MIDTERMS

BIOETHICS 09
22
LECTURE | BY:

BIOETHICAL ISSUES RELATED TO BEGGINIG OF LIFE

PRINCIPLES
SEXUALITY & HUMAN REPRODUCTION
 Not harming another person.
 Not using another person, by undermining their
AUGUSTINE AND THE FALL
voluntary informed consent through deception and
 Augustine (354-440) saw the fall of man as the origin of
coercion.
sexual lust and passion.
 Before the fall, sex was an act of will.
LIBERAL VIEW
 Sexual shame required modesty.
 Sex is permissible under basic standards that are
 Sex was for marriage and should be done out of duty
moral.
(procreate) not pleasure.

MORAL NORMS
AQUINAS
 All acts are allowed besides promiscuous sex.
 Sex is for procreation, a primary good.
 "Any act from which of its nature generation cannot
follow" is wrong.

ACCORDING TO FREUD
 Failure to control sexual urges will undermine the
development of a virtuous character and can lead to
pathological shame.

KANT AND SEXUAL ETHICS

 Kant argued that "sexual love is a degradation of
HUMAN SEXUALITY
human nature"
 In the contract of marriage, sex is fine.
Commitment consists of:
 Care
What kind of sexual behavior is permissible?
 Concern
General responses/views:
 Responsibility
 only in marriage
 Safeguarding other’s value
 between informed, consented adults
 Responsibility to one another
 by adults who are bound by love or commitment
 Humanizing

