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hdt19 Flu Stat1
hdt19 Flu Stat1
Two Approaches in Studying Natural Phenomena Consisting of a System of Many Particles
1. microscopic approach MICA small scale approach
2. macroscopic approach MACA large scale approach
the focus of attention is in the constituent
in MICA particles of the system moving according
to Newton’s three laws of motion
prediction as test for simultaneous solution of all Newton’s Second
understanding in MICA Law equations for each constituent particles
,
, f
disadvantage of MICA
in 1 mol of a substance vol. 22.4 L
under ordinary conditions with
6 10 atoms or molecules D
reduction of
still with 6 10 3 10 atoms or molecules
22.4 L to 1 L .
Even modern day computers in state‐of‐the‐art could probably not solve a system of
equations with 4 3 10 unknowns.
gives all the necessary explanations for a
advantage of MICA clear understanding of the phenomena if the
mathematics used is properly interpreted
On the other hand
the focus of attention is the behavior of the system
in MACA as a whole moving as one body while the individual
state of the constituent particles are ignored
the observed relationships, if there are any,
prediction as test for
between the different physical quantities
understanding in MACA
characterizing the system under investigation
,
, ,
example ,
⁄ ⁄
knowing five of the quantities in
the equation of state of an ideal
gas, we can predict the sixth
simpler, not too mathematical, and
advantage of MACA
only lower mathematics is needed
cannot provide explanations to the observed regularities
disadvantage
and patterns which are simply followed because they
of MACA
always result whenever the proper conditions are met
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 1
one is not superior than the other but rather
MICA and MACA complement each other; both are needed for a
complete understanding of natural phenomena
Example of MICA and MACA
Looking at the motion of two large flatboats, one open while the other is closed, carrying a
number of people as shown below, floating in the calm water with only the usual ocean
current without any wind blowing. Let us suppose that the magnitude of the water current
is about the same as the total force exerted by all the occupants of the boat as they push
backward with one foot for every step taken forward by the other foot. Assume also that
the flatboats are made of very light but sturdy materials and that there is no friction
between the flatboat and the water.
The motion of the individual occupants inside
The motion of the flatboat is considered as the the boat house is ignored and only the ocean
result not only of the ocean current but also due current is taken into consideration in looking
to the force exerted by the individual occupants at the motion of the flatboat.
against the boat as they move around.
push
MICA
Taking a step to the right and pushing with the
MACA
other foot backward to the left moves the flatboat
to the left.
The approach that will be used from now on will be MACA most of the time.
******
a branch of continuum mechanics that
Fluid Mechanics deals with flow of fluids liquids, gases,
and plasmas and the forces on them
concerned with the mechanical behavior of materials
continuum mechanics solids, liquids, and gases modeled as a continuous
mass rather than as discrete particles
assumes that the substance of the body completely
modeling a body
fills the space it occupies, ignoring the fact that matter
as a continuum
is made of atoms consisting mostly of empty space
liquids from the
microscopic
viewpoint f
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 2
f
a liquid from the
macroscopic
viewpoint
f
boundary surface between two homogeneous fluids,
free surface
like liquid water and air in the Earth’s atmosphere
gases from the state of matter in which the constituent particles are practically
microscopic unrestricted by their mutual attractive forces of interactions
viewpoint and so move about all throughout the space available
a gas from the
f
macroscopic f
viewpoint
, , f
, , ,
plasma f
f
inside of a fluorescent light or neon light tube containing gas
where plasmas
when the light is turned on … in the air surrounding lightning
can be found
discharges and electric sparks … in the Sun and the other stars
Note: The predominant conditions where a significant amount of plasma is found are not
normally encountered in physics and engineering so the discussions about fluids
that follow are restricted to liquids and gases only.
common
their ability to flow due to their incapacity to resist any shear
property
stress see Handout 13, page 2, eq. 13.6 , regarding shear stress
of all fluids
shear stress a function of strain rate see Handout 13,
in fluid page 1 , eq. 13.2 regarding strain
the change in strain of a material with respect to time
strain rate
measures the rate at which the distances of
strain rate at some point
adjacent parcels of the material change with
within the material
time in the neighborhood of that point
When the distances of adjacent parcels of a material in the neighborhood of a point do not
change with time, as happens in a uniform fluid flow where all particles are moving with
the same velocity same speed and direction , the strain rate is zero.
