PIPE SIZING AS PER ASME B 31.

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PIPE INTERNAL DIA.

MASS FLOW RATE (M*) = DENSITY x CROSS SECTIONAL AREA x ALLOWED VELOCITY

Velocity will be decided as per the contract spec. Velocity will be limited to a certain value to avoid
pressure drop and noise.
v for SH steam is 60 m/s, v for sat. Steam is 30 m/s, v for HPFW is 4 - 5 m/s, v for CCCW is
1.5 - 2 m/s.

PIPE THICKNESS CALCULATION AS PER ASME B 31.1

ID BASED PIPE

T = (pd + 2SEA + 2ypA)  2 (SE + yp – p)

OD BASED PIPE

T = { pD / 2 ( SE + yp ) } + A

P = Design pressure, D = outer diameter, d = inner diameter, s = Allowable stress, E = Weld Efficiency, A
= Corrosion Allowance (0.75), y = factor (0.4 to 0.7 varies according to
Temperature, T = pipe thickness.

INPUTS REQUIRED FOR PREPARING PIPING LAYOUT

a. Piping & Instrumentation Diagram,
b. Pipe Specification,
c. Plot Plan,
d. Equipment Layout,
e. Equipment General Arrangement,
f. Civil, Structural & Architectural Details,
g. Instrumentation Details.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE DEVELOPING PIPING LAYOUT

Functional requirement as per the P&ID,
Flexibility of the piping system,
Support feasibility (as per ASME)
Accessibility during Installation, Operation and Maintenance
a. Piping should not disturb access for internal equipment handling ( Crane movement )
b. Piping should not disturb access for external equipment handling ( Movement of Fork Lift
Truck )
c. Space requirement for maintenance near equipment’s
d. Free movement around the equipment for operations
e. Dismantling provision in piping during maintenance
f. Access for instruments and valve operations ( platform requirement if any for instrument and
valve operation should be indicated )
Head room clearance (2 – 2.4 m)
Main road clearance (7 – 7.5 m)
Secondary road clearance (5 – 6 m)
Passage way and Escape route (min 0.9 m)
Slope, Vent and Drain requirement
Distance to be maintained between pipes. (Small bore min. 50mm, Large bore min. 75mm)

CODE: Group of general rules or systematic procedures for design, fabrication, installation and
inspection methods prepared in such a manner that it can be adopted by legal jurisdiction and made into
law.

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STANDARD: Documents prepared by professional group or committee which are believed to be good
and proper engineering practices which contain mandatory requirements.

RECOMMENDED PRACTICES : Documents prepared by professional group or committee

indicating good engineering practices but which are optional.

CODES USED FOR DIFFERENT PIPING SERVICES

ASME B 31.1 - POWER PIPING
ASME B 31.2 - FUEL GAS PIPING
ASME B 31.3 - PROCESS PIPING (CHEMICAL PLANTS & PETROLEUM REFINERIES)
ASME B 31.4 - TRANSPORT SYSTEM OF LIQUID HYDROCARBONS AND OTHER HC
ASME B 31.5 - REFRIGERATION PIPING
ASME B 31.8 - GAS DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSPORTATION PIPING
ASME B 31.9 - BUILDING SERVICE PIPING
ASME B 31.11 - SLURRY TRANSPORT PIPING

PIPING STANDARDS
ANSI B 36.10 – WELDED AND SEAMLESS WROUGHT STEEL PIPE
ANSI B 36.19 – WELDED AND SEAMLESS AUSTINITIC STAINLESS STEEL PIPE
ANSI B 16.1 – CAST IRON PIPE FLANGES AND FLANGED FITTINGS
ANSI B 16.3 – MALLEABLE IRON THREADED FITTINGS
ANSI B 16.4 – CAST IRON THREADED FITTINGS
ANSI B 16.5 _ STEEL PIPE FLANGES AND FLANGED FITTINGS
ANSI B 16.9 _ WROUGHT STEEL BUTT WELDED FITTINGS
ANSI B 16.10 – FACE TO FACE & END TO END DIMENSIONS OF VALVES
ANSI B 16.11 – FORGED STEEL SOCKET WELDED AND THREADED FITTINGS
ANSI B 16.20 – METALIC GASKETS FOR PIPE FLANGES, RING JOINT, SPIRAL WOUND
ANSI B 16.21 – NON-METALIC GASKETS FOR PIPE FLANGES
ANSI B 16.25 – BUTT WELDING ENDS
ANSI B 16.28 – WROUGHT STEEL BUTT WELDING SHORT RADIUS ELBOWS & RETURNS
ANSI B 16.34 – STEEL VALVES FLANGED AND BUTT WELDING ENDS
ANSI B 16.36 – ORIFICE FLANGES
ANSI B 16.42 – DUCTILE IRON PIPE FLANGES AND FLANGED FITTINGS ( # 150 - # 300 )
ANSI B 16.47 – LARGE DIAMETER STEEL FLANGES ( 26” – 60” )
ANSI B 16.48 – STEEL LINE BLANKS
ANSI B 18.2 _ SQUARE AND HEXAGONAL HEAD BOLTS AND NUTS

