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Counseling Self-Efficacy and its Relationship to Anxiety

and Problem-Solving in United Arab Emirates

Article  in  International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling · June 2005

DOI: 10.1007/s10447-005-3190-6

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International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, Vol. 27, No. 2, June 2005 (

C 2005)

DOI: 10.1007/s10447-005-3190-6

Counseling Self-Efficacy and its Relationship

to Anxiety and Problem-Solving
in United Arab Emirates
Fatima R. Al-Darmaki1,2

The main purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among counsel-
ing self-efficacy, problem-solving, and state and trait anxiety. A total sample of
one hundred thirteen males and females (females = 105; males = 8) enrolled
in the psychology department at the UAE University voluntarily participated in
this study. The Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory (COSE), Problem-Solving In-
ventory (PSI), and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) were used to collect data
from participants. Findings revealed significantly moderate correlations between
counseling self-efficacy and both problem-solving and State and trait Anxiety.
Findings are discussed within the context of UAE culture and directions for future
research are provided.
KEY WORDS: counseling self-efficacy; anxiety; problem-solving; psychology training in UAE.

INTRODUCTION

Perceived Self-efficacy as defined by Bandura (1977, 1982, 1989, 1997) re-

ferred to peoples’ judgment concerning their abilities to organize and execute a
particular course of action required to produce a desired outcome. Self-efficacy
beliefs can be increased or decreased based on four sources of information avail-
able to individuals: Performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal
persuasion, and physiological and emotional states experienced in a given situation
(cf. Bandura, 1977, 1982, 1989, 1997). According to Bandura, the most influential

1 AssistantProfessor of Counseling Psychology at the United Arab Emirates University.

2 Correspondence should be directed to Dr. Fatima R. Al-Darmaki. Assistant Professor of Counseling
Psychology, United Arab Emirates University, P.O. Box 17771, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates;
e-mail: fatima.aldarmaki@uaeu.ac.ae.

323
0165-0653/05/0600-0323/0

C 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.
324 Al-Darmaki

source of efficacy information is based on performance accomplishments due to

the fact that they are based on authentic experiences.
In the area of counseling, Larson and her colleagues (Larson, Suzuki,
Gillespie, Potenza, Bechtel, & Toulouse, 1992; Larson & Daniels, 1998) have
attempted to apply many of Bandura’s hypotheses about the role of self-efficacy in
affective functioning to counseling situations. In addition, interventions that seem
to increase counselor self-efficacy (CSE) were examined (Larson & Daneils,
1998). Among these interventions, training was found to contribute to an in-
crease in CSE during practicum and prepracticum (e.g., Johnson, Baker, Kopala,
Kiselica, & Thompson, 1989; Larson et al., 1992; Melchert, Hays, Wilijnen, &
Kolocek, 1996; Sharpley & Ridgway, 1993) for both beginning and advanced
counselor trainees. Furthermore, role-play, modeling, and positive feedback re-
garding counseling performance were shown to increase CSE and to enhance
counseling performance (Daniels & Larson, 2001; Larson et al., 1992).
Depth and breadth of counseling experience seem to have an impact on the
strength of counseling self-efficacy. For example, master’s level counselors and
counseling psychologists reported higher counseling self-efficacy as compared
to bachelor’s level counselor trainees. Moreover, practitioners with counseling
experience were found to exhibit stronger percepts of counseling efficacy than
those who had no or little counseling experience (Larson et al., 1992).
Larson et al. (1992) developed the Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory
(COSE) as a measure of counseling self-efficacy. This measure was reported to be
a sound measure for counseling self-efficacy (Larson & Daniels, 1998; Melchert
et al., 1996). Larson and Daniels (1998) reported that “the COSE validity esti-
mates indicate that (a) the COSE and anxiety significantly predicted counselor
performance, (b) trainees’ COSE scores increased about one standard deviation
over practicum, (c) counselors and psychologists reported higher COSE scores
than prepracticum trainees, (d) people with at least one semester of supervision or
more reported higher COSE scores than people with no supervision, (e) the COSE
was positively related to self-esteem and outcome expectations, and (f) the COSE
was negatively related to anxiety (p. 183).”
A negative relationship between anxiety and the strength of counseling self-
efficacy expectations of the counselor-in-training was also documented (e.g.,
Bowman, Roberts, & Giesen, 1978; Bowman & Roberts, 1979; Friedlander, Keller,
Peca-Baker, & Olk, 1986; Larson et al., 1992). Reising and Daniels (1983) found
that pre-masters trainees report higher anxiety levels than masters level trainees.
Moreover, undergraduate and graduate counseling trainees were found to exhibit
feelings of fears and anxiety at the beginning of training (Thompson, 1986).
In addition, a positive relationship between counseling self-efficacy and self-
perceived problem-solving effectiveness was similarly documented (Larson et al.,
1992). Furthermore, counseling self-efficacy was found to be positively related
to (a) higher self-esteem, (b) greater satisfaction with pre-practicum class per-
formance, (c) more positive outcome expectations regarding mock interview, and
Counseling Self-Efficacy and its Relationship to Anxiety 325