Two Kinds of Fluid Based on the Relationship Between Shear Stress, Strain Rate and It’s Derivatives
1. Newtonian fluid fluid where the shear stress is directly proportional to the strain rate
2. Non‐Newtonian fluid fluid where the shear stress is not proportional to the strain
rate, its higher powers and derivatives
Note: In the discussions that follow, we confine ourselves to Newtonian fluids.
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 3
Origin of Forces in Fluids in the Macroscopic Point of View
1. body forces those that arise from action‐at‐a‐distance force force of interaction
without any physical contact
cause of a body the fluid being placed in a certain force field which
force in a fluid can be gravitational or electromagnetic in origin
uniform all throughout the fluid and
strength of body force
directly proportional to its mass
measurement of body force in terms of force per unit mass or unit volume
2. surface forces those that are exerted on an area element by the surroundings
through direct contact, such as that on the boundary between
liquid water and air in the Earth’s atmosphere
magnitude of
directly proportional to the extent of the area
surface force
measurement of surface force in terms of force per unit area
resolution of surface force
into two components
one normal
tangential
and the other
|| to the area
||
the surface of a fluid that is subject to zero parallel
the free surface
shear stress so that the surface force must be purely
mentioned in page 6
normal with no tangential component
the free surface under the total force must be acting to the liquid;
mechanical equilibrium if not, there would be a force along the surface
in a gravitational field and the liquid would flow in that direction
3. line forces those that act along a line and have a magnitude proportional to the
extent of the line
total outward,
measurement of line force in terms of force per unit length
presence of line at the interface between a liquid and a gas, or
downward push
forces in fluids at the interface between two immiscible liquids
example of a
line force
total outward push
outward
downward surface tension
push cancel out forces
addition
More crowded molecules close together Less crowded molecules on the Surface tension forces acting upward
in the interior of a droplet repel each surface farther apart attract each along the circumferential line balance
other and push the outer surface outward. other and stretch the outer surface. the downward push inside the drop.
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 4
origin of forces in ,
,
fluids in the microscopic f
point of view
force that arises due to mass , always attractive ,
gravitational force and long range , which is responsible for holding
all bodies in the entire universe together
,. ,
electromagnetic force –
Two Branches of Fluid Mechanics
1. Fluid Statics the study of fluids at rest
2. Fluid Dynamics the study of fluids in motion fluid flow
complications involved in fluid necessitates studying fluid statics
dynamics that deals with fluid flow first before fluid dynamics
fluid statics AKA hydrostatics the study of fluids in static equilibrium
In the macroscopic approach MACA of studying stationary fluids, we follow the following steps:
1 look at the overall behavior of the fluid under consideration as a whole,
2 determine the different observable physical quantities characterizing the fluid,
3 examine the relationships of the quantities, experimentally as well as analytically,
among each other, if there are any, and
4 use those observed relationships to make predictions to test our understanding.
Some macroscopic properties of large enough elements of fluids at rest:
1 position indicates the location of the fluid element
2 mass ∆ indicates the resistance to any applied force on the fluid element for a
given acceleration, large mass means larger force needed to move body
3 volume ∆ indicates the extent of space occupied by the fluid element
4 density indicates the consolidation and compactness of the fluid particles
f ∆ is large if ∆ is small …
∆ ⁄∆V is small if ∆ is large …
∆ ∆ 19.1
See the last page of this handout for the values of the density of some substances.
5 specific gravity a dimensionless quantity closely related to the density
weight of body in air ⁄ weight of an equal volume of water
weight of body in air
weight of equal volume of water
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ 19.2
ratio of the density of the body to the density of water
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 5
1 g ⁄cm in CGS/Gaussian system , both numerically equal in CGS
6 pressure the equivalent of compressive stress and tensile stress in fluids see
Handout 2 ; fluids in static equilibrium have no ability to support shear
stress so there is no quantity equivalent to it
7 viscosity a measure of resistance of the fluid to gradual deformation by shear stress
or tensile stress
8 temperature hotness or coldness not the same as heat of the body
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 6
the pressure p at every
point on the imaginary
∆ ∆ ∆ 19.5
surface are all the same
is the total force acting on the imaginary surface. On the other hand
the pressure p at every point
on the imaginary surface are
lim ∆ 19.6
∆
not all the same since varies
where is the general expression for the element of area.