NATURAL LAW
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
 Moral actions follow that natural course of nature.
 Reproductive ethics is concerned with the ethics of
 Procreation is natural.
Human Reproduction and early-life issues such as
contraception and assisted reproductive technologies.
Acts that are impermissible
 Adultery
THE ABORTION ISSUE
 Pre-marital Sex
 Abortion has been under consideration for the full
 Fornication
extent of Western Civilization, and through ages,
 Non-procreation Acts
societies have either banned or promoted the practice.
- Oral Sex
 In 335 B.C.E., Aristotle promoted abortion as a form of
- -Masturbation
birth control for families with too many children.
- Anal Sex
 Hippocrates, 429 B.C.E in his oath of practice “Similarly
- Contraceptives
I will not give a pessary to a woman to cause abortion”.
 Homosexuality
 THE COMMON REASONS CITED WERE:
1. Child would intere with education, work or ability to
care for dependents
2. Could not afford a baby now
3. Did not want to be a single mother or was having
relationship problems
4. Felt they had completed their childbearing
5. Not ready to have a child
HUMAN SEXUALITY AND ITS MORAL EVALUATION
The term human sexuality refers to the ways in which we
experience and express ourselves as sexual beings. Our
awareness of ourselves as females or males is part of our
sexuality, as is the capacity we have for erotic experiences
and responses. Our knowledge of the gender roles in our
culture also has a profound influence on us.
What is sexuality?
 It is the sum of the physical, functional, and
psychological attributes that are expressed by one’s
gender identity and sexual behavior.
 Sexuality is the gender of a particular person based on
genital characteristics and social attitudes.
 One’s sense of being a sexual individual.
 Includes how one looks, behaves, and relates to
others.
Types of Sexuality
1. Heterosexuality
- sexual attraction between members of the
opposite sex
2. Homosexuality
- sexual attraction between members of the same
sexes such as man to man and woman to woman
3. Bisexuality
- being attracted to both men and women
4. Asexuality (Non-Sexuality)
- the lack of sexual attraction and sexual interest
towards others
5. Polysexuality
- refer to sexual orientations that mean a person is
attracted to at least two genders
6. Pansexuality
- may be attracted to some people and not others,
but the gender of the person does not matter
7. Transsexuality
- people who experience a gender identity that is
inconsistent with their assigned sex and desire to
permanently transition to the sex or gender with
which they identify, usually seeking medical
assistance
LEGAL ISSUES ON HUMAN SEXUALITY
Globally, laws regulate human sexuality in several ways,
including criminalizing particular sexual behaviors, granting
individuals the privacy or autonomy to make their own
sexual decisions, protecting individuals with regard to
equality and non-discrimination, recognizing and protecting
other individual rights, as well as legislating matters
regarding marriage and the family, and creating laws
protecting individuals from violence, harassment, and
persecution. Issues regarding human sexuality and human
sexual orientation have come to the forefront in Western
law in the latter half of the twentieth century, as part of the
gay liberation movement's encouragement of LGBT
individuals to "come out of the closet" and engaging with
the legal system, primarily through courts. Therefore, many
issues regarding human sexuality and the law are found in
the opinions of the court.
MORAL EVALUATION
 The word gender refers to social or culture categories.
 It refers to anatomic structures, called organ that play
a role in reproduction or sexual pressure.
 Christian ethics has always taken a complex view of the
goods and purposes of human sexuality and its role in
human relationships. Sexual desire and behavior have
to be seen always within the overarching moral
imperatives of love of God and love of neighbor.
MARRIAGE AND FUNDAMENTALS OF MARRIAGE
The New Family Code of the Philippines defines marriage as
a special contract of permanent union between a man and
a woman entered into in accordance with law for the
establishment of conjugal and the family life.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MARRIAGE
 Marriage is universal.
 Marriage is a permanent bond between husband and
wife.
 A relationship is enduring.
 Marriage requires social approval.
 Marriage establishes family.
 Marriage creates mutual obligations.
 Marriage is always associated with some civil and ISSUES ON SEX OUTSIDE MARRIAGE AND
religious ceremony. HOMOSEXUALITY
 Marriage regulates sex relationship.
What does the natural law say...
 Marriage has certain symbol
- St. Aquinas and other Natural Law theorists would
FUNCTIONS OF MARRIAGE say that our sexual faculties have one true end —
 Regulation of sex life procreation. True, sex is pleasurable but it is
 Marriage leads the establishment of family pleasurable in order to fulfil this end.
 Provides economic cooperation - Aquinas offers a very specific argument for his
 Marriage contributes to the emotional and intellectual procreation-only view of sex, based on the natural
stimulation of the partners purpose of body parts. The various parts of our
 Marriage aims at social solidarity bodies have precise aims, he argues, and sex
organs have the clear function of facilitating
MARRIAGE FUNDAMETALS reproduction through sexual intercourse.
 Respect
Kant as sexual pessimist
 Acceptance
 Attributions to positive - Kant thinks that sex is morally permissible within
 Positive interactions the context of a heterosexual, lifelong, and
 Specific conflict monogamous marriage. Any sexual act outside
 Rapid repair these contexts — homosexuality, masturbation,
 Balance of intimacy and power adultery, premarital sex, contraceptive — is
morally wrong.

