 18 weeks or 28 weeks.
The development that takes place in 3 stages proves that the
developing embryo in a mother’s womb is truly a human being.
THE STAGES OF PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception).

This includes the
a. Creation of the zygote
b. Continued cell division
c. The attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception) – the name of the mass cells, zygote,
become embryo. The development as follows:
a. Cell differentiation intensifies
b. Life-support systems for the embryo develop
c. Organs appear
3. Fetal period (2 to 7 months after conception) – growth and development continue
dramatically
a. 3 months after conception – fetus is about 3 in long and weighs about 1 ounce; fetus has
become active; moves arms and legs; opens and closes mouth, moves head; the face,
forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can now be distinguished and also the upper arms, lower arms,
hands and lower limbs; the genitals can now be identified as male or female.
b. 4 mos after conception – fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4-7 ounces; growth
spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts; pre-natal reflexes are stronger; mother feels
arm and leg movements for the first time.
c. 5 months after conception – fetus is about 12 inches long and weighs close to a pound;
structures of the skin (fingernails, toenails) have formed; fetus is more active.
d. 6 months after conception – fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs 1 ½ pound; eyes
and eyelids are completely formed; fine layer of hair covers the head; grasping reflex is
present and irregular movements occur.
e. 7 months after conception – fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3 pounds
f. 8 and 9 months after conception – fetus grows longer and gains substantial weight,
about 4 pounds.
INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD

•The period that comes after pre-natal or antenatal stage is infancy which, in turn, is followed
by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span the first two years of life.
  
•Cognitive development in infancy refers to development in the way a baby thinks. This
includes his/her language, communication and exploration skills. Examples of cognitive
activities include paying attention, remembering’ learning to talk, interacting with toys and
identifying faces.

•Socio-emotional development has something to do with the development of a person’s

ability to master one’s emotions and the ability to relate to others. It necessarily includes
temperament attachments and social skills.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

• Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns

• Height and Weight
• Motor development (Reflexes)
• Gross Motor Skills
• Fine Motor Skills
• An analysis of the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage of Piaget's cognitive development
shows that development begins from reflexive behaviors to more refined and more
coordinated activities. Cognitive development of infants evolves in orientation from
becoming focused on themselves to becoming object or world-oriented, from one that is
action-based to one that is mentally-based, from one that does not involve much of
coordination of schemes to one involving intentionality, novelty and curiosity and from a
thinking that is purely sensorimotor to a symbolic one.
• Emotional well-being during the early years has a powerful impact on social relationships.
Children who are emotionally healthy are better able to establish and maintain positive
relationships with adults as well as with peers. Social-emotional development is essential
to a young child’s sense of well-being. Their first relationships help shape who they are,
who they become, and their understanding of the world. The important people in young
children’s lives help lay the foundation for a range of social-emotional skills such as:
 Self-regulation

 Empathy

 Turn-taking and sharing

 Positive relationships with adults and peers

• Different milestones characterize each stage of infant (0 to 12 months) and toddler (12 to
36 months) development. Although most healthy infants and toddlers reach each milestone
within a specific window of time, there is much variation as to how wide that window may
be. For example, culture, environment, socioeconomic status, and genetic factors can
influence when an infant or toddler will begin to crawl, walk, or talk. Children who suffer
from undernutrition, who lack social stimuli, or who lack access to proper health care may
develop more slowly than children in more enriched environments. Concerns about infant
or toddler development arise when milestones are absent or significantly delayed, since
such situations may signal an underlying physical or mental condition. Identifying problems
early in development is vital to a child’s health.
EARLY CHILDHOOD (THE PRESCHOOLER)

• The preschool years is commonly known as "the year before formal schooling begins." It
roughly covers 3-5 years of age. Although it is known as the years before formal school, it
is by no way less important than the grade school years. The preschool years is very
important as it lays foundation to later development. At this stage, preschoolers achieve
many developmental milestones. such, pre-service teachers who might be interested to
teach and cater for preschoolers need to be knowledgeable about them to be truly
intentional and effective teacher.
BIG IDEAS ABOUT THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOLERS

• There are significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers.

• The preschoolers physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross and fine motor
skills.
• Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age.
•  Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important.
• Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth for the preschoolers and
development of preschoolers.
• Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms can thrive well with the appropriate
adaptations made in the classroom materials and activities.
•Cognitive development pertains to skills regarding learning and thinking. It is not
remembering facts and trivia. Cognitive skills include:

 asking questions
 developing an increased attention span
 problem solving
 visual discrimination, matching, comparing, sorting, and organizing
 understanding fact and fiction (or the difference between a truth and a lie)
 understanding cause and effect
 simple reasoning
Social and emotional development for preschoolers covers a wide range of skills, such as:
 Regulating one’s own behavior and emotions
 Developing friendships with other children and healthy relationships with adults
 Creating a positive personal identity (liking oneself and building confidence, for example)
 Developing a working memory, curiosity for the world, and persistence
 Participating and engaging in learning
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (THE PRIMARY SCHOOLER)
• Middle childhood brings many changes in a child’s life. By this time, children can dress
themselves, catch a ball more easily using only their hands, and tie their shoes. Having
independence from family becomes more important now. Events such as starting school
bring children this age into regular contact with the larger world. Friendships become more
and more important. Physical, social, and mental skills develop quickly at this time. This is
a critical time for children to develop confidence in all areas of life, such as through friends,
schoolwork, and sports.
• Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. During this stage,
physical development involves: (1) having good muscle control and coordination, (2)
developing eye-hand coordination, (3) having good personal hygiene and (4) being aware
of good safety habits.
• Elementary-aged children encounter developmental milestones. This is the stage when
they leave behind egocentric thinking and start to develop a more mature way of looking at
things, which greatly enhances children's problem-solving skills, Piaget calls this process
DECENTRATION. They develop certain skills within a particular time frame. The skills they
learn are in a sequential manner, meaning they need to understand numbers before they
can perform a mathematical equation. They can already take on complex, sequential and
symbolic-based tasks. At this stage, reasoning is still immature, they have ease in
identifying the here and now.
•Erik Erikson's Fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development
•Industry vs. inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to resolve in this
stage. Industry refers to a child's involvement in situations where long, patient work is
demanded of them, while inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets a feeling of failure
when they cannot finish or master their school work.
LATE CHILDHOOD (THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLER)

•Late childhood is generally defined as ages 9 through 12. Others, may call this stage as preteens.
Physical changes during this stage is fairly unpredictable among children in this age group.
 
•The steady and gradual changes happening in children at this stage, especially with their increasing
familiarity with school work and other possible activities provide them with a greater opportunity to
develop their motor skill functioning.

•Since children in this stage are already in their late childhood, rapid development of mental skills is
evident. According to Jean Piaget, concrete operational thinkers can now organize thoughts
effectively, although, they can only logically perceive the immediate situation. They can apply what
they have learned to situations and events that they can manipulate.
• The first signs of puberty typically begin to appear in late childhood. The term puberty is
used to define the approximately 5-year period of biological maturation where a boy or girl
becomes able to reproduce. In girls, puberty can begin between the ages of 8 and 13,
while it usually begins around age 10 in boys.
•Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they can now utilize
more effectively as compared to their thinking skills during their primary years. Their school
work are now more complicated, reading texts have become longer, problem solving has
become an everyday part of their lives. Their ability to use logic and reasoning gives them
chances to think about what they want and how to get it.
•Understanding Self-Competence, Self-Identity and Self-Concept
•One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period of development is the
acquisition of feelings of self-competence. This is what Erik Erikson referred to when he
described the developmental task of middle childhood - the social crisis industry versus
inferiority. Industry refers to the drive to acquire new skills and do meaningful "work." The
child should have a growing sense of competence. The child's definitions of self and
accomplishment vary greatly according to interpretations in the surrounding environment.
Varied opportunities must be provided in order for children to develop a sense of
perseverance. They should be offered chances to both fail and succeed, along with sincere
feedback and support,
There are five types of peer status:
 Popular – frequently nominated as the bestfriend and one who is rarely disliked by peers
 Average - receive an average number of positive and negative nominations from peers
 Neglected - very seldom nominated as bestfriend but is not really disliked
 Rejected - infrequently nominated as a bestfriend but one who is also disliked by peers
 Controversial - frequently nominated as a best friend but at the same time is disliked by
peers
BIG IDEAS ON SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

 During late childhood, a wide variety of biological, psychological and social changes take
place across the developmental domains.
 As children progress through late childhood, the family environment remains extremely
important, while the community environment - including the school - also becomes a
significant factor in shaping the child's development.
 During late childhood, peers have an increasingly strong impact on development; peer
acceptance becomes very important to well-being.
ADOLESCENCE (THE HIGH SCHOOL LEARNER)

• Adolescence is a stage of human development that coincides with puberty, a biological

development occurring at the average age of 11 for girls and 12 for boys. There are
factors, however, which contribute to early puberty and delayed puberty. These factors
include heredity, diet, exercise and socio-environmental influence.
• Early and late maturation in adolescence accompany the cognitive and socio-emotional
development of adolescents. In this situation, the teacher must be an understanding
teacher learners in their high school years.
•Adolescence is a time of change. Some changes are hard to miss, like when you turn
around and notice that your child seems to have grown a head taller. But what may be the
most miraculous change is one you can’t see at all. It is the transformation in how your child
can think — or cognitive development. Cognitive development is critical in preparing young
people to be able to manage complexity, make judgments, and plan for the future.
• Adolescents whose thinking is well-developed will be successful and prepared to lead us
forward.
•Positive and negative emotions
•Emotions function by focusing attention, motivating and enabling the individual to face a
situation in life or withdraw and run away from it. Positive emotions like interest and joy
motivate the individual to continue his/her behavior. On the other hand, negative emotions
may cause withdrawal from what may be perceived as bad or dangerous. For Charles
Darwin there are six basic emotions, namely interest, joy/ happiness, sadness, anger, disgust
and fear. Other scientists expanded the list to include love, pride, hope, gratitude,
compassion, jealousy and anxiety.
Remember, your performance and success in every endeavor depends on you. Your
diligence and commitment matters.

Thank you for listening and Good luck!!!