Overview of activities

BY CHRISTINE MUTH, LESLIE BRINSON, AND EMILY BERNHARDT

The Mud Creek Case Study curriculum module follows the 5E Instructional Model. It
starts with an engagement to capture students’ interest and gives students an
opportunity to explore concepts and form ideas on their own before learning the science
content more comprehensively in an explanation. Students then go on to mimic ongoing
research through elaboration activities and end the module by demonstrating their
understanding of the science content learned through various evaluation options.
In the engagement activity students examine photos of various urban streams and
natural streams, and the class comes to a general consensus on what traits are typically
associated with urban streams.

In the exploration activity students begin focusing on the Mud Creek site. They work in
groups to examine a number of photos of Upper Mud Creek (which has many features
of a typical urban stream) and Lower Mud Creek (1 km downstream and contained
within a protected forest). The students record qualitative data on specific stream
attributes (such as substrate type and channel incision), form hypotheses about how
these two sites might differ in stream health and why, and propose stream attributes to
measure in order to test their hypotheses.

In the explanation, the teacher leads a class discussion to help students put together
ideas from the engagement and exploration activities and develop an understanding of
key processes underlying the “urban stream syndrome.” The teacher provides the
students with background information on the Mud Creek research site, the use of Mud
Tributary as a reference stream, and the kinds of physical, chemical, and biological
measurements that they will make to determine whether or not Mud Creek recovers
from urbanization.

In the elaboration activity students conduct classroom dry-lab and wet-lab activities to
gather data and test hypotheses based on ongoing stream research. Student research
teams make physical, chemical, and biological measurements to assess stream health
at the three Mud Creek research sites. Then they analyze their data, share data with the
class, and interpret results to determine whether or not Mud Creek recovers from
urbanization.

Teachers can then choose from a variety of possible evaluation activities to assess
student understanding of science concepts learned, from a formal lab report to a class
debate.

Research context

*use Google Maps to locate
Mud Creek runs through both a suburban neighborhood and natural forest in Durham,
North Carolina.
Mud Creek is located in Durham, North Carolina. Upper Mud Creek flows through
American Village, a typical suburban neighborhood. Because of the surrounding
impervious surface, Upper Mud Creek has a number of features typical of an urban
stream, including an incised channel, eroded banks, a uniform substrate of a sand,
limited habitat diversity with many pools and few riffles, turbid water, and a very slow
flow rate (except after rain events, when the flow rate is very fast).

Just after flowing out of American Village, Mud Creek enters Duke Forest, an area that
has been protected for almost a century. The Lower Mud Creek study site is located 1
km downstream of where Mud Creek enters Duke Forest. The stream appears very
different at this location, with a channel that slopes gently into a forested floodplain, less
bank erosion, a variety of substrate sizes from sand to pebbles to bedrock, a mixture of
riffles, runs, and pools, and spatial variation in flow rates between habitat types (faster
flow in riffles, slower flow in pools).

Based on these physical attributes, Mud Creek appears to recover from the effects of
urbanization over the 1 km stretch between the Upper and Lower Mud Creek sites. To
know for sure whether or not Mud Creek recovers from urbanization, though, one would
need to make various measurements of stream health at both sites and see whether or
not they differ.

If Lower Mud Creek is found to be a healthier stream than Upper Mud Creek, this
suggests that it does recover from the effects of urbanization to some extent. However,
to determine whether or not Mud Creek fully recovers we would need to compare the
current stream health of Lower Mud Creek either to the stream health of Lower Mud
Creek decades ago before American Village was built (It is very difficult to find a data
set like this!) or to a reference stream that is comparable to what Lower Mud Creek
would have been like prior to any effects of urbanization upstream. Mud Tributary flows
into Mud Creek just downstream of the Lower Mud Creek study site and is totally
enclosed within the protected land of Duke Forest. Mud Tributary is an ideal reference
stream to compare with Lower Mud Creek. If these two streams have similar stream
health, this suggests that Mud Creek does indeed fully recover from the effects of
urbanization upstream. If Lower Mud Creek has lower stream health than Mud Tributary,
this suggests that although at a superficial physical level, Lower Mud Creek appears like
a natural stream, it has not fully recovered from the effects of urbanization upstream.
For several years, Dr. Emily Bernhardt at Duke University has been measuring stream
health and ecosystem function at Upper Mud Creek, Lower Mud Creek, and Mud
Tributary to determine whether or not Mud Creek recovers from the effects of
urbanization. A unique feature of the Mud Creek Case Study curriculum module is that
all of the activities are based on Dr. Bernhardt’s actual research, and all of the data that
the students gather in the classroom activities are designed to mimic not only her
research methods but also produce results similar to her research results. This provides
an opportunity for your students to have an authentic research experience in field
stream research, even within the four walls of your classroom.



1 Engagement

In this engagement activity, students compare photos of various urban and natural
streams from across North Carolina and identify traits commonly associated with urban
streams.

1.1Engagement activity
1.2Photographs of urban and natural streams

1.1 Engagement activity

Urban streams differ from natural streams in a variety of ways, many of which decrease
stream health. Urban streams tend to have increased light levels, incised channels,
eroded banks, little variation in substrate (e.g., all sand or all rock, rather than a mixture
of substrate types), little variation in depth, little spatial variation in flow rate, low base
flow (flow rate in the absence of a rain event), and very fast storm flow (flow rate
immediately after a rain event). These traits are common to many urban streams, and
they are collectively known as the “urban stream syndrome.”
In this engagement activity, students compare photos of various urban and natural
streams from across North Carolina and identify traits commonly associated with urban
streams.

Teacher instructions

Divide your students into pairs. Give each student pair two photos of North Carolina
streams, one of an urban stream and one of a natural, forested stream. Give the student
pairs a few minutes to look at their photos and identify ways in which the two streams
look different.