According to eq. 19.4 , we find that
is large if ∆ is small is large if p is large
for a fixed value of ∆ for a fixed value of ∆
which explains why knives with a sharp cutting edge cut a lot easier than those with a blunt one.
∆ is smaller, ∆ is larger,
sharp is larger, blunt is smaller,
knife force stronger, knife force weaker,
knife cuts easier knife cuts harder
∆ Fig. 19‐2 ∆
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 7
⁄ ⁄
free surface air
0
liquid
Fig. 19‐3
is due to the weight of the column of air side of area
lying on the free surface.
Some examples of dependence of pressure with height:
B
House A, gets its
water source water supply
from the source.
A
Fig. 19‐4
Dam walls made thicker at base to support Water pressure along pipe directly below B not enough to support
the large water pressure at the bottom. water column with height higher than that at surface of the source.
Fig. 19‐5
The blood pressure of In quickly standing up, the previously horizontal blood
a person lying down flow suddenly becomes vertical, causing the blood
horizontally is the vessels near the feet to dilate because of the increased
same all throughout. pressure, pooling the blood there.
The pooling of the blood near the feet, mentioned in one of the examples in Fig. 19‐5,
caused by the sudden increase in blood pressure there when a person suddenly stands and
take up a vertical position remember the increase of liquid pressure with increasing
depth , may reduce the blood flow to the brain of elderly people or those with low blood
pressure, which could cause temporary loss of consciousness.
Absolute pressure and gauge pressure:
,
,
. . ,
,
n an ideal vacuum, when no molecules
zero absolute pressure
are found in a space, so that a negative
0 absolute
absolute pressure is an impossibility
Absolute pressure is therefore defined relative to an ideal vacuum.
pressure defined in another scale, namely that
gauge pressure
relative to the local atmospheric pressure
Note: The local atmospheric pressure depends on the elevation, and it may change with
time, particularly when a weather front moves through the region.
conversion from gauge
19.8
pressure to absolute pressure
–
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 8
Replacing by in eq. 19.7 for the expression for the absolute pressure , we
find that
– –
It follows from the last two equations that
– – – ∆ 19.9
with ∆ 0 if excess relative to and ∆ 0 if deficiency relative to .
Note: Pressure gauge is something else because it is a device that measures fluid pressure.
A
A gauge
standard
atmosphere local
0 gauge
atmosphere
A absolute
B gauge negative
A positive pressure pressure at any point below
B
the local atmospheric
negative pressure
B
or positive vacuum
B absolute
zero absolute
pressure
ideal vacuum 0 absolute
Fig. 19‐6 Gauge pressure and absolute pressure
Examples of gauge pressure
Recall that
gauge pressure defined relative to the local atmospheric pressure
According to eq. 19.9 with local atmospheric pressure
∆ 0 excess relative to ,
– ∆
∆ 0 deficiency relative to
excess relative to found in air inside automobile tires or those inside storage
vessels, wherein the fluid at a higher pressure must be forced
inside by the unbalanced force due to the pressure difference
– ⁄ – ⁄ – ⁄ – – 0 if
deficiency found in isolation rooms of
found in isolation rooms of
relative to hospitals with patients who
patients with airborne
have airborne contagious
diseases
lower pressure
in a room
Fig. 19‐7
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 9
purpose of lower air pressure
to prevent contamination of the air in the other rooms
in an isolation room Fig. 19‐ 7
Exhaust air from the isolation room is then properly collected and safely disposed afterwards.
The negative room pressure previously discussed is about gauge pressure that
happens to be negative, just about ordinary pressure that is an inward push due to
collisions from all directions brought about by repulsion of the neighboring particles
because they happen to be too close to each other. It is not about the negative
pressure mentioned briefly in page 5.
negative pressure
in fluid mechanics
,
,
due to negative pressure in the water
inside the xylem, the conducting tube
transporting water inside all plants
cause of negative pressure
of water inside conducting
tube of tall trees f
downward pull of gravity on the column of water as
cause of change
the tree holds on to the water molecules at the top of
of state of stress
the conducting tube while the tree continues to grow
350
Giant Redwood
Giant Sequoia
300
250
Height in feet
Space Shuttle
200
Statue of Liberty
150
Blue Whale
100
Brachiosaurus
50