ASME SEC VIII – BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE

AWS D1.1 - STRUCTURAL WELDING CODE
API 5L - SPECIFICATION FOR LINE SPEC.
API 6A - SPECIFICATION FOR WELLHEAD AND CHRISTMAS TREE EQUIPMENT
API 6F – RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR FIRE TEST FOR VALVES
API 593 – DUCTILE IRON PLUG VALVES FLANGED ENDS
API 598 – VALVE INSPECTION AND TEST
API 600 – STEEL GATE VALVES
API 601 – METALIC GASKETS FOR REFINERY PIPING
API 602 – COMPACT DESIGN CARBON STEEL GATE VALVES
API 604 – DUCTILE IRON GATE VALVES FLANGED ENDS
API 605 – LARGE DIAMETER CARBON STEEL FLANGES
API 607 – FIRE TEST FOR SOFT SEATED BALL VALVES
API 609 – BUTTERFLY VALVES
API 1104 – STANDARD FOR WELDING PIPE LINE AND FACILITIES
All material standards are covered by ASTM (THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND
MATERAILS)
All dimensional standards are covered by ANSI (THE AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD INSTITUTE)
ASME (THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERS)

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AISI (THE AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE)
API (THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE)
AWS (THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY)
AWWA (THE AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION)
MSS (THE MANUFACTURERS STANDARDISATION SOCIETY)
TEMA (TUBULAR EXCHANGER MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION)
EJMA (EXPANSION JOINT MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION)
NACE (NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CORROSION ENGINEERS)
NEMA (NATIONAL ELECTRIC MANUFACRURERS ASSOCIATION)

CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION
CONCRETE TO STEEL – 0.45
STEEL TO STEEL – 0.30
STEEL TO TEFLON – 0.10
STEEL TO GRAPHITE PAD – 0.10

HIGH PRESSURE – ABOVE 35 BAR

MEDIUM PRESSURE – 15 TO 35 BAR
LOW PRESSURE – BELOW 15 BAR

CLASS RATING = PRESSURE + TEMP

MAIN STEAM DESIGN PRESSURE = 85% OF DRUM SAFETY VALVE SET PRESSURE OR
SUPERHEATER OUTLET SAFETY VALVE SET PRESSURE WHICH EVER IS GREATER

PUMP DISCHARGE PIPING PRESSURE = PUMP SHUT OFF HEAD

PUMP SHUT OFF HEAD = HEAD DEVELOPED BY THE PUMP AT ZERO FLOW

DETAILS TO BE REFERED IN PIPING CODES

ALLOWABLE STRESS FOR ALL MATERIALS AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES.
STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR, STRESS ANALYSIS,
WELDING AND WELDING INSPECTION, REINFORCEMENT PAD CALCULATION
LOCATION OF VENTS, DRAINS, SAFETY VALVES AND SAFETY RELIEF VALVES
SUPPORTING LOCATION FOR ALL SIZE PIPES
PIPE SIZING AND THICKNESS CALCULATION