Then lead a class brainstorming session, asking students to share ways in which the
urban streams looked different from the natural streams. Even though different student
pairs were looking at different photos, try to help the class come to a general consensus
on what traits are associated with a typical urban stream. Tell the students that they will
soon be conducting research on an urban stream in Durham, North Carolina, to
determine whether or not it recovers from the effects of urbanization.

1.2. Photographs of urban and natural streams

Each pair of photographs on this page shows a North Carolina stream that flows
through both natural and urban areas. How do the natural and urban streams appear to
differ? (Click any photograph for a closer look.)

*see Power Point for images

2 Exploration

In this exploration activity, students examine photographs of Upper Mud Creek and
Lower Mud Creek, record observations about how the two sites differ, and speculate on
how these differences might affect the water quality at the two sites.

2.1The geography of Mud Creek
2.2Exploration activity
2.3Comparing Upper and Lower Mud Creek
2.4Observation sheet



2.1 The geography of Mud Creek

You must have javascript and Flash Player to play this video. See http://
www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/mudcreek/6382

This short video tour shows you Mud Creek, Lower Mud Creek, and Mud Tributary. .
Download video (Right-click or option-click).

Mud Creek is located in Durham, North Carolina. Upper Mud Creek flows through
American Village, a typical suburban neighborhood. Because of the surrounding
impervious surface, Upper Mud Creek has a number of features typical of an urban
stream, including an incised channel, eroded banks, a uniform substrate of a sand,
limited habitat diversity with many pools and few riffles, turbid water, and a very slow
flow rate (except after rain events, when the flow rate is very fast).

Just after flowing out of American Village, Mud Creek enters Duke Forest, an area that
has been protected for almost a century. The Lower Mud Creek study site is located 1
km downstream of where Mud Creek enters Duke Forest. The stream appears very
different at this location, with a channel that slopes gently into a forested floodplain, less
bank erosion, a variety of substrate sizes from sand to pebbles to bedrock, a mixture of
riffles, runs, and pools, and spatial variation in flow rates between habitat types (faster
flow in riffles, slower flow in pools).

Stream health is the ability of a stream to support life.

Based on these physical attributes, Mud Creek appears to recover from the effects of
urbanization over the 1 km stretch between Upper and Lower Mud Creek sites. To know
for sure whether or not Mud Creek recovers from urbanization, though, we would need
to measure stream health at both sites and see whether or not they differ. Stream health
is the ability of a stream to support life. Stream health can be measured based on a
number of different physical, chemical, and biological parameters.


2.2 Exploration activity

In this exploration activity, students are provided with a number of photos of Upper Mud
Creek and Lower Mud Creek. The students record observations about how the two sites
differ and speculate on how these differences might affect the water quality at the two
sites. The students then suggest attributes they would like to measure in order to
assess whether or not the two sites differ in stream health. Goals of this activity are to
help students to: 1) become familiar with and interested in the Upper and Lower Mud
Creek sites, 2) make detailed observations about how particular urban and forested
stream sites differ, and 3) think about how stream health could be assessed.

Teacher instructions

Divide the class into six groups. Give each group a set of photos of Upper Mud Creek
and of Lower Mud Creek and an observation sheet.

Show the students the map provided and explain the locations of the Upper and Lower
Mud Creek study sites. Ask the students to make observations based on the photos of
Upper Mud Creek and Lower Mud Creek and to record their ideas on the observations
sheet. Students should also answer the questions at the bottom of the sheet.

When the students groups have finished making their observations, lead a class
discussion based on the questions on the observation sheet. Ask students how the sites
differ, how they expect these differences to affect stream health, and what should be
measured to assess stream health at the two sites. Tell the students that they will soon
have an opportunity to measure stream health at the two sites in order to determine
whether or not Upper Mud Creek recovers from the effects of urbanization as it flows
through 1 km of protected forest.


2.4. Observation Sheet

*see observation sheet

Examine the photos of Upper Mud Creek and Lower Mud Creek. Based on what you
can see in the photos, how do Upper and Lower Mud Creek differ? How might these
differences affect stream health? What should we measure to determine whether or not
these areas differ in stream health? Fill in the chart and answer the questions below
based on your observations.

3 Explanation

This section explains the various ways, direct and indirect, that humans affect stream
ecosystems.

3.1Explanation


Humans affect stream ecosystems in a number of ways, both directly and indirectly.
Streams in urban areas are exposed to particular types of human impacts that cause
characteristic physical, chemical, and biological attributes. These attributes of urban
streams are sometimes referred to as the “urban stream syndrome.”

Humans in towns and cities impact urban streams by creating large amounts of
impervious surfaces. Impervious surfaces include roads, parking lots, rooftops,
sidewalks, and driveways — constructed surfaces that prevent rainfall from penetrating
the soil. Since a large portion of the rainfall in urban areas no longer penetrates into the
ground, it is intentionally routed to storm drains and enters directly into urban streams
as run off.




Relationship between impervious cover and surface runoff. Impervious cover in a
watershed results in increased surface runoff. As little as 10 percent impervious cover in
a watershed can result in stream degradation. From Stream Corridor Restoration:
Principles, Processes, and Practices. Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working
Group, 1998. .

Runoff entering urban streams can carry all kinds of chemicals and pollutants with it
(e.g., motor oil, pet waste, lawn fertilizers, and even sewer leakage). Perhaps the
biggest impact of runoff entering urban streams, though, is the increased rate of storm
flow. When an urban (post-development) stream experiences a rain event, the flow rate
is much higher than in a natural stream, and this high flow rate brings with it energy that
can erode stream banks and push sediment into the water, increasing turbidity. Urban
streams may also have lower base flow rates (rates of water flow in the absence of rain
events) than natural streams. This means that organisms in urban streams must be able
to cope with both fast flows just after storm events and slow flows between storm
events.



Stream flow after a storm surge, pre- and post-development.