TWO ASPECTS OF MARRIAGE Passage from Kant…

1. Legal point of view - Far from there being any concern for the
- states that marriage is constant happiness of the loved one, the lover, in order to
2. Religious point of view satisfy his [sexual] desire and still his [sexual]
- states that marriage is a sacrament appetite, may even plunge the loved one into the
depths of misery […] [and after having sex] the
TYPES OF MARRIAGE person is cast aside as one casts away a lemon
1. Monogamy which has been sucked dry.
- Marriage between one man and woman - Premarital sex is wrong because children would be
2. Polygamy or plural marriages brought into the world outside the safe confines of
- Refers to the marriage of more than one mate at a marriage. Homosexual acts have no tendency
given time. towards procreation at all; contraception
frustrates procreative ends; masturbation and
THREE FORMS OF POLYGAMY MARRIAGE pornography focus the sexual acts inwards
towards oneself, frustrating procreative ends.
1. POLYGYNY
- One husband and two more vibes When is sex really allowed
2. POLYANDRY
- One wife and two or more husbands - So, we can avoid the charge of objectifying and
3. GROUP MARRIAGE using a sexual partner merely as a means to an
- Marriage of several men to several woman end because in sex within marriage you are
treating each other as a whole person and thus
PROHIBITED MARRIAGES (PHILIPPINES) there is reciprocity. Sex within marriage is about
the whole person and not simply the genitals,
 Marriage between relatives
sexual desire and pleasure.
 Bigamy
 Polygamy ISSUES ON CONTRACEPTION, ITS MORALITY AND
ETHICOMORAL RESPONSIBILITY OF NURSES
BIOETHICAL ISSUES
CONTRACEPTION
 No divorce Law
DEFINITION
 Child marriage
 The deliberate use of artificial methods or other
techniques to prevent pregnancy as a consequence of
 sexual intercourse. Contraception (birth control)
prevents pregnancy by interfering with the normal
process of ovulation, fertilization, and implantation.
 Synonymous with family planning, planned
parenthood, responsible parenthood, and birth
control.
TYPES OF CONTRACEPTION
 Hormonal Methods – includes control pills, Depo
Provera injections, and Norplant
 Barrier Methods – includes condom, diaphragm, and
cervical cap
 Spermicides – it contains nonoxynyl
 Intrauterine Devices – also known as IUD
 Tubal Sterilization
 Vasectomy
 Emergency Contraception
So, how does it become a moral issue?
 Contraception is inherently wrong
- Contraception is unnatural
- Contraception is anti-life
- Contraception is a form of abortion
- Contraception separates sex from reproduction
CONTRACEPTION IS UNNATURAL
 The natural consequence of having sexual
intercourse is conceiving a child. It is wrong to
interfere with this. Therefore, birth control is
intrinsically wrong.
 This argument depends on two other ideas:
- it is wrong to interfere with the natural order of
the universe
- human beings interfere with the natural order of
the universe all the time
CONTRACEPTION IS ANTI-LIFE
 This argument is based on the premise that life is a
good thing.
 This view argues that contraception is morally wrong
because:
- life is a fundamental good - it is a good thing
- those who use contraception are engaged in an
intentionally life act because they intend to
prevent a new life coming into being
CONTRACEPTION IS A FORM OF ABORTION
 Some birth control techniques can operate by
preventing the implantation and development of a
fertilized egg. Those opposed to such methods say
that this amounts to an abortion and that if abortion
is wrong then those forms of contraception must
also be wrong.
 The forms of contraception included in this objection
are:
- some birth control pills
- most modern birth control pills
- the "morning-after" pill
- the IUD
CONTRACEPTIONAL SEPARATES SEX FROM
REPRODUCTION
 Contraception makes it easier for people to have sex
outside marriage. This is certainly true since sexual
intercourse without contraception carries a significant
risk of conceiving a child, which most of those having
sex outside marriage would regard as a deterrent.
 People think separating sex from marriage is wrong
because:
- it makes immoral behavior less risky
- it undermines public morality by making it more
likely that people will have sex outside marriage
- it weakens the family
OTHER RELIGIOUS TAKE ON ABORTION
 Episcopal Church approved contraception for purposes
of family planning.
 United Methodist Church says that “each couple has