ASTM STANDARDS

ASTM A105 – FORGING CARBON STEEL FOR PIPING COMPONENTS

ASTM A106 – SEAMLESS CARBON STEEL PIPE
ASTM A515/A516 – PLATE MATERIAL FOR CARBON STEEL
ASTM A234 – PIPE FITTINGS OF WROUGHT CARBON STEEL
ASTM A216 – CASTING MATERIAL FOR CARBON STEEL
ASTM A182 – FORGED ALLOY STEEL
ASTM A335 – SEAMLESS AND WELDED ALLOY STEEL PIPE
ASTM A387 – PLATE MATERIAL FOR ALLOY STEEL
ASTM A217 – CASTING MATERIAL FOR ALLOY STEEL
ASTM A312 – SEAMLESS AND WELDED AUSTINITIC STAINLESS STEEL PIPE
ASTM A403 – STAINLESS STEEL MATERIAL FOR PIPE FITTINGS
ASTM A351 – CASTING MATERIAL FOR STAINLESS STEEL
ASTM A333 – SEAMLESS AND WELDED STEEL PIPE FOR LOW TEMP.
ASTM A193 – ALLOY STEEL AND STAINLESS STEEL BOLTING MATERIAL FOR HIGH TEMP
ASTM A194 – CARBON AND ALLOY STEEL NUTS FOR HIGH PRESSURE & HIGH TEMP.
ASTM A320 – ALLOY STEEL BOLTING MATERIAL FOR LOW TEMP.
ASTM A790 – SEAMLESS & WELDED FERRITIC/AUSTINITIC SS TUBE FOR GEN. SERVICE
ASTM A860 – HIGH STRENGTH BW FITTING OF WROUGHT HIGH STRENGTH LOW A.S.

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PARAMETERS REQUIRED TO CHECK PIPING ISOMETRICS
NORTH ORIENTATION WITH RESPECT TO PIPING GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
PIPE ROUTING WITH RESPECT TO PIPING GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
SUPPORT ATTACHMENTS WITH RESPECT TO SUPPORT DRAWINGS
BILL OF MATERIALS
PROVISION OF HIGH POINT VENT AND LOW POINT DRAIN AND SLOPE
DESIGN PRESSURE, TEMP, OPERATING PRESSURE, TEMP, HYDRAULIC TEST PRESSURE,
INSULATION THICKNESS,
PROVISION OF INSTRUEMENTS WITH RESPECT TO P & ID
FABRICATION DETAILS OF FITTINGS,
BUTT WELDING STANDARDS
PAINTING SPEC.

PARAMETERS CONCERNED IN SELECTING VALVES FOR TYPICAL GENERAL

SERVICES

a) Fluid to be Handled – This will affect both type of valve and material choice for valve construction.
b) Functional Requirement – Mainly affects choice of type of valve
c) Operating Conditions - Affects both type of valve and material choice for valve construction.
d) Flow Characteristics and Frictional Losses.
e) Size of Valve - Affects type of valve ( Very large sizes are available in limited range
Of types only) and availability (Matching sizes may not be available
As standard production in a particular type.
f) Any special requirement – Quick Opening, Free Draining.

TYPES OF VALVES
I - On-Off Valves

1) Screw Down Stop Valve

Shut of or regulation of flow of liquids and gases (i.e.) Steam.
Can be actuated by hand wheel, Electric motor, Hydraulic Actuator, Air motor.
Limited application for low Pressure/Volume systems because of relatively high cost. Limited suitability for
handling viscous or contaminated fluids.

2) Gate Valve
Normally used either fully opened or fully closed for on-off regulation on Water, Oil, Steam, Gas and other
Fluid services. Pressure drop is low. This valve weighs and costs less than other comparable size valves.
Can be actuated by hand wheel, Electric motor, Hydraulic Actuator, Air motor.
Not recommended using for throttling purposes. Solid wedge gate is free from chatter and jamming.

3) Ball Valve
Wide range of application for all sizes including very large sizes in oil pipelines etc.
Can be actuated by hand wheel, Electric motor, Hydraulic Actuator, Air motor.
Unrestricted bore at full opening, Can handle all types of fluids, Low operating torque, Not normally used
as a throttling valve.

4) Cock Valve
Low pressure service on clean cold fluids (water, oils etc)
Usually manually operated.
Limited application for steam services.

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II - Throttling Valves

1) Parallel Slide Valve

Regulation of flow particularly in main services in process industries and steam power plant.
Offers unrestricted bore at full opening. Can incorporate venture bore to reduce operating torque.

2) Butterfly Valve

Shut-off and regulation in large pipelines in water works, process industries, petrochemical industries,
hydroelectric power stations and thermal power stations.
Can be actuated by hand wheel, Electric motor, Hydraulic Actuator.
Relatively simple in construction and readily produced in very large sizes. ( up to 18 ft or more ).

3) Diaphragm Valve

Wide range of application in all services for flow regulation.