Over time, the faster storm flow rates and resulting erosion in urban streams can lead
stream channels to become deeper and more incised. The water table then typically
becomes lower because of the deeper, narrower streambed. The result is a “floodplain”
that rarely floods, a riparian zone where tree roots cannot reach the water table, and
riparian trees that die of drought stress. When riparian trees die, urban streams receive
more direct sunlight and experience increased temperatures (and thus have lower
saturated dissolved oxygen levels) and greater diurnal variation in temperature.



Changes in stream channel shape, floodplain, and water table after development.

The high energy storm flow in urban streams also affects the diversity of habitats
present. The stream channel can become straighter and more spatially homogenous in
terms of width, depth, flow rate and substrate type. Thus, urban streams tend to have
decreased habitat diversity, which affects the type and diversity of organisms they can
support. The diagram below shows a natural stream that meanders, varies spatially in
flow rates, and has both riffle and pool habit. It shows an urban stream with a straight
channel and uniformity of flow rates, substrate sizes, and habitat types.

Comparison of flow rates, substrate sizes, and habitat types provided by natural and
urban streams.

Stream health is a measure of the ability of a stream to support life. Stream health can
be assessed in a number of ways, including physical measures (e.g., habitat diversity,
channel shape, variation in substrate size), chemical measures (e.g., pH, dissolved
oxygen, total dissolved solids, turbidity), and biological measures (e.g., the types and
diversity of organisms found).

The “urban stream syndrome” described above results in deceased habitat diversity,
increased erosion, and increased turbidity, among other factors. Therefore, we may
expect urban streams to have decreased stream health compared to natural streams.
Stream restoration projects are underway in urban streams all over the country to try
and make urban streams more physically similar to natural streams, with the goal of
increasing the health of these streams.

The Mud Creek study provides an interesting way to assess the ability of a stream to
recover from the effects of urbanization. At Upper Mud Creek the stream is surrounded
by a suburban neighborhood in a medium sized city and shows classic features of the
“urban stream syndrome.” The creek then flows downstream into a forest that has been
protected for almost a century and appears to have many attributes of natural streams
at Lower Mud Creek. Mud Tributary is completely enclosed within the protected forest
and has experienced no effects of urbanization. By comparing all three sites we are
able to assess not just whether Lower Mud Creek is healthier than Upper Mud Creek
but also whether Lower Mud Creek has fully recovered from the effects of urbanization
so that it has stream health comparable to that of Mud Tributary.


4 Elaboration: Physical measurement of stream health

In these elaboration activities, students measure the physical properties of streams to
evaluate stream health. A video overview is included. The activity may be adapted to
classroom use or to field work, and sample data is provided.

4.1The physical properties of a stream
4.2Classroom activity
4.3Sample data
4.4Student instructions & data sheet
4.5Additional activities
4.6Conducting this activity in the field


4.1 The physical properties of a stream

You must have javascript and Flash Player to play this video.

This video of Mud Creek introduces you to the physical properties of streams and how
they relate to habitat diversity.

Download video (Right-click or option-click) at http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/
mudcreek/6395

The physical properties of a stream, such as the channel shape, the substrate size, and
the available habitats, play an important role in determining the type and diversity of
organisms that the stream can support. These physical attributes provide useful
information on ecosystem function and stream health.

Habitat diversity



From top to bottom: riffles, a run, and a pool.
Each is a different habitat that supports different
kinds of aquatic life. (Click individual photos to
enlarge. Photo credits: top, middle, bottom.)


In the field, scientists measure a variety of aspects of the physical environment in a
stream. One important physical attribute is habitat diversity. A typical stream contains
three major types of habitats: riffles, runs, and pools. A riffle is an area of fast moving,
churning water. A run is an area of smoothly moving water. A pool is an area of stagnant
water. Each habitat type supports different types of aquatic life, so a stream with a
greater diversity of habitat types will generally support a greater diversity of organisms.
One simple measure of habitat diversity is the number of habitat transitions. A
researcher in the field walks along a 50 meter or 100 meter section of a stream and
records the location and type (riffle, run, pool) of each new habitat encountered. Simply
counting the number of habitat transitions within the transect provides an informative
measure of habitat diversity in a given stream. Another measure of stream habitat
diversity involves calculation of the total length of riffle and run habitat divided by the
total length of pool habitat. This ratio is generally greater for streams with higher water
quality, because riffles and runs tend to be higher in oxygen and pools tend to be lower
in oxygen. The amount of variation in stream width or depth can also provide a measure
of habitat diversity in a stream. Researchers simply measure the width or depth of a
stream at regular intervals and then asses the amount of variation in the set of data
using a frequency distribution (histogram) or statistical measure of variation (e.g.,
coefficient of variation).

Stream channel

Another useful physical measure is the shape of the cross section of a stream channel.
A deeper, more incised channel is typically associated with urban streams and is often
the result of direct human impacts (e.g., dredging the stream channel) or indirect human
impacts (e.g., a decreased percentage of impervious surfaces resulting in high energy
stream flows and erosion during rainstorms). Incised channels have faster flow rates
and greater turbidity (due to more sediment in the water). Scientists can measure the
channel depth (from bank height to deepest point) and width (from bank to bank) and
then calculate the depth to width ratio, called the incision ratio. A greater incision ratio
indicates a more incised channel.

Substrate size

A third aspect of a stream’s physical environment is the substrate size. Stream
substrates may include sand, gravel, rock, or even bedrock. Since different organisms
have different habitat requirements, a stream with a variety of substrate sizes will
generally support a greater diversity of organisms. Some urban streams are mostly
sand, while other urban streams are mostly rock. A more natural stream generally has a
greater variety of substrate sizes. Scientists cannot measure all the substrate particles
in a given stream, so instead they measure a randomly selected sample of substrate
particles. A common sampling method is called a “pebble count.” In this method a
researcher walks in a zigzag pattern along a streambed. After each step the researcher
measures the “pebble” (substrate particle) at the tip of his/her foot. A substrate particle
has three axes (dimensions), and the researcher measures the length of the
intermediate axis. This measurement is generally made for a large sample of substrate
particles. Then calculations are made to determine the amount of variation in substrate
size. A frequency distribution (histogram) can be created to examine the amount of
variation in substrate size. There are also statistical measures of the amount of variation
(e.g., range or coefficient of variation) that can be calculated.