the right and the duty prayerfully and responsibly to
control conception according to their circumstances.”
 Evangelical Lutheran Church of America supports the
use of safe, effective birth control methods and
believes that they encourage “responsible
procreation.”
 Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints supports all
methods of contraception except surgical sterilization
 Other Christian denominations that support
contraception include the United Church of Christ,
 Unitarian Universalists, Mennonite Church USA, and
Church of the brethren.
JUSTIFICATION OF CONTRACEPTION
1. Parenthood and birth are matters of moral
responsibility and intelligent choice.
2. An individual should be the one to determine his/her
fertility and should be able to control his/her
fecundity
3. One should be able to decide how many children one
is able to bear and support
 4. Contraceptive technology makes men and women
persons of will and decision, and not inert and
powerless bodies subject to church proscriptions or to
the divine will.
5. Contraception checks the transmission of recessive
disorders or genetically-linked diseases.
APPLICATION ON ETHICAL THEORIES
 Natural law ethics had two divisions only:
- rhythm method and abstinence
- Voluntary sterilization as WRONG
 Utilitarianism
- Justify contraception and sterilization for the
greatest happiness and benefits
 Pragmatism
- Contraception and sterilization is practical, useful,
beneficial.
IS IT MORALLY, RIGHT?
 •The Roman Catholic Church believes that using
contraception is "intrinsically evil" in itself, regardless
of the consequences. Catholics are only permitted to
use natural methods of birth control. But the Church
does not condemn things like the pill or condoms in
themselves.
 Because personhood begins at conception, the use of
contraceptives is moral. It does not stop the physical
beginning of a person, but rather prevents the
beginning of personhood.
ETHIC0-MORAL RESPOSIBILITIES OF NURSES
 Primary concern should always be the welfare of the
patient concerned.
 Respecting the autonomy of the patient:
- must respect the patient's right to make their own
decisions
- provide the method the patient prefers unless
there is a medical reason not to do so.
 Principle of informed consent - make sure that the
patient is aware of, and has genuinely understood the
hazards and benefits of various methods of
contraception.
PERSONAL VIEWS
 Where the doctor/nurse has strong ethical or religious
views on birth control they have two choices:
- Make the patient aware of their views and give the
patient an opportunity to consult someone else
- Disregard their own views and give unbiased
medical advice
 It is unethical for a practitioner to give medical advice
influenced by a non-medical factor without disclosing
this to the patient.
CONFIDENTIALITY
 Nurses/doctors have an obligation to maintain patient
confidentiality.
 This has come under pressure in cases where
teenagers seek help with contraception from a doctor
and make it clear that they do not wish their parents to
know about it.
In such cases Nurses/Medical providers are advised to:
- encourage young people to inform parents of the
consultation and explore the reasons if the patient
is unwilling to do so
- take into account whether the patient is likely to
have sexual intercourse without contraception
ETHICO-MORAL RESPOSIBILITIES OF NURSES
 Assess whether the patient's physical or mental health
or both are likely to suffer if the patient does not
receive contraceptive advice or supplies
 Consider whether the patient's best interests would
require the provision of contraceptive advice or
methods or both without parental consent
 If the doctor/nurse believes that colluding with the
child in deceiving the parent would be unethical then
the only moral course of action is to be open with the
child, and if necessary to refer them to a clinic where
confidentiality is a feature of the service offered. It
would be unethical to promise confidentiality and then
break it.
ISSUES OF ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION, ITS MORALITY AND
ETHICOMORAL RESPOSIBILITY OF NURSES
WHAT IS ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION?
 It is the medical assisted artificial fusion of sperm and
ovum (gametes) of a donor, or genetic parents, if it is
very difficult or impossible to conceive a child a child
naturally.
ETHICAL AND SOCIAL CONCERNS
 Certain ethical or social issues aroused by some