Can be actuated by hand wheel, Electric motor, Hydraulic Actuator, Air motor.
Can handle all type of fluids, including slurries, sludge’s etc., and contaminated fluids.
Limited for steam services by temperature and pressure rating of diaphragm.

4) Pinch Valve

Particularly suitable for handling corrosive medium. Solids in suspension, sludge’s etc.,
Can be actuated by hand wheel, Electric motor, Hydraulic Actuator, Fluid pressure.
Unrestricted bore at full opening can handle all types of fluids, Simple servicing, Limited maximum
pressure rating.

5) Automatic Process Control Valve

Designed to meet particular service conditions.

Most commonly of single or double beat globe valve configuration.

6) Air Relief Valve

Used in water works etc., to release entrapped air and prevent formation of vacuum pockets.
Automatic responding to changes in flow pressure.

7) Turbine Valve

Designed to meet requirement of steam and water turbines in industrial, marine and power.
Provides guaranteed control over Maximum and Minimum turbine speeds and power in association.

8) Needle Valve
It gives good flow control. It can have very high pressure ratings. It causes a high pressure drop and
presents a greater risk of clogging due to entrained solids.

III - Non-Return Valves

1) Split Disc Check Valve

It is generally the least expensive check valve in medium to large sizes. Shutoff is somewhat better in this
valve. It is not suitable for large material.

2) Lift check valve

In small sizes it is also one of the cheapest check valves. In larger sizes it cannot be used for pulsating
flows. The pressure drop id fairly high.

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3) Swing Check Valve
It will operate well whether installed horizontally or vertically. The body can be equipped with drain or
bypass taps. It is large and heavy compared with other types of such valves. This valve is not suitable for
pulsating flows containing entrained material.

4) Tilting Disc Check Valve

The pressure drop is lower than that of the swing check valve. It is larger and heavier than the swing-
check valve. An over size valve is prone to flutter or slamming.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PIPE AND TUBE

Pipe is identified by Nominal Bore and thickness is defined by schedule whereas Tube is identified by
Outside Diameter.

Soluble Dam
It is a water-soluble material used for restricting the purging gas within the pipe.

Reducers
Eccentric reducers are used in pump suction to avoid cavitations and to maintain bottom of pipe elevation
in pipe racks etc.,
Concentric reducers are used in pump discharge and vertical pipes.

Concentric reducers are not used in pump suction because air pockets may form if they are used at pump
suction which results in cavitations and cause damage to pump. To avoid this problem Eccentric reducer
with flat side up (FSU) is used in pump suction.

Cavitation in Pump

A pump is designed to handle liquid not vapour. Vapour forms if the pressure in the pump falls below the
liquid’s vapour pressure. The vapour pressure occurs right at the impeller inlet where a sharp pressure
drop occurs the impeller rapidly builds up the pressure, which collapses vapour bubbles causing
cavitation and damage. This is avoided by maintaining sufficient NPSH

(Cavitation implies cavities or holes in the fluid we are pumping. These holes can also be described as
bubbles, so cavitation is really about the formation of bubbles and their collapse. Bubbles form whenever
liquid boils. It can be avoided by providing sufficient NPSH.)

NPSH: Net Positive Suction Head is the pressure available at the pump suction after vapour pressure is
subtracted. It is calculated as Static Head + Surface Pressure Head – the vapour pressure of your
product - the friction losses in the piping, valves and fittings.

Steam Tracing and location of SSM and CRM

Steam tracing is a process which is used to prevent the fluid passing through a process line from freezing
by keeping the temperature high enough for free flow of fluid and thus maintaining pump ability.

SSM and CRM are generally located 38M max from open systems and 24M max for closed system when
we use LP steam up to 3.5 Kg/sq. cm as heating media.

Items to dropped while conducting hydro test and flushing

Items like control valve, orifices plates, rotometers, safety valves, thermo wells are dropped or replaced
with temporary spools before hydro test.

Damper is used in the piping of reciprocating pump to take care of pulsation.

Full-bore valve is used in connecting pipeline of launcher / receiver for Pigging purpose.

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Classification of flanges based on facing.

Full Face, Raised Face, Tongue and Groove and Ring type Joint.

AARH ( Flange Finish )

Arithmetic average roughness height.

Different types of gaskets

Full Face, Spiral wound octagonal ring type, Metal jacketed and Inside Bolt circle.