(d) the execution of counseling microskills in a mock interview (Larson et al.,

1992; p. 117).
In United Arab Emirates (UAE) society, factors that contribute to perceptions
of counseling self-efficacy have not been documented. Provision of counseling
services is a relatively new profession compared to western culture. The need for
counseling became prominent in the UAE society as a result of the rapid social
and economic changes that have taken place within the last 30 years. Such changes
have lead to deeper changes in the values, beliefs, and role expectations of indi-
viduals, which may, in turn, effect their psychological health especially for those
who may have not being able to adjust to these changes. The problem of stigma of
mental illness and cultural barriers to seeking professional psychological help in
UAE society remains resistant to change despite the availability of psychological
services (Al-Darmaki, 2003; Sayed, 2002). Generally speaking, self-disclosure of
personal problems in the Arab culture is seen as a betrayal of the family and as a
weakness that lies within the individual. On the other hand, people tend to expe-
rience psychological problems in forms of somatized psychological presentation
to avoid the stigma of been labeled as mentally ill. However, willingness to seek
counseling, tolerance of stigma, and confidence in mental health practitioners have
been found especially among younger and more educated individuals in the UAE
University (Al-Darmaki, 2003).
Preparing undergraduate psychology students for the role of counselor has
become one of the main goals of the Psychology Program at the UAE University.
In addition, a recent introduction of a program that offers an undergraduate degree
in Human Services and Counseling has been initiated at the UAE University
in order to prepare counselors to serve the community. Among the reasons for
such emphasis on training counselors in UAE at the undergraduate level are: a)
the observed increased need for provision of professional psychological help in
society; b) the shortage in practicing psychologists in various settings; and c) the
unavailability of graduate level counseling programs in the country. In terms of
gender of professional health providers in UAE, it is expected that there would be
more female than male health care providers. At the UAE University, more female
students choose to study psychology in order to provide psychological services to
the community, whereas the majority of male students tend to pursue other fields
of study. The misconception of psychology among the public that “ psychology
is the study of the insanity” seems to contribute to males’ decision to avoid
studying psychology. However, no evidence exists to pinpoint reasons for male
students reluctance to take psychology as a specialty. The impact of the gender of
psychological health providers on the general public’s willingness to seek help has
not been investigated. Systematic practical observations have indicated a minimal
impact of gender on clients’ willingness to seek and receive psychological help.
Counseling is considered a problem-solving situation in which counselors
rely partly on their problem-solving skills in dealing with a given counseling situa-
tion. Trainees’ confidence in their problem-solving skills may contribute positively
326 Al-Darmaki

to their perceptions of counseling self-efficacy. The positive relationship between