4.2 Classroom activity

Divide the class into three research teams. Each team will be responsible for making
physical measurements to assess stream health at one of the three Mud Creek study
sites (Upper Mud Creek, Lower Mud Creek, and Mud Tributary). You may choose to
have each team make all three types of physical measurements (channel shape,
substrate size, and habitat diversity), or you may just select one or two. Detailed
instructions for each kind of measurement are provided below. Ideas for additional
measurements are in the Additional Activities section below. You may choose to divide
the three teams into smaller groups and divide up the work within each team.

Once the three student research teams have finished calculating their metric(s) of
stream health, ask each team to present their findings to the class. Compare the results
for the three sites and ask the class what these results tell us about the ability of Mud
Creek to recover from the effects of urbanization.

Habitat diversity measurement

Explain the background information above related to habitat diversity. Provide each
team with a map of a 50 meter section of the stream at their site and a data/instruction
sheet. If you want to divide the teams into smaller groups, you can give each small
group a map (below) and a data/instruction sheet.

Each team should examine the map and identify each location where the habitat
changes from one habitat type (riffle, run, or pool) to another. Students should record
the order of the different habitat types encountered on the data sheet. Students should
then count the number of habitat transitions for the 50 meter section of stream at their
site.

Habitat maps

Open as PDF (80 KB, 3 pages)

Channel shape measurement

Explain the background information above related to channel shape. Provide each team
with a map of the cross sectional area of the stream channel at their site, a ruler, and a
data/instruction sheet. If you want to divide the teams into smaller groups, you can give
each small group a map, a ruler, and a data/instruction sheet.

Each team should use a ruler to measure the depth and width of the stream channel on
their map and record their measurements on the data sheet. The width should be
measured as an imaginary horizontal line running from bank to bank. The depth should
be measured from the deepest point of the stream channel to the imaginary horizontal
line running from bank to bank. The students should then calculate the incision ratio
(depth to width ratio) for the stream channel at their site.
Mud Creek channel shape

Open as PDF (140 KB, 3 pages)

Substrate size measurement

Explain the background information above related to substrate size. Provide each team
with an envelope of 50 “pebbles” from their site, a ruler, and a data/instruction sheet.

The “pebbles” represent the 50 substrates encountered in “pebble count” sampling
conducted by a researcher at each site. If you want to divide the teams into smaller
groups, you can give each small group some “pebbles”, a ruler, and a data/instruction
sheet.

Please note that you will need to cut out the “pebbles” from card stock before providing
them to your students.

(See the templates below.)

A relatively large number of the ”pebbles” are sand and should measure less than or
equal to 3 mm. Rather than cutting out these tiny “pebbles,” you may choose to
substitute the appropriate number of confetti or hole punches to represent these sand
grains. Also note that some sites contain one or more samples of bedrock. This is
recorded on the “pebble” card stock. You may want to create an extra large rock by
using craft paper or poster board, or you may just want to tell your students to record
bedrock for a certain number of their 50 samples.

Each team should use a ruler to measure the length of the intermediate axis of each
“pebble” and record their measurements on the data sheet. In the field a substrate has
three dimensions, or axes. The card stock “pebbles” also have three axes, with the
smallest being simply the thickness of the card stock. Students should measure the
length of the smaller of the two remaining axes (what you probably think of as the
width). If there is not enough time to measure all 50 “pebbles,” students can measure a
sample of them. If students encounter a piece of “sand,” they should record its width as
4 mm. If students encounter a piece of “bedrock,” they should record its width as 1000
mm.

Once each student team has recorded their 50 values for substrate length, they should
examine the amount of variation in substrate size. A simple way to do this is to record
the range of substrate sizes. This is the interval spanning from the smallest value in a
set of data to the largest value. For example, if the largest substrate encountered was 3
mm and the largest was 100 mm, the range would be 3-100 mm. Students can also
make a frequency distribution (histogram) of substrate size. The student data sheet
includes instructions for creating such a graph by hand.


CARD STOCK “PEBBLES”

Use these templates to cut out “pebbles” from card stock.
Pebbles — Upper Mud Creek

Open as PDF (9 KB, 1 page)
Pebbles — Lower Mud Creek

Open as PDF (106 KB, 13 pages)
Pebbles — Mud Tributary

Open as PDF (62 KB, 7 pages)
Next: Sample data



4.3 Sample data

If you do not the class time available to do the activities outlined in this section, you can
use this sample data from Mud Creek for analysis and discussion.
Sample physical data

Download the data set for classroom use. http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/mudcreek/
6607

Open as Excel document (35 KB, 3 pages)


4.5 Additional activities

Habitat diversity

In addition to calculating the number of habitat transitions, you may want your students
to determine the total length of riffle and run habitat divided by the total length of pool
habitat. In order to calculate this, students will need to record not only the order and
type of habitats encountered along the habitat map for a 50 meter section of their site
but also the distance along the 50 meter transect when each habitat transition occurs.
Then they will be able to calculate the total length of each habitat type within the 50
meter section.

Students can also assess variation in stream width using the habitat map for their site.
Students can use a ruler to measure the width of the stream channel every 2.5 meters
over the 50 meter section and then asses the amount of variation using a frequency
distribution (histogram) or statistical measure of variation (e.g. range or coefficient of
variation — see instructions below for calculating this).

Channel shape

To give your students a more realistic experience of measuring channel shape, you can
create a simulated stream cross section using craft paper taped up to walls or furniture
at the appropriate distances. Students could then follow the field protocol (below) to
measure channel width and depth.