Difference between Stub-In and Stub-On branches

For branching of one size lesser of run pipe Stub-on is preferred. For other branching less than one size
of run pipe stub in is preferred. The design is based on ANSI B 31.3.

Relative hardness between RTJ gasket and flange groove

For a RTJ flange the joint ring should have 30-40 Vickers hardness less than that of the mating face of
flange. (Brinnel hardness for RTJ groove shall be 20-50 BHN more than the corresponding gasket
hardness)

Taking Branch Connection

When fluid is a gas, Air or Steam and Cryogenic service – TOPSIDE
When fluid is a liquid – BOTTOM SIDE

Reason for not taking a branch connection from bottom for cryogenic service even the fluid is in liquid
state
There is a chance of ice formation during normal operation and since ice flows from the bottom the pipe it
will block the branch pipe connection.

Reason for providing drip leg in steam line

To remove condensate when there is a rise in the pipe along the flow direction. If we do not provide drip
leg in the steam line the condensate which forms inside the pipe will result in water hammer effect
causing damage to piping system.
IBR – INDIAN BOILER REGULATION ACT
Steam lines with conditions listed below comes under IBR review.
 Lines for which design pressure is 3.5 Kg / sq. cm and above
 Line size above 10” having design pressure 1.0 Kg / sq. cm and above.
 Boiler feed water lines to steam generator, condensate lines to steam generator and flash drum.
Weldolet and Sockolet
Weldolets and Sockolets are basically self-reinforced fittings.
Weldolet is used for butt weld branch connection where standard tee is not available due to size
restrictions and the piping is of critical / high-pressure service.
Sockolet is used for socket welding branch connection, which require reinforcing pad.
Composite Flange
The flange that is made up of more than one material composition is called a composite flange.

Insulated joint
Insulated joints are prefabricated non-separable union used to isolate specific sections of pipelines to
prevent corrosion caused by stray electrical currents or interference from other pipelines and power
transmission cables.

Insulating gasket kits

Insulating gasket kits are designed to combat the effects of corrosion often found in flanged pipe systems.
Galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metal flanges (flow of currents), flange insulation associated with
cathodic protection of underground piping are also the places where insulating gasket kits are used. It
consist of
Gasket - Neoprene faced Phenolic / glass reinforced Epoxy (G10)
Insulation sleeve – Reinforced Phenolic / Nylon Polyethylene (G10)
Insulation washer - Reinforced Phenolic / Nylon Polyethylene (G10)
Plated washer – Electro plated steel washer

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Jacketed piping
Piping which is recognised as providing the most uniform application of heat to the process, as well as
maintaining the most uniform processing temperatures where steam tracing is not capable of maintaining
the temperature of fluid constant. Usually used for molten sulphur, polymer service.

Distance to be maintained between two welds in a pipe

The rule of thumb is that the minimum distance between adjacent butt welds is 1D. If not it is never closer
than 1-1/2”. This is supposed to prevent the overlap of HAZs.
Minimum spacing of circumferencial welds between centrelines shall not be less than 4 times the pipe
wall thickness or 25 mm whichever is greater.
Different Hardness Tests
Brinell hardness test
Rockwell hardness test
Vickers hardness test

Different types of Destructive and non-destructive Test

Destructive test – Bend test, Tensile test, Impact test, and Hardness test.
Non-destructive test – DPT, MPT, Radiography and ultra sonic.

PWHT – Post Weld Heat Treatment

This is done to remove residual stress left in the joint, which may cause brittle fracture.
The minimum thickness of pipe that require stress relieving as per b 31.3 is 19 mm.

Difference between Thermostatic and thermodynamic steam trap

Thermostatic trap is actuated by temperature difference and is economic at steam pressure less
than 6 PSI. It is operated by the movement of the liquid filled bellows or by bimetal element, which may
get damaged by water hammer.
Thermodynamic traps are most suited to applications where the pressure downstream of trap is
always less than about ½ the upstream pressure. These are suitable for pressure higher than the 8 PSI.
Water hammer does not affect it.

PRESSURE FOR HYDRO TEST

Hydro test pressure should be calculated as follows except as provided against point no 4
1. 1.5 times of design pressure.
2. For design temperature above the test temperature, minimum test pressure can be calculated as
follows,
Pt = (1.5xPxSt) / S
Where
Pt = Minimum test pressure
P = Internal Design Pressure.
St = Allowable stress at test temperature
S = Allowable stress at design temperature
3. If the test pressure as per above would produce a stress in excess of the yield strength at test temp
the test pressure may be reduced to the maximum pressure that will not exceed the yield strength at
test temperature.
4. If the test pressure of the piping exceeds the vessel pressure and it is not considered practicable to
isolate piping from vessel when approved by owner and provided the test pressure for vessel is not
less than 115% of piping design pressure adjusted for temperature as per point no. 2.