problem-solving appraisal and counseling self-efficacy was supported in previous
studies (e.g., Larson et al., 1992). Likewise, anxiety was chosen because of its rela-
tionship to counseling self-efficacy as indicated in the literature (Friedlander et al.,
1986; Larson et al., 1992; Thompson, 1986). In addition, practical observations
indicate that psychology students at UAE university tend to exhibit high anxiety as
they begin to learn the skills needed to practice psychological counseling. As they
go through their training classes and gain more self-confidence, students’ anxiety
seems to be decreased.
The purpose of this study was two-fold. First, to examine the reliability
and validity of the Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory (COSE; Larson et al.,
1992) using a sample from the Psychology Program at the United Arab Emirates
University. Second, to investigate the relationship between counseling self-efficacy
and anxiety as measured by State and Trait Anxiety Inventory (SATI) as well as
problem-solving as measured by Problem-Solving Inventory (PSI).
It was hypothesized that COSE scores would be associated negatively with
SATI scores and positively with PSI scores as indicated in the literature. Findings
of this study would provide some evidence of the extent to which the COSE, which
is developed in the west, can be used in UAE society. The outcomes of this study
would suggest directions for future research in the area of counselor development
in the UAE.

METHOD

Participants

One hundred thirteen undergraduate students (females = 105; males = 8)

enrolled in the Psychology Program at the United Arab Emirates University were
asked to volunteer in this investigation. Subjects were selected from three classes;
psychological testing and measurement, counseling psychology, and practicum.
These classes are designed to prepare students to provide psychological services
in various settings such as schools and hospitals after graduation. It is important
to note that data were collected from practicum students during the pre-practicum
period which lasts for three weeks before they start their field training to con-
trol for the impact of training on the variables under investigation. During this
period students are prepared to administer psychological tests, to conduct coun-
seling interviews, to develop case conceptualization, to identify individuals who
need help, and to learn code of ethics in psychology. Role-playing, discussion,
reviewing videotapes, and reading are among the various teaching methods used
at the pre-practicum stage. During practicum, students are trained to actually per-
form counseling and clinical tasks under supervision both at school and hospital
settings.
Counseling Self-Efficacy and its Relationship to Anxiety 327

The participants’ mean age was 21.95 and the mean of their GPA was 2.45.
The mean for the credit hours completed by the subjects was 104.7 out of a possible
132 credit hours required for completion of a bachelor degree in psychology.

Instruments

Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory (COSE)

The COSE (Larson et al., 1992) consists of 37 items designed to measure

counseling self-efficacy of counselor trainees. Items were positively and nega-
tively worded and rated on a 6-likert- type scale ranging from strongly disagree
(1) to strongly agree (6). Negatively worded items were reverse keyed so that
higher scores on COSE would indicate a higher estimate of one’s counseling self-
efficacy. Five factors were identified for COSE: Microskills (12 items), Process (10
items), Difficult Client Behaviors (7 items), Cultural Competence (4 items), and
Awareness of Values (4 items). The internal consistencies for the COSE total score
and the five subscales were reported as follows: α = .93 for COSE total scale;
α = .88 for Microskills; α = .87 for Process; α = .80 for Difficult Client Be-
haviors; α = .78 for Cultural Competence; and α = .62 for Awareness of Values.
Also, this measure was found to be stable over time. The validity estimates indi-
cated that the COSE is positively related to counselor performance, self-concept,
problem-solving appraisal, performance expectations, and class satisfaction; and
were negatively related to state and trait anxiety. The COSE and the five subscales
were minimally correlated with aptitude, achievement, personality type, and de-
fensiveness; and were found to be sensitive to change over the course of training
and across different level of counselors. Larson et al. (1992) found the COSE to
predict counselor trainee performance.
COSE was selected for this study for three reasons: a) the scale has been
validated and used in the counselor preparation literature; b) it taps into the coun-
seling skills which are used in training psychology students at UAE University;
and 3) no other measures of counseling self-efficacy were available at UAE at the
time of conducting this study. COSE was translated into Arabic with permission
from the first author of the scale. The accuracy of the translation was checked by
a colleague in the area of psychology who is well versed in counseling training.
COSE was then given to a number of psychologists from the Psychology Program
for the purpose of checking the cultural appropriateness as well as to determine
the face validity of the instrument. Their input revealed that the scale is culturally
appropriate and valid.