Substrate size

Rather than measuring the cardstock “pebbles,” you could have your students measure
a sample of pebbles along a zigzag transect on a diagram of the streambed (provided
below). These pebbles are much smaller than the actual pebbles measured in the field,
but they are drawn to scale on the diagram, and a legend is provided so that students
can convert their measurements to obtain the actual field data. In the diagram, the
locations where samples are taken are indicated by hatch marks (8 samples per
transect, each 200 mm apart). Only the pebbles that are sampled are drawn on the
diagram. There would certainly be additional pebbles in the stream. Wherever there is a
sample location with no pebble drawn, you can assume that the substrate at that
location is sand and record the substrate’s width as 4 mm. (This occurs frequently at
Upper Mud Creek since the substrate is mostly sand.)

Pebble count map. See PDF.

Open as PDF (51 KB, 3 pages)

To give your students a more realistic experience of measuring substrate size, you can
create a simulated stream using craft paper taped to the floor with the cardstock
pebbles taped to it. Students could then follow the field protocol (below) to do an actual
“pebble count.”

As an alternative to creating a frequency distribution of substrate size by hand, you may
want to have your students create such a graph using computer software or a graphing
calculator.

Advanced students, particularly those with some statistical background or with
familiarity with graphing calculators or computer spreadsheets, may be able to calculate
coefficient of variation to assess variation in the class substrate size data. Coefficient of
variation is a percentage and is defined as the standard deviation of a set of data
divided by the mean (or average) of the set of data times 100. The standard deviation of
a set of data can be easily obtained in most computer spreadsheets and graphing
calculators. A greater coefficient of variation is associated with a greater relative amount
of variation in a set of data. In this example, a greater coefficient of variation would
indicate a greater variation in substrate size at a stream.


4.6 Conducting this activity in the field

If you are able to take your students on a field trip to a local stream to measure physical
stream attributes, that would be an excellent addition to, or substitute for, this activity. It
would be particularly interesting to compare two locations along the same stream,
perhaps a more urban section to a more forested section. Sampling can be done with
minimal equipment, such as rulers, a measuring tape, and a line level.

Please be aware that Eastern North Carolina streams, because of their limited
topographical gradients and uniformly sandy sediments may have very few riffles and a
limited diversity of substrate sizes. Field measurement of substrate size and habitat
diversity as described above would therefore work best in the piedmont or mountains of
North Carolina. One way to assess the habitat diversity of Eastern North Carolina
streams would be to measure stream depth or width at regular intervals along a 50 or
100 meter transect and then assess the amount of variation in stream depth or width.
You could also count the number of habitat transitions by focusing on habitats provided
by tree roots, fallen logs, and leaf litter. Field measurement of channel shape would
work well in any part of North Carolina.

To measure habitat diversity in the field, first set up a 50 meter or 100 meter transect
that follows the shape of the stream by laying a measuring tape along the stream. (If
you do not have a measuring tape, you can use a string or rope marked at 1 meter
intervals.) Walk along the transect and record data on the type and location of habitats
encountered. If you want to measure variation in stream width or depth, you should also
measure these parameters along your transect.

To measure channel width in the field, randomly select a location along the stream and
identify the top of the bank on each side. If you have a large measuring tape, stretch it
across the stream from bank to bank. (If you do not have a large measuring tape, you
can use string and then compare the length of string that you use to a meter stick or
smaller measuring tape.) Use a line level to level the measuring tape so that it is
perfectly horizontal. If one bank is higher than the other, the measuring tape should be
touching the higher bank and should be held directly above the lower bank. Determine
the horizontal distance between the two banks. To measure channel depth, keep the
measuring tape level between the two banks and measure the vertical distance from the
deepest point in the stream channel to the horizontal measuring tape.

To measure substrate size for a sample of substrates in the field, do a “pebble count.”
Start at the edge of the streambed, and walk heel to toe along the entire active channel
(not just the portion of the streambed covered in water, but the entire width of the
channel) in a zigzag pattern. After each step, pick up the piece of sediment directly at
the tip of your shoe or boot. Measure the length of the intermediate axis of the
substrate. If you step on the same large rock twice, include it in your sample twice.
Repeat until you have 50 or 100 samples.

After you have gathered and recorded your data, you can follow the instructions above
for calculating appropriate metrics of stream water quality.
5 Elaboration: Chemical measurement of stream health

In these elaboration activities, students measure chemical indicators of water quality
and draw conclusions about stream health. The activities may be adapted to classroom
use or field work, and sample data is provided. Video guides to laboratory techniques
are provided.

5.1Chemical indicators of stream health
5.2Classroom activity
5.3Measuring pH
5.4Measuring dissolved oxygen
5.5Measuring total dissolved solids
5.6Measuring turbidity
5.7Sample data
5.8Student data sheet
5.9Additional activities
5.10Conducting this activity in the field


5.1 Chemical indicators of stream health

Chemical attributes of a body of water help determine the number and diversity of
organisms that it can support. Scientists measure a variety of chemical parameters to
assess stream health, including pH, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, turbidity,
nitrate, and phosphate. Nitrate and phosphate are more challenging to measure in the
science classroom, so the activities below focus on pH, dissolved oxygen, total
dissolved solids, and turbidity.

pH

pH is the negative log of the hydronium ion concentration, and pH values can range
from 0-14. Many chemical reactions in organisms have a narrow pH tolerance, and
therefore many organisms have a limited range of pH in which they can survive. Most
organisms can survive at pH levels around 5-8, while fewer organisms can survive at
very high or very low pH values. North Carolina stream water tends to be circumneutral,
meaning that most North Carolina steams have a pH slight above or below 7.

Oxygen

Oxygen is required for aerobic respiration. Oxygen is generally present at lower
concentrations in water than in air. Distilled water at 27◦C at sea level would have 8.07
mg/L dissolved oxygen. Only a limited number of organisms can survive in dissolved
oxygen levels below 4 mg/L. The presence of riffles (stream habitats with rocks and fast
flowing, churning water) increases diffusion of oxygen into stream water. Temperature
affects the amount of oxygen that a body of water can hold. As temperature increases,
the saturation concentration of dissolved oxygen decreases. This is why most fish kills
occur in the summer months in North Carolina. Decomposition of organic matter
consumes oxygen and results in decreased dissolved oxygen levels in a stream.