CALCUATION OF PIPE SPACING

Pipe spacing (mm) = (Do + Dt) / 2 + 25 + Thickness of insulation)

Where
Do = OD of small size pipe in mm
Dt = OD of Flange of large size pipe

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CALCULATION OF WIDTH OF PIPE RACK
W = (f x n x s) + A + B
Where s =
F = Safety factor
= 1.5 if pipes are counted from PFD
= 1.2 if pipes are counted from P&ID
n = number of lines in the densest area up to size 450 NB
= 300 mm (estimated average spacing)
= 225 mm (If lines are smaller than 250 NB)
A = Additional width for
 Lines larger than 450 NB
 For instrument cable tray / duct
 For electrical cable tray
S = 300 mm (estimated average spacing)
= 225 mm (If lines are smaller than 250 NB)
B = Future provision
= 20 % of (f x n x s) + A

Fluid used in Heat Exchanger

Generally corrosive fluid is used from the tube side (as tube can be easily replaced) and cleaner fluid is
used from the shell side. Sometimes Hot fluids are also used from the shell side.

Glandless piston valves

Glandless piston valves are maintenance free valves used in the steam service.

Estimation procedure

Input from bid

 P&ID, Line List, Temperature, Pressure.
 Overall plant layout and piping corridor plan
 Scope of work and the specifications for the job
 Specifications for materials like PMS and VMS
Value addition
 Items like valves, Flanges Special items reducers can be estimated from P&ID.
 Length of pipes, Elbows Width of pipe rack can be estimated by referring P&Id and overall plot plan.
 No. Of tier on pipe rack can be estimated by referring the spacing required for pipes and also the
space available.
 MTO for steam traps, Valves (for vent and drain) can be calculated by thumb rule
Loads
 Hydro test loads can be estimated by assuming the entire pipes (on a grid) empty except some bigger
size lines filled with water.
 Actual operating loads can be estimated by assuming gas lines as empty and rest of the lines as filled
with fluid (which they supposed to carry in operating condition)
The loads whichever is higher from above two cases should be referred for structural loading.

Objective of Stress Analysis

 To ensure that the stresses in piping components in the system are within the allowable limits.
 To solve dynamic problems developed due to mechanical vibrations, fluid hammer, pulsation, relief
valves, etc.
 To solve problems associated due to higher or lower operating temperature such as
a) Displacement stress range
b) Nozzle loading on connected equipment’s
c) Pipe displacements
d) Loads and moments on supporting structure.

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Steps involved in stress analysis
a) Identify the potential loads that the piping system would encounter during the life of the plant.
b) Relate each of these loads to the stresses and strains developed.
c) Get the cumulative effect of the potential loads in the system.
d) Decide the allowable limits the system can withstand without failure as per code.
e) After the system is designed to ensure that the stresses are within the safe limits.

Types of Stresses
a) Axial stresses (Tensile/compressive)
b) Shear stress
c) Radial stress
d) Hoops stress

Classification of load in stress analysis

a) sustained load
b) occasional load
c) displacement load (self limiting stresses due to thermal effects)

Inputs required for stress analysis of piping system

a) pipe size, b) Fluid temperature, c) pipe material, d) Design pressure, e) Insulation thickness,
e) specific gravity, g) Friction co-efficient, h) piping model (isometric).

Primary loads ( have their origin due to force)

Dead weight, Pressure, Forces due to relief or blow down. Force due to water hammer effects.
Secondary loads (have their origin due to displacement)
Force on pipe due to tank settlement, Vessel nozzle moving up due to expansion of vessel,
Pipe expansion or contraction, Vibration due to rotational equipment’s.

Failure subscribed under ASME B 31.3

Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)

Types of failure encountered in piping

a) Catastrophic failure b) Fatigue failure.

Desired life cycle for piping in operation

Desired life cycle for piping in operation is 20 years (7000 cycles).
The normal no. Of cycles for which the displacement or thermal stresses are designed is 7000 cycles.