The Problem Solving Inventory (PSI)

The PSI (Heppner, 1988) was developed to measure the perceptions and
evaluation of a person’s problem-solving behaviors and attitudes rather than a
328 Al-Darmaki

person’s problem-solving capabilities. The PSI is a 32-item measure consisting

of three scales: Problem-Solving Confidence, Approach-Avoidance Style, and
Personal Control. PSI is scored using a 6-point likert scale ranging from strongly
agree (1) to strongly disagree (6). The PSI total score is derived from the sum
of the three scale scores. Several items were worded negatively and must be
reversed. Low scores on the PSI reflect a positive self-appraisal of problem-solving
abilities. Reliability estimates indicate that the PSI is internally consistent (r = .90;
N = 150) and stable over 2-week (r = .89; N = 31, see Heppner, 1988). PSI
found to be correlated with locus of control and personality type. No correlation
between PSI and social desirability or intelligence was reported.
PSI was translated into Arabic by AlFiky and AlShennawy (1996) to be
used with samples from Saudi Arabia. They found the PSI to be a reliable and
valid measure to use with Saudi population. AlFiky and AlShennawy reported a
reliability estimate of coefficient alpha .82 for the whole scale. They found five
factors for PSI; Evaluating the Problem, Confidence in Problem Solving, Failure
in Problem Solving, Evaluating of Results, and Emotional Reaction. These factors
were correlated with the total items scores. In addition, PSI was translated into
Arabic for use with Jordanian population (Jarwan, 1986). Jarwan reported test-
retest reliability estimates of .61 (2 weeks) and .64 (4 weeks) for the whole scale
and internal consistency of .77 and item correlation coefficient of .64. In the
current study, the original PSI was used after being translated into Arabic with a
permission from the publisher. This decision was made because the two Arabic
translations were inconsistent regarding the scoring of the scale. Jarwan used a
5-point likert type scale, whereas AlFiky and AlShennawy (1996) used a 4-point
likert type scale. Moreover, there might be some cultural difference in the way
subjects in these two studies and subjects from UAE respond to the items of the
scale.

State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)

STAI (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970) consists of 40 items rated

on a 4-point Likert type scale. Twenty items assess state anxiety and the other
20 items measure trait anxiety. Scores range between 20 and 80 with higher scores
indicating more state and trait anxiety. Test-retest reliability for Trait Anxiety
ranged from .77 for female to .86 for male samples (after 104 days). Test-retest
reliability for State Anxiety ranged from .31 for females to .54 for male samples
(after 104 days). Internal reliability for State Anxiety and Trait Anxiety using
KR-20 was .92. Evidence for concurrent validity of Trait Anxiety and discriminate
validity of State Anxiety were provided. The relationship between State and Trait
anxiety was reported to range from .44 to .67 for college samples (Kazim, 1985).
Two Arabic translations of STAI were found. The first translation was con-
ducted by Al-Buhari (1984) using Egyptian samples and the second was by Kazim
Counseling Self-Efficacy and its Relationship to Anxiety 329

(1985) for use with Kuwaiti samples. Both studies reported test-retest reliability
estimates ranging from .52 to .83 for State Anxiety and from .91 to 81 for Trait
Anxiety. Internal consistency ranged from .76 to .85 for State Anxiety and from
.61 to .80 for Trait Anxiety. Concurrent validity between Trait anxiety and other
anxiety scales as well as discriminate validity for the STAI were reported. The
internal consistency for Trait and State Anxiety Scale found in current study was
alpha coefficient .71 and .91 respectively.

Procedures

COSE, PSI, and STAI were administered in one sitting. Subjects were in-
structed to fill in a package of instruments along with a demographic data sheet.
The administration time was between 30 to 45 minutes.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed in two steps. First, Cronbach alpha reliability was con-
ducted as mean of examining the internal consistency of the scales. Second,
correlation coefficients were performed to look at the relationships between the
COSE and PSI and STAI.