Total dissolved solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS) is a measure of the concentration of dissolved solids in a
water sample. Dissolved solids are capable of passing through a filter, whereas
suspended solids cannot. Examples of dissolved solids found in stream water are ions
of nitrate, phosphate, sodium, calcium, and magnesium. If TDS levels are particularly
high, organisms can become dehydrated. If high TDS levels are accompanied by
sufficient levels of limiting nutrients, such as N and P, algal blooms can result. Typical
stream TDS levels range from 50-250 mg/L.

Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of water’s lack of clarity. Water with high turbidity is cloudy, while
water with low turbidity is more transparent. High turbidity can result from erosion, urban
runoff, or industrial waste. Turbid waters absorb heat more readily and have less light
available for photosynthesis. Turbidity typically ranges from 1-50 NTU (Nephelometric
Turbidity Units) but can get much higher, especially after heavy rains.


5.2 Classroom activity

In this classroom activity, students will be provided with water samples that are said to
be from Upper Mud Creek, Lower Mud Creek, and Mud Tributary. The students will
measure pH, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, and turbidity and compare results
to identify any chemical differences in stream health between the three sites.

You will provide each student group with water samples in this activity. You can collect
water samples from local streams near your school, or you can prepare simulated water
samples using tap or aquarium water. Suggestions for preparing simulated water
samples are provided on the pages for each measurement.

Divide the class into three research teams. Each team will be responsible for measuring
pH, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, and turbidity to assess water quality at one
of the three Mud Creek study sites (Upper Mud Creek, Lower Mud Creek, and Mud
Tributary). You may choose to divide the three teams into smaller groups and divide up
the work within each team.

You may choose to have each team make all four types of chemical measurements (pH,
dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, and turbidity), or you may just select some of
them. Instructions for each kind of measurement are provided below. Ideas for
additional measurements are in the Additional Activities section below.

Once the three student research teams have finished measuring their water chemistry
metric(s), ask each team to present their findings to the class. Compare the results for
the three sites and ask the class what these results tell us about the ability of Mud
Creek to recover from the effects of urbanization.

5.3 Measuring pH

You must have javascript and Flash Player to play this video.

In this video, Christine Muth demonstrates how to measure pH using two types of pH
paper.

About the video

Download video (Right-click or option-click) from http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/
mudcreek/6591

Collect water samples in the field or prepare simulated water samples for the three Mud
Creek sites (Upper Mud Creek, Lower Mud Creek, and Mud Tributary). The three Mud
Creek sites differ very little in pH, ranging from about 6.9-7.6, so it is not necessary to
manipulate the three water samples to make them different in pH. (If you would like to
purposely create a pH difference between your water samples, you can do this by
adding an acid like lemon juice to some of the samples.)

Explain the background information above related to pH. Provide each team with a
water sample, pH paper, and a data sheet. If you want to divide the teams into smaller
groups, you can give each small group a water sample, pH paper, and a data sheet.
Each team should use pH paper to measure the pH of their water sample and record
their measurement on the data sheet.

Note that you can obtain more accurate measurements of pH with a pH meter or a
LaMotte pH test kit.

5.4 Measuring dissolved oxygen

You must have javascript and Flash Player to play this video.

In this video, Christine Muth demonstrates how to measure dissolved oxygen using a
LaMotte test kit.

About the video

Download video (Right-click or option-click) from http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/
mudcreek/6592

Collect water samples in the field or prepare simulated water samples for the three Mud
Creek sites (Upper Mud Creek, Lower Mud Creek, and Mud Tributary). Upper Mud
Creek tends to have lower dissolved oxygen levels than the other two sites. If you would
like to manipulate your water samples to create higher dissolved oxygen levels in the
Lower Mud Creek and Mud Tributary samples, you can do this by aerating the water
with an aquarium pump, or even stirring the water vigorously in an open container. If
you would like to manipulate your water samples to create lower dissolved oxygen
levels in the Upper Mud Creek samples, you can do this by heating the water.

Explain the background information above related to dissolved oxygen. Provide each
team with a water sample, materials for measuring dissolved oxygen, and a data sheet.
If you want to divide the teams into smaller groups, you can give each small group a
water sample, materials for measuring dissolved oxygen, and a data sheet.

Each team should measure the dissolved oxygen of their water sample and record their
measurement on the data sheet.

Methods for measuring dissolved oxygen include the Winkler Method (a simple titration
using a LaMotte dissolved oxygen test kit or HACH portable water test kit) or use of a
dissolved oxygen probe (e.g., Vernier or YSI). If you do not have access to a method of
measuring dissolved oxygen, you can provide your students with some actual
instantaneous data from the three Mud Creek sites (Upper Mud Creek: 5.0 mg/L, Lower
Mud Creek: 11.8 mg/L, Mud tributary: 9.4 mg/L).

5.5 Measuring total dissolved solids

You must have javascript and Flash Player to play this video.

In this video, Christine Muth demonstrates how to measure total dissolved solids using
a Vernier conductivity probe.

About the video

Download video (Right-click or option-click) from http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/
mudcreek/6593

Collect water samples in the field or prepare simulated water samples for the three Mud
Creek sites (Upper Mud Creek, Lower Mud Creek, and Mud Tributary). Upper Mud
Creek and Lower Mud Creek tend to have higher TDS than Mud Tributary. If you would
like to manipulate your water samples to create higher TDS levels in the Upper and
Lower Mud Creek samples, you can do this by adding a small amount of salt to your
water samples. If you would like to manipulate your water samples to create lower TDS
levels in the Mud Tributary samples, you can do this by diluting your water samples with
distilled water.

Explain the background information above related to TDS. Provide each team with a
water sample, materials for measuring TDS, and a data sheet. If you want to divide the
teams into smaller groups, you can give each small group a water sample, materials for
measuring TDS, and a data sheet.