Calculation of stress developed due to thermal expansion

Stress developed = E x e/L
E = young’s modulus
e = increase in length due to thermal expansion
L = Original length of pipe

Calculation of thermal expansion in pipe

e = u x L x Rise in temperature
U = Co-efficient of expansion
L = length of pipe

Stress intensity factor

Stress intensity factor (SIF) is the ratio of maximum stress intensity to normal stress. It is used as
safe factor to account for the effect of localised stress on piping under respective loading. In piping it is
applied to welds, fittings, branch connections etc where stress concentration and possible fatigue failure
may occur.
SIF for reducer and weldneck flange: 1.0
SIF for socket weld flange: 1.3

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Points to considered for proper supporting of pipe
 Load of bare pipe + fluid + insulation (if any)
 Load of bare pipe + water fill
 Loads of valves and online equipment’s and instruments
 Thermal loads during operation
 Steam out condition if applicable
 Wind loads for piping at higher elevation if required
 Forced vibration due to pulsating flow
 Bare pipe of size 12” and above shall be supported with pad or shoe

Anchor, Cross guide, Guide

Anchor is provided to restrict all the axial and rotational movements of the pipe. Whereas Cross guide is
provided to restrict displacements of pipe along with the axis perpendicular to its centreline and Guide is
provided to restrict the longitudinal movements of pipe along with its axis.

Points to be remembered while doing pump piping

Pipe strain may distort equipment alignment, so welding should be done in such a way that the tension in
the equipment flange is minimised.

Steam out condition

Hydrocarbon lines are usually subjected to steam out condition and designed and analysed at low-
pressure steam design temperature (should be minimum 180 degree C) or design temperature whichever
is more. Lines having negative design temperature are analysed for both conditions separately.

Anchor and slotted support for heat exchanger

Anchor support of heat exchanger is provided on the side from which the tube bundle will be pulled out for
the purpose of maintenance work also it is based on the expansion of the connecting piping as exchanger
should expand along with the piping.

Calculation of hoop’s stress

Stresses that are generated circumferencially due to action of internal pressure of pipe are called as
hoop’s stress. IT is calculated by
Hoops stress = Pdo / 4t
Where P = force acting from inside
Do = OD of the pipe
T = pipe thickness

Effect of hoop’s stress

As per membrane theory for pressure design of cylinder, as log as hoop stress is less than yield stress of
Moc, the design is safe. Hoop stress is induced by thermal pressure is twice the axial stress (SL) This is
widely used for pressure thickness calculation for pressure vessel

Design standard followed for the calculation of allowable forces & moments in nozzle of
centrifugal compressor & steam turbines nozzle
For strain sensitive equipment piping to be routed and supported to limit nozzle loading and moments in
equipment within allowable limits furnished by respectively vendors or in the absence of vendor data API
560/610/615/621/661 & NEMA SM 23
NEMA-SM 23 (referred by API 617) is used for compressor & steam turbine nozzle.)

Supporting of pipe to tank inlet nozzle

Piping to tank inlet nozzle is supported with spring type support (first support from nozzle) in order to
make nozzle safe from the loads which occurs due to the displacement of pipe (thermal expansion of pipe
/ tank materiel, tank settlement etc.

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Types of spring hangers
Constant loaded spring hanger
Variable loaded spring hanger

Difference between constant loaded spring hanger and variable loaded spring hanger
Variables use coiled springs to support a load and allow movement. The resistance of the coil to a load
changes during compression, which is why these devices are called variables. Constant spring hanger
provides constant support force for pipes and equipment’s subjected to vertical; movement due to thermal
expansion at locations where maintaining a constant stress is critical. This constant resistance is
achieved by having two moment arms pivoted about a common point.
The load is suspended from one of these arms, and a spring is attached to the other end. With an
appropriate choice of moment arms and spring properties, a resisting force can be provided that is nearly
independent of position.
Constant support hangers are principally used to support pipes and equipment’s subjected to vertical
movement due to thermal expansion at locations where transfer of stress to other supports or equipment
can be critical. The maximum recommended variations according to MSS standard from the operating
load is 25% a constant support hanger should be used. The constant resistance to the load is achieved
by combining a spring coil with a cam which rotates about a main pivot point. The cam is designed such
that the distances from the main pivot changes to compensate for he variable resistance during
compression of the coil. The MSS standard provides for a tolerance of 6% in the constant load though the
travel range. Constant support hangers are designed per MSS, ANSI, and ASME standards.
The sizing of constants primarily depends on the total travel and load.