RESULTS

Reliability of the Instruments

Alpha coefficients were used to estimate the internal consistency as well as

to determine the item inclusion in the COSE total scale. The COSE was found to
consist of 33 after removing 4 items (i.e., items 12, 31, 34, 35; corresponding to
items 60, 64, 9, 63 in Larson et al., 1992) because of low correlation with the total
score. Internal consistency as measured by alpha coefficient of the total COSE
was found to be .94, which was slightly higher than the coefficient alpha for the
COSE total scale reported by Larson et al. (1992). The internal consistency for
the subscales were coefficient alpha .94 for Microskills (11 items); α = .91 for
Process (10 items); α = .74 for Difficult Client Behaviors (7 items); and α = .60
for Cultural Competence (3 items). Alpha Coefficient for Awareness of Values
subscale was not obtained due to the removal of two items (items 34 and 35) of
the 4 items which make up this subscale. The remaining two items were included
in calculating the COSE total score but were not used as a subscale in this study.
It could be possible that the items included in this subscale would hold together
strongly with other items in the COSE scale. This may be investigated in the future
using factor analysis.
330 Al-Darmaki

Alpha Coefficient for PSI total scores was α = .89; for Personal Control
subscale was α = .69; for Approach-Avoidance subscale was α = .81; and for
Problem-Solving Confidence subscale was α = .85. The reliability estimates
found for the PSI total scores in this study was slightly lower than the find-
ings of Heppner (1988) but higher than the reported alpha coefficient reported
by Alfiky and Alshennawy (1996). The internal consistency for State and Trait
Anxiety Scale was alpha coefficient .91 and .71, respectively. The State Anxiety
internal consistency result is higher than the findings of Kazim and Al-Buhari for
the scale. However, the result of the internal consistency for Trait Anxiety appears
to be similar to Kazim’s and Al-Buhari’s findings. These results are also similar
to some extent to the findings of the scale developer (Spielberger et al., 1970)
The means and Standard deviations of the variables under investigation are
reported in Table (I).

Correlation Coefficients

Correlations between COSE, PSI, SATI, and the number of credit hours
completed by the subjects, and the Grade Point Average (GPA) were obtained to
examine the construct validity of the scales used in the study.
As can be seen from Table II, number of credit hours completed by the
subject was found to be related positively to Difficult Client Behaviors subscale
(r = .21) and Cultural Awareness subscale (r = .20), p < .05, indicating that
the more advanced the student in his/her program the more efficacious he/she
feels in their helping skills as they relate to dealing with client difficult behaviors

Table I. Means and Standard Deviations for Variables under Investigation

Variables Means SD Range

Age 21.95 1.24

GPA 2.45 .45
Credit hours 104.72 23.50
State anxiety 40.61 9.37 20–78
Trait anxiety 47.31 8.14 26–72
PSI 94.06 18.95 44–149
Problem-solving confidence 28.66 8.13 11–64
Approach-avoidance 45.55 9.71 20–72
Personal control 19.85 4.54 6–30
Microskills 49.54 8.15 18–64
Process 38.96 8.11 21–60
Difficult client behaviors 26.08 4.91 13–39
Cultural competence 13.45 2.41 1–18
COSE 136.95 20.69 97.64–190.66