Each team should measure the TDS of their water sample and record their
measurement on the data sheet.

TDS can be measured with a conductivity probe (Vernier or YSI). If you do not have
access to a conductivity probe, you can provide your students with actual instantaneous
data from the three Mud Creek sites (Upper Mud Creek: 89 mg/L, Lower Mud Creek: 69
mg/L, Mud tributary: 53 mg/L).

5.6 Measuring turbidity

You must have javascript and Flash Player to play this video.

In this video, Christine Muth demonstrates how to measure turbidity.

About the video

Download video (Right-click or option-click) from http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/
mudcreek/6594

Collect water samples in the field or prepare simulated water samples for the three Mud
Creek sites (Upper Mud Creek, Lower Mud Creek, and Mud Tributary). Upper Mud
Creek and Lower Mud Creek tend to have greater turbidity levels than Mud Tributary. If
you would like to manipulate your water samples to create higher turbidity levels in the
Upper Mud Creek and Lower Mud Creek samples, you can do this by adding a small
amount of soil to the water.

Explain the background information above related to turbidity. Provide each team with a
water sample, a turbidity color chart (see below), and a data sheet. If you want to divide
the teams into smaller groups, you can give each small group a water sample, a
turbidity color chart, and a data sheet.

Each team should make a visual estimate of turbidity by comparing their water sample
to the turbidity color chart and record their measurement on the data sheet.
Note that you can obtain more accurate measurements of turbidity with a turbidity probe
(e.g., Vernier) or a LaMotte turbidity test kit. You can also evaporate the water from the
water samples and determine the mass of the remaining solids if you have a sensitive
enough balance.




Turbidity color chart

Turbidity chart

Download a
printable version
for classroom
use.

Open as PDF
(114 KB, 1
page)





5.7 Sample data

If you do not have access to equipment to do the activities outlined in this section, you
can use this sample data from Mud Creek for analysis and discussion.

Sample water quality data, Mud Creek, March 2008

Download the data set for classroom use.

Open as Excel document (20 KB, 1 page). See Excel document.

5.8 SEE STUDENT DATA SHEETS.

5.9 Additional activities

Dissolved oxygen and pH can vary greatly on a diurnal basis, so it would be interesting
to measure these parameters at regular intervals over a 24 hour period.

Dissolved oxygen can be consumed more rapidly in waters with high organic matter
compared to waters low in organic matter. To examine this change over time, consider
measuring initial dissolved oxygen in two water samples that differ in organic matter
content, waiting a period of at least 60 minutes, and then measuring dissolved oxygen
again in the two water samples. Typically the water sample higher in organic matter will
have a greater decrease in dissolved oxygen than the sample lower in organic matter.
Teachers who have kits or probes for measuring nutrients like nitrate, ammonium, or
phosphate could make those measurements to provide more detailed information about
dissolved materials in the water samples.

Since urban streams typically have less tree canopy cover surrounding them, they often
have greater diurnal variation in temperature than natural streams. You can
demonstrate this by making temperature measurements over a day in sunny vs. shady
areas at a stream on or near your campus. You can also simulate this in the classroom
by setting up two aquarium tanks, one under bright light or by a sunny window and one
that does not receive direct light, then making temperature measurements over a day.

5.10 Conducting this activity in the field

If you are able to take your students on a field trip to a local stream to make water
chemistry measurements on site, that would be an excellent addition to, or substitute
for, this activity. It would be particularly interesting to compare two locations along the
same stream, perhaps an urban section and a more forested section. Measurements
could be done with exactly the same equipment that is used in the classroom.

Elaboration: Biological measurement of stream health

In these elaboration activities, students evaluate stream health by examining the
diversity of macroinvertebrates. The activity may be adapted to classroom use or field
work. Sample photographs and a dichotomous key are provided.

6.1Biological indicators of stream health
6.2Classroom activity
6.3Dichotomous key for freshwater macroinvertibrates
6.4Photographs of freshwater macroinvertibrates
6.5Sample data
6.6Student data sheet
6.7Conducting this activity in the field

6.1 Biological indicators of stream health

Examining the organisms inhabiting a stream provides valuable information about
stream health. Macroinvertebrates (small animals without backbones) are often used to
assess stream health. When a large number of different macroinvertebrates inhabit a
stream or when those macroinvertebrates that inhabit a stream are particularly pollution-
intolerant or oxygen-demanding, the stream is generally considered to be healthy.
In the field, scientists use various collection techniques to capture stream
macroinvertebrates. They then identify the macroinvertebrates using dichotomous keys
and calculate various metrics to assess stream water quality.

6.2 Classroom activity

In this classroom activity, students will be provided with photos of macroinvertebrates
from Upper Mud Creek, Lower Mud Creek, and Mud Tributary. The students will then
use a simple dichotomous key to identify the macroinvertebrates at each site and will
calculate one or more measures of stream health based on the data that they gather.
Divide the class into three research teams. Each team will be responsible for using
macroinvertebrates to assess stream health at one of the three Mud Creek study sites
(Upper Mud Creek, Lower Mud Creek, and Mud Tributary). You may choose to divide
the three teams into smaller groups and divide up the work within each team.
Explain the background information above to each team, and make sure students know
how to use a dichotomous key. Provide each team with an envelope of photos from their
site, a dichotomous key, and a data sheet. If you want to divide the teams into smaller
groups, you can give each small group a dichotomous key, a data sheet, and a portion
of the photos to identify.

Each team should identify their assigned macroinvertebrates using the dichotomous key
and record all types of macroinvertebrates found on their data sheet. The key provided
goes down to the taxonomic level of family (or sometimes order), but some
macroinvertebrate families are represented by more than one species at a given site.