approaches to infertility treatment and by embryo
research focus on research in these areas; other issues
are concerned with aspects of the clinical practice.
 Ethical concerns that have a direct bearing on research
can have important consequences on the funding for
that research. The moral status given the embryo in
each stage of its development will dictate what
research or manipulation is considered acceptable at
that stage.
MORALITY
 Artificial reproduction is immoral because they involve
sexual acts that are procreative, but not unitive. And,
rightful conception must respect the inseparability of
the two meanings of the sexual act.
ETHICO-MORAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF NURSE
 Nurses working in the field of infertility perform the
roles of practitioner / clinician in all stages of diagnosis,
treatment and follow-up from the moment couples
present.
- nurses evaluate the needs of couples with a
holistic perspective in accordance with their
medical knowledge, identify problems, decide on
care practices, plan and implement them and
evaluate the outcome of care using management
skills
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
DEFINITION:
 planting of sperm in the woman’s body to facilitate
conception
KINDS OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
 Homologous (Artificial Insemination Homologous—
AIH)
- in which the husband’s sperm is used
 Heterologous (Artificial Insemination Donor—AID)
- in which a donor’s sperm is used
INSEMINATION
 Using the husband’s sperm is by far the most common
and creates the fewest problems legally, ethically, and
morally. In some instances, the sperm from the
husband and the sperm from a donor with similar
physical characteristics are mixed together.
 If the woman is artificially inseminated with donor
sperm without the knowledge and consent of her
partner, the problems are multiplied.
 If conception occurs and the child is not biologically
that of the husband, can one say that adultery has
occurred?
 Others suggest that the husband should legally adopt
the child.
 To some extent, this helps to clarify issues of
inheritance, child support (if the couple should later
divorce), and the legal status of the child.
RELATES ISSUES TO ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
a) Surrogate Mothers
- One who agrees to bear a child conceived through
artificial insemination and to relinquish the baby at
birth to others for rearing.
- Ethically, carrying a child for a family member out
of love and concern and planning to remain in that
child’s life as part of the family reflect a
commitment to a child and respect for the
personhood of the child.
- The majority of serious conflicts have occurred in
situations in which a woman has been paid to
serve as a surrogate mother.
- formal, contractual relationship is usually
established.
- The couple who wishes to have the child agree to
pay all expenses associated with the pregnancy,
and to pay the surrogate mother an agreed sum
for her time and involvement.
- The contract must be carefully drawn up because
it is illegal in all states to sell a child.
- Many ethicists view parenting for pay as a gray
ethical area that may fail to value the personhood
of the child.
b) Sperm Banks
- Men who want to have a vasectomy may
contribute to a sperm bank “just in case” they
change their minds in the future.
- Men who will be exposed to high levels of
radiation in their work, or during treatment of
disease, may wish to have sperm stored because
radiation may cause mutation of the genes or
result in sterility.
- Concerns also have been raised regarding the
possible number of offspring in a single community
who might be genetically related without knowing
it.
APPLICATION ON ETHICAL THEORIES
 Natural law ethics/Roman Catholic
- Immoral
 Situational ethics
- Moral
- Our right to overcome childlessness
 Utilitarianism
- Moral since it produces more happiness
 Pragmatism
- Moral since it is practical, beneficial and useful and
workable
 Immanuel Kant
- Principle of autonomy
- It is moral only if and only if the couple it is
voluntary and mutually agreed.
ETHICO MORAL RESPOSIBILITY OF NURSES
 Maintain a permanent record which includes both
identifying and non-identifying health and genetic
screening information.
 Should release only non-identifying health-related
information in order to preserve the confidentiality of
the semen donor.
 Informed consent for artificial insemination should