Note: Problem-Solving Confidence, Approach-Avoidance Style, and

Personal Control are the subscales of PSI = Problem-Solving Inventory;
Microskills, Process, Difficult Client Behaviors, and Cultural Competence
are the subscales of COSE = Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory.
 Table II. Correlation Coefficients Among the Variables Under Investigation
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Hours —
GPA −.09 —
Anxiety S −.15 −.17 —
Anxiety T −.12 −.09 .72∗∗ —
PSI −.10 −.22∗ .58∗∗ .48∗∗ —
Approach −.09 −.26∗∗ .43∗∗ .30∗∗ .89∗∗ —
Control −.13 −.15 .52∗∗ .47∗∗ .73∗∗ .36∗∗ —
Confidence −.06 −.13 .56∗∗ .49∗∗ .86∗∗ .60∗∗ .51∗∗ —
Microskills .09 .16 −.21∗ −.13 −.47∗∗ −.40∗∗ −.28∗∗ −.47∗∗ —
Process .15 .02 −.59∗∗ −.47∗∗ −.65∗∗ −.49∗∗ −.54∗∗ −.62∗∗ .50∗∗ —
Client B .21∗ −.07 −.42∗∗ −.33∗∗ −.53∗∗ −.35∗∗ −.41∗∗ −.59∗∗ .50∗∗ .68∗∗ —
Counseling Self-Efficacy and its Relationship to Anxiety

Cultural A .20∗ .05 −.40∗∗ −.24∗ −.46∗∗ −.35∗∗ −.26∗∗ −.52∗∗ .56∗∗ .57∗∗ .65∗∗ —
COSE .19 .06 −.50∗∗ −.37∗∗ −.66∗∗ −.51∗∗ −.47∗∗ −.67∗∗ .82∗∗ .86∗∗ .82∗∗ .77∗∗ —

Note: Hours = Number of credit hours completed; Anxiety S = State Anxiety; Anxiety T = Trait Anxiety. Approach = Approach-Avoidance; Control =
Personal Control; Confidence = Problem-Solving Confidence. They are the subscales of PSI = Problem-Solving Inventory. Client B = Difficult Client
Behaviors; Cultural A = Cultural Awareness. Microskills, process, Difficult Client Behaviors, and Cultural Awareness are the subscales of COSE =
Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory.
N = 113
∗ p < .05; ∗∗ p < .01.
331
332 Al-Darmaki

and cultural awareness. Furthermore, GPA correlated moderately with PSI total
score (r = −.22; p < .05) and with Approach-Avoidance subscale (r = −.26;
p < .01), suggesting that the participants with higher GPA have positive self-
appraisal for approach-avoidance problem solving style.
Table II shows moderate significant correlations between the variables un-
der investigation. COSE scores were correlated negatively with State Anxiety
(r = −.50) and Trait Anxiety (−.37), and with PSI total scale (−.66) as well
as with Approach-Avoidance subscale (r = −.51), Personal Control subscale
(r = −.47), and Problem-Solving Confidence subscale (r = −.67), p < .01, sug-
gesting a negative relationship between counseling self-efficacy and state and trait
anxiety, as well as a positive relationship between counseling self-efficacy and
problem-solving. These relationships were in the expected directions that suggest
that COSE scale is a valid measure for tapping counseling self-efficacy.
The COSE Microskills subscale scores correlated significantly with State
Anxiety (r = −.21) as well as with PSI total scores (r = −.47) and its subscales
(r = −.40, −.28, −.47) respectively. The COSE Process subscale was associated
significantly with State Anxiety (r = −.59) and Trait Anxiety (r = −.47) as
well as with PSI total scores (r = −.65) and its subscales (r = −.49, −.54,
−.62) respectively. Similarly, the COSE Difficult Client Behaviors subscale was
related significantly to State Anxiety (r = −.42) and Trait Anxiety (r = −.33)
and PSI (r = −.53) and its subscales (r = −.35, −.41, −.59) respectively. The
COSE Cultural Competence subscale correlated significantly with State Anxiety
(r = −.40) and Trait Anxiety (r = −.24; p < .05) as well as with PSI total
scale (r = −.46) and its subscales (r = −.35, −.26, −.52) respectively, p <
.01. State Anxiety and Trait Anxiety were positively associated (r = .72), p <
.01. This result is consistent with previous findings (Kazim, 1985; Al-Buhari,
1984). State Anxiety correlated moderately with PSI total scores (r = .58) and
its three subscales (r = .43, .52, .56) at the significant level p < .01. Likewise,
Trait Anxiety scores correlated moderately with PSI total scores (r = .48) and its
subscales (r = .30, .47, .49), p < .01.
Intercorrelations between COSE total scores and the subscales as well as
between PSI total scores and the subscales were moderately significant at p < .01.
The COSE Microskills subscale was moderately significantly correlated with the
COSE total score (r = .82) as well as with Process (.50), Difficult Client Behaviors
(.50), and Cultural Awareness (.56) subscales of COSE. Similarly, the COSE
Process subscale was correlated with the COSE total scores (r = .86) as well
as with Difficult Client Behaviors (.68) and Cultural Awareness (.57) subscales.
Furthermore, the COSE Difficult Client Behaviors subscale was correlated with
COSE total score (r = .82) and with Cultural Awareness subscale (.65). The COSE
Cultural Awareness subscale was associated with the COSE total score (r = .77).
The moderate significant correlations between the PSI and its subscales as well as
among the PSI subscales at p < .01, provided support for the construct validity
Counseling Self-Efficacy and its Relationship to Anxiety 333