For this reason, students may find that two different photos with two somewhat different
looking organisms may key out to the same group. For example, students may find
more than one kind of mayfly at a given site. This is an important part of their data and
should be recorded. Students do not need to know the name of each kind of mayfly, just
the number of different types of mayflies found at the site. Although a sample of
macroinvertebrates collected in the field is likely to include multiple individuals of each
species, the photos provided include only one example of each species. This means
that each photo should provide an example of a new kind of macroinvertebrate — either
it will key out to an entirely new group (e.g., the only crane fly larva) or it will provide an
example of a new species for a group already found (e.g., a second or third kind of
mayfly). Thus, each photo should result in new data to be added to the student data
sheet.

Once students have gathered their data they should calculate at least one or two biotic
metrics of stream health. One metric is simply the total number of taxa (total number of
different kinds of organisms). This is similar to the idea of number of species, but it is
very difficult to key out macroinvertebrates to the species level, so we simply count the
total number of taxonomic groups represented. If students found three different kinds of
mayflies at their site, they should report these as three different kinds of taxa. A second
metric is the total number of EPT taxa. EPT taxa are taxa belonging to one of three
major groups of macroinvertebrates that are particularly intolerant of pollution and
demanding of oxygen: Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies) and
Trichoptera (caddisflies). To determine the total number of EPT taxa, simply count the
total number of different kinds of mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies found.

Once the three student research teams have finished identifying their
macroinvertebrates and calculating their biotic metric(s), ask each team to present their
findings to the class. Compare the results for the three sites and ask the class what
these results tell us about the ability of Mud Creek to recover from the effects of
urbanization.

6.3 Dichotomous key for freshwater macroinvertibrates

The following dichotomous key is used for identifying freshwater macroinvertebrates at
Eno River State Park in Durham and Orange counties, North Carolina. Because the
park is only a few miles from Mud Creek, this key includes the macroinvertebrates most
commonly found there as well.

Key to common macroinvertebrates found at Eno River State Park

Provided by North Carolina State Parks, with images from W. Patrick McCafferty,
Aquatic Entomology. Reproduced with permission. Images from W. Patrick McCafferty,
Aquatic Entomology. Reproduced with permission.

Open as PDF (40 KB, 1 page). See PDF.


6.4 Photographs of freshwater macroinvertibrates

Unless otherwise stated all photographs on this page are courtesy of the North
American Benthological Society. Click any photograph for a closer look.

Macroinvertebrate photos

You can download the photographs without identification for use in the classroom
activity.

Open as PowerPoint (33 MB, 12 pages; also available as PDF). See Power Point. Go
to http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/mudcreek/6609 to see names of macro
invertebrates.



6.5 Sample data

If you are unable to do the activities outlined in this section, you can use this sample
data from Mud Creek for analysis and discussion.
Sample biological data

Download the data set for classroom use.

Open as Excel document (23 KB, 1 page). See Excel spreadsheet.


6.6 Student data sheet

Student data sheet — Biological measurement of stream health

You can download the student data sheet for use in your classroom.

Open as PDF (68 KB, 2 pages; also available as Microsoft Word document). See PDF.

Answer key — Biological measurement of stream health

This answer key is provided for reference.

Open as PDF (60 KB, 1 page). See PDF.


6.7 Conducting this activity in the field

If you are able to take your students on a field trip to a local stream to identify
macroinvertebrates, that would be an excellent addition to, or substitute for, this activity.
It would be particularly interesting to compare two locations along the same stream,
perhaps an urban section and a more forested section. Sampling can be done with
minimal equipment, and you can use the macroinvertebrate key provided in most parts
of North Carolina.

Please be aware that Eastern North Carolina streams, because of their limited
topographical change and uniformly sandy sediments, may have few kinds of aquatic
macroinvertebrates intolerant of dissolved oxygen levels. This field activity would work
best in the piedmont or mountains of North Carolina.

If you have a sampling net, tilt it so that water flows downstream into it. Then kick or stir
the sediment upstream of the net to loosen macroinvertebrates clinging to the sediment
and send them into the net. Carefully bring the net out of the stream and transfer all the
macroinvertebrates that you find into a pan of stream water. You should also closely
examine rocks and piles of decomposing leaves from the stream and look for organisms
living on the surface of the water (e.g., water striders). Small forceps and plastic transfer
pipettes are useful for transferring macroinvertebrates, although fingers also work well!
Ice cube trays are handy for sorting macroinvertebrates until you key them out. Be sure
to return all organisms found to the stream when you are finished keying them out.
After you have keyed out all the macroinvertebrates you found and recorded your data,
you can follow the instructions above for calculating one or more metrics of stream
health.


7 Evaluation

This last section provides suggested assessments for the unit.

7.1Suggested assessments

7.1 Suggested assessments

After completing the Mud Creek Case Study with your students, there are a number of
different ways you could assess your students’ understanding of concepts learned.

Rather than prescribing a specific assessment tool for you to use with your students, we
are suggesting a menu of options so that you can choose one that will both interest and
challenge your students, and will be appropriate for the amount of class time you are
able to devote to the Mud Creek Case Study. If you develop additional ideas for
assessing your students’ understanding of the Mud Creek Case Study, please share
them with us!

The essential question in any evaluation tool used should be “Does Mud Creek recover
from the effects of urbanization?”

Students work in pairs or groups to complete and submit answers to the focus questions
for the physical, chemical, and biological elaboration activities.

Students work in pairs to write up a formal lab report based on their analysis of the class
data.

Students participate in a class discussion about whether or not Lower Mud Creek has
recovered from the effects of urbanization.

Each student writes a one page statement about whether or not Lower Mud Creek has
recovered from the effects of urbanization, including citing specific evidence from the
class data.

Students participate in a class debate about whether or not a new high school should be
built on the land surrounding Mud Creek.

Each student writes a newspaper editorial stating their opinion about whether or not a
new high school should be built on the land surrounding Mud Creek. (As this Mud Creek
Case Study was being prepared for distribution to North Carolina teachers, there was
actually a proposal being considered for a new Durham County high school to be built
on the land surrounding Mud Creek.)