include disclosure of risks, benefits, likely success rate
of the method proposed and potential alternative
methods, and costs.
 The consent of the husband is ethically appropriate if
he is to become the legal father of the resultant child
from artificial insemination by anonymous donor.
Anonymous donors cannot assume the rights or
responsibilities of parenthood for children born
through therapeutic donor insemination, nor should
they be required to assume them.
 Sex selection of sperm for the purposes of avoiding a
sex-linked inheritable disease is appropriate.
 Should encourage a prospective parent or parents to
consider the value of both sexes.
BIOETHICAL ISSUES ON IN-VITRO FERTILIZATION
WHAT IS IN-VITRO FERTILIZATION?
 A process in where a woman’s egg cell is taken outside
her body, is fertilized, and placed back inside to help
her get pregnant.
WHEN IS IT PERFORMED?
 Trouble in getting pregnant (Infertility)
 Desire to have a child without a male partner
PROCEDURES INVOLVED
 Follicle Aspiration
 Fertilization
 Zygote Transfer
BIOETHICAL ISSUE OF IN-VITRO FERTILIZATION
 Anti-life/kills embryos that has a potential for life.
WHAT HAPPENS TO UNUSED EMBRYOS?
 Embryos that are not transferred to a woman’s uterus
ultimately may be used for research purposes or
destroyed.
CAN THE DESTROYED EMBRYO BE SAID TO HAVE BEEN
WRONGED?
 If the embryo is viewed as a human being with the
rights normally associated with personhood, arresting
its development will be considered a wrong because it
constitutes an act of murder.
ARGUMENTS
 It has a DNA; Thus, science supports the view that
human life begins at conception.
 However, personhood is a social construct that is
shaped not only by an understanding of objective
nature but also by community needs and values.
 Aristotle indicated that ensoulment (personhood)
occurs 40 days after conception for the male fetus
and 80 days after conception for the female fetus.
 Muslims believe that personhood occurs 14 days
after conception.
 From the 17th century onward, European
common law recognized personhood only after
quickening.
 A broadly accepted view in today’s world is that
the
 human organism becomes a person at the
moment of birth.
 The Catholic Church is the major proponent of the
view that the life of a new human being begins at
the moment the ovum is fertilized. According to
Catholic teaching, viewing a human individual as a
person dictates recognition of the rights of the
pre-embryo as a person.
Is a pre-embryo a person from the moment the
ovum is fertilized?
 According to Thomas Shannon (1997), the answer
is no. He states that not until totipotency gives
way to specialized cellular development, which
occurs approximately 3 weeks after formation of
the zygote, can we correctly speak of the pre-
embryo as an individual. Before this time, the pre-
embryo is not an individual and, therefore, cannot
be a person.
 If we emphasize the fact that the fertilized ovum
normally will develop into a person, then the
argument from potentiality may lead us to
conclude, along with the Catholic Church, that the
embryo is a person from the moment of
conception.
ARGUMENTS
 For them, personhood is conferred on human
organisms with whom human interactions are
possible or occur. We can cuddle a baby; we
cannot cuddle a zygote. We coo at an infant and
he or she responds by smiling; zygotes do not
smile. An infant grasps a proffered finger; a zygote
cannot. Babies have personalities and embryos do
 not. That is why babies are persons and embryos - the birth mother does not receive any payment
are not. 2. Traditional Surrogacy
- the embryo is created with the surrogate’s own
egg, usually through artificial insemination
Conflict between Pro In-Vitro & Con In-vitro
3. Commercial Form
 Pro in-vitro are usually the couple (especially
- involves a birth mother receiving payment or
women) who cannot bare a child. “Childlessness is material benefit
a burden that is difficult to bear” Next to cancer, 4. Gestational Surrogacy
infertility can cause great despair to the person - the inseminated ova are placed in the uterine of
who bears it. the surrogate mother
 Con In-vitro is usually the church that upholds the
integrity of life.
- “Fertilization should only take place naturally COUNTRIES WHERE IT IS LEGAL
inside the woman’s body by means of sexual  Ukraine
 Georgia
intercourse of husband and wife”
 Russia
 Kazakhstan
 USA
 Greece
 Mexico
 India
 Thailand