of the PSI. These moderate correlations are similar to those reported by Heppner
(1988).

DISCUSSION

Understanding trainees’ perceptions of counseling self-efficacy in UAE cul-

ture requires investigating factors which contribute to increase or decrease percepts
of counseling self-efficacy. This understanding is important for preparing future
counselors as well as for designing training programs to facilitate counselor devel-
opment. The findings of this study revealed positive associations between COSE
subscales and number of credit hours taken by the subjects, suggesting that trainees
who were more advanced in their academic program feel more confidence in their
helping skills with regard in dealing with difficult client behaviors and cultural
competency. This is not surprising because the classes from which students were
selected to participate in this study are designed to help students gain competency
in dealing with clients issues within a cultural context. Furthermore, the study
showed negative relationships between counseling self-efficacy and state and trait
anxiety as well as a positive relationship between counseling self-efficacy and
self-appraisal of problem-solving skills. Similar to previously reported findings
using American samples, subjects in this study who reported more efficacy in their
helping skills also reported less state and trait anxiety as well as higher problem-
solving appraisals. It could be that students felt less anxious and more confident in
their problem-solving skills as well as in their helping skills as they advanced in
their training program. Learning the skills that are necessary to provide psycho-
logical services seems to increase students’ perceptions regarding their counseling
self-efficacy and problem-solving skills and to decrease their anxiety. Educators
and supervisors should focus on exploring students’ concerns and anxiety about
becoming helpers and helping them overcome their anxiety as they go through
their training courses. This is very important because the stigma associated with
mental health problems, seeking professional psychological help, and studying
psychology in UAE culture may contribute to students’ fears and perceptions of
their ability to provide psychological services to the public after graduation.
Overall, these findings suggest that the COSE scale is a valid measure for
taping counseling self-efficacy. However, more research is need to establish the
validity of the scale in UAE culture.
There are a number of limitations to the current study. The small sample size
(male participants in particular) did not permit for replicating the factor structure
of the COSE and PSI found for the scales in the American cuture. Therefore,
caution should be practiced in comparing the results of the current study with
previous findings (Larson et al., 1992). Moreover, the current findings may not be
generalizable to other population.
334 Al-Darmaki

Despite its limitations, this study is the first attempt to examine the rela-
tionship among counseling self-efficacy, state and trait anxiety, and problem-
solving. Future investigation should consider examining the factor structure of
COSE. In addition, the availability of an Arabic version of the counseling self-
efficacy would make it possible for conducting future investigation to understand
factors contributing to both counseling self-efficacy and counselor development
in UAE. Future studies should investigate the perceptions of counseling self-
efficacy cross-culturally. In addition, counseling self-efficacy maybe examined
across counselors’ experience levels to investigate the impact of counseling expe-
rience level on counselors’ counseling self-efficacy. Moreover, the role of training
and supervision on counselors’ self-efficacy should be examined to expand our
knowledge of this construct.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to thank Dr. Rafa Akeel, Department of Psychology, University

of Mu’tah, Jordan, for his assistance with the early stages of this work.

REFERENCES

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