Difference between static and dynamic load

A piping system may respond far differently to a dynamic load than it would to static load of the
magnitude. Static loads are those which are applied slowly enough that the system has time to react and
internally distribute the loads, this remaining in the equilibrium. In equilibrium all forces and moments are
resolved (i.e., the algebraic sum of the forces and moments are zero), and the pipes does not move.
With a dynamic load – a load which changes quickly with time – the piping system may not have
time to internally distribute the loads so the forces and moments are not always resolved – resulting in
unbalanced loads, and therefore pipe movement. Since the sum of forces and moments are not
necessarily equal to zero the internally induced loads can be different – either higher or lower than the
applied loads

Types of dynamic loads

Random – Wind, earthquake
Harmonic – Equipment vibration, pulsation, acoustic vibration Impulse, Fluid hammer, Relief valve
opening, Slug flow.

Dynamic analysis
Dynamic analysis is performed for all two phase lines in order to ensure that the line supported is safe
from vibrations loads which may occur during normal operation as well as in start up or any upset
condition (diesel mixed with hydrogen in DHDT process)

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WRC 107 / WRC 297
Localised stresses at nozzle to shell is calculated by WRC 107 / 297 and these computed stress values
shall be limited in accordance with ASME sec VIII for pressure vessels.

Foundation loads
Foundation loads for pipe rack should include the loads of pipes, cable trays and instrumentation duct at
that location and also the design load for future tier shall be full load of the most heavily loaded tier, in
addition to all other winds/seismic/fraction and piping thermal loads for future pipes.

Load of pipes filled with water (Largest of 1st case – During hydrotesting dead weight (wt/m x piperack
spacing) of pipes + 2-3 maximum size pipes filled with water
2nd case – actual commissioned condition except the gas lines )+proportionate wt of extra space required
by client (normal 30%) + load of 1 heavily loaded tier + electrical cables + instrument duct + guide load for
50% of lines.
Guide load = 0.3 x (dead wt of pipes including water)
The maximum induced thermal loads on the anchor at the battery limit shall be limited to
F in Kg <= 150 x NB of pipe in inches (it should be <2 tonnes)
M in Kgm <= 75 x NB of pipe in inches
Horizontal load = 0.3 X (Dead wt of pipe including water)
This load is used for designing of foundation bolts.
Foundation loads for any vessel having agitator mounted on top should contain weight of tank at
operating or design condition (whichever is more) plus 20% of it for dynamic loading.

Maximum expansion absorbed in loops in normal design is 10 inches.

Factors to checked concerning the expansion of header attached to air cooler piping.
Vendor drawing to be checked to see how much movement is permitted to compensate line expansion.
To accommodate the differential expansion between inlet and outlet) the inlet temperature > the outlet
temperature) offset can be built in to outlet piping to compensate for differential expansion. Since the
tubes are floating design the nozzle flange is of 150# and loads transferred are to be kept minimum.

Fluid Hammer
When the flow of fluid through a system is suddenly halted at one point, through valve closure or a pump
trip, the fluid in the remainder of the system cannot be stopped instantaneously as well. As fluid continues
to flow into the area of stoppage (upstream of the valve or pump) the fluid compresses, causing a high-
pressure situation at that point. Likewise on the other side of the restriction the fluid moves away from the
stoppage point creating a low pressure (vacuum) on that location. Fluid at the next elbow or closure along
the pipeline is still at the original operating pressure, resulting in a unbalanced pressure force acting on
the valve seat or the elbow. The fluid continues to flow compressing or decompressing fluid further away
from the point of flow stoppage, thus causing the leading edge of the pressure pulse to move through the
line. As the pulse moves past the first elbow the pressure is now equalised at each end of the pipe run,
leading to a balanced (zero) pressure load on first pipe leg. However the unbalanced pressure load will
continue to rise and fall in sequential legs as the pressure pulse travels back to the source (or forward to
the sink). The ramp up time of the profile roughly coincides with the elapsed time from full flow to low flow,
such as the closing time of the valve or trip time of the pump. Since the leading edge of the pressure
pulse is not expected to change as the pulse travels through the system, the ramp down time is the same.
The duration of the load from the initiation through the beginning of the down ramp is equal to the time
required for the pressure pulse to travel the length of the pipe leg.

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