IS SURROGACY LEGAL IN THE PHILLIPPINES?

 In the Philippines, only artificial insemination as a
method of extracorporeal conception has been
recognized through the Family Code in 1988.
 In the Philippines, there is no law on surrogacy;
whether traditional or gestational. Hence, if a child is
born to a surrogate mother regardless if it is traditional
or gestational, the child is an illegitimate and this
status will appear in his or her birth certificate (Article
164, Family Code).
Applying Ethical Principles
 Doctrine of Double Effect BIOETHICAL ISSUES OF SURROGATE MOTHERHOOD
 Deontological Ethics  Is it right for mother to give up baby she has carried for
nine months?
REACHING A COMMON GROUND  Is the female body sold?
 Are the women going to be the breeding
 Limit the number of embryos created for
 boxes?
implantation.
 Can contract between surrogate mother
 Have the couple agree to donate the embryo
 and couple be enforced?
instead of abandoning them.  The most popular example of this is the baby M case.

SURROGATE MOTHERHOOD

WHAT IS SURROGACY?
 “womb renting”
 often thought to be a ‘treatment’ option for the
infertile couple or an alternative to adoption

TYPES OF SURROGACY
1. Altruistic Form
- based on gift relationship
CASE:
The case “Baby M” is one of the best examples of such a
situation. In 1985, Mrs. Mary Beth Whitehead signed a
contract of surrogate maternity for her insemination with
the sperms of the potential father, and delivery of the
newborn to Mr. William Stern (the potential father) and his
spouse, but after delivery of the baby, she refused
withdrawing the baby, decided to cancel the contract. Mr.
Stern filed an action with the competent court to hold the
guardianship, and execute the contract. In the said case,
the “New Jersey Tribunal” judged that the surrogacy
contract was valid, and terminated the parental rights of
Whitehead in favor of the Sterns. It was so judged that a
couple was under the constitutional guarantee to conclude
legally valid contracts on their rights of reproduction.
However, in February 1988, the “New Jersey Supreme
Court” reversed the judgment of the lower tribunal, and
restituted the parental rights of Whitehead. With the said
judgment, the Supreme Court adopted that the surrogating
mother could not decide with her free will due to economic
and social influences experienced by her. Nevertheless, the
Supreme Court did not reverse the lower court verdict
leaving the guardian right at the side of Mr. Stern, as he
had considerably more satisfactory financial standing
compared to that of Whitehead, but granted Whitehead
with the right of visiting the child.
BIOETHICAL ISSUE OF SURROGATE MOTHERHOOD
 Are the surrogating mothers prone of the risks
associated with the pregnancy and delivery?
 Does the surrogate maternity weaken the marriage
relations of the couples?
 Potential harm to surrogate's own child when he or
she learns she gave one child away and received
money in return.
 Is the surrogacy comparable to the sale of children?
MORALITY OF ABORTION, RAPE, AND OTHER PROBLEMS
RELATED TO DESTRUCTION OF LIFE
WHAT IS ABORTION?
 It is the expulsion of a living fetus from the mother’s
womb before it is viable.
REASONS FOR ABORTION
 Economic cost
 Family planning
 Health
 Rape incest
 Age
 Society’s moralism
TYPES OF ABORTION
1. Natural Abortion/Spontaneous or Accidental
Abortion
- the expulsion of the fetus through natural or
accidental causes
2. Direct or Intentional Abortion
- deliberately induced expulsion of a living fetus
before it has become viable
3. Therapeutic Abortion
- deliberately induced expulsion of a living fetus in
order to save the mother from the danger of death
brought on by pregnancy
4. Eugenic Abortion/Selective Abortion or Abortion on
Fetal Indications
- recommended in cases where certain defects are
discovered in the developing fetus
5. Indirect Abortion
- the removal of the fetus occurs as a secondary
effect of a legitimate or elicit action, which is direct
and primary object of the intention
VIEWPOINTS ON ABORTION
 The Conservative
 The Liberal
 The moderate or intermediate
CONSERVATIVE VIEWPOINT
 It declares that abortion is never permissible, or at
most, is permissible if and only it is required to save
the pregnant woman’s life, as in the case of the
removal of a cancerous uterus or the removal of the
fallopian tube, or a part of it, because of ectopic
pregnancy.
LIBERAL VIEWPOINT
 States that abortion is always permissible, whatever
the state of fetal development may be. If women are
truly to be liberated, this view contends, they must
ultimately have full freedom to control their own
reproductive capacities.
MODERATE VIEWPOINT
 It holds that abortion is morally permissible up to
certain stage of fetal development, or for some
limited set of reasons sufficient to justify the taking of
life in this or that special circumstances. As far as the
moderates are concerned, the fetus attains
ontological status at quickening or viability.
METHODS OF ABORTION
1. Plants and Plant Preparations
- e.g., Makabuhay, Essencia Maravilosa
2. Physical Methods
 -Massage and abdominal pressure are applied by
the hilot, or sometimes by the pregnant women
herself.
3. Insertion of Catheters
- Women have been known to insert hangers,
brooms, walis tingting.
4. Dilation and Curettage
- Usually, this is done with women who had already
began the abortion, in which case it is called
completion curettage.
5. Menstrual Regulation
- This involves the use of suction or vacuum
aspiration to terminate a very early pregnancy.
6. Salt Poisoning
- A needle is inserted through the mother’s
abdomen and 50-250ml of amniotic fluid is
withdrawn and replaced with a solution of
concentrated salt.
7. Hysterotomy
- Incisions are made in the abdomen and uterus.
The baby, placenta, and amniotic sac are removed.
RAPE
o Rape, unlawful sexual activity, most often involving
sexual intercourse, against the will of the victim
through force or the threat of force or with an
individual who is incapable of giving legal consent
because of minor status, mental illness, mental
deficiency, intoxication, unconsciousness, or deception.
In many jurisdictions, the crime of rape has been
subsumed under that of sexual assault.
o Although rape can occur in same-sex intercourse, it is
most often committed by a male against a female.
There is also an increasing tendency to treat as rape an
act of sexual intercourse by a husband with his wife
against her will and to consider forced prostitution and
sexual slavery as forms of rape.
TYPES OF RAPE
1. Diminished Capacity Rape
- The type of rape known as diminished capacity
rape is committed when one person forces sexual
penetration on another person who cannot
consent to the sex act. People with diminished
capacity can't consent to sexual acts due to limited
physical or intellectual ability. An example would
be a person with an intellectual disability.
2. Age-Related Rape
- This type of rape is often known as statutory rape
as specified both in federal and state law. In this
case, sexual actions with a person below a
minimum age is considered illegal in all cases.
Often this age is 12. There is often another age,
known as the age of consent.
3. Incest
- Incest is a type of rape dictated by the relationship
between the two parties. When the two parties
involved in the sex act are closely related (in other
words, they are family), it is often rape. Examples
of incest include:
 Parents and children
 Uncles and nieces or nephews
 Aunts and nieces or nephews
4. Partner Rape
- Partner rape, also known as spousal rape or
marital rape, is a type of rape involving a person's
partner or previous partner (no matter whether
the partners are married). There are three types of
partner rape:
 Battering rape – involving both physical and
sexual violence
 Force-only rape – involving the imposition of
power and control over another
 Obsessive/Sadistic rape – involving torture
and perverse sexual acts
5. Acquaintance Rape
- This type of rape happens between two people
that know each other. Often acquaintance rape is
known as "date rape" as the two people involved
may be in a social relationship at the time. Two out
of three sexual assaults are committed by
someone the victim knows.
6. Aggravated Rape
- Aggravated rape is a type of rape defined in the
law. Aggravated rape involves:
 Forced sex acts by the threat of death or
serious bodily injury.
 Forced sex acts involving an unconscious or
drugged victim.
 Sex acts with children under the age of 12.
7. Other Types of Rape
- Rape can occur in many other ways as well,
including by strangers or in conjunction with a
hate crime. However, it's critical to remember that
whatever form of rape occurs, it is always the fault
of the rapist and never the fault of the victim.
- Whatever its origins, rape is a serious crime and is
treated as a felony in most countries with
common-law systems. In many rape trials, the guilt
or innocence of the accused hinges on whether or
not the victim consented to sexual intercourse.
The determination of consent often can lead to
distressing cross-examinations of rape victims in
court. As a result, many rape victims choose not to
report the crime to police or refuse to press
charges against their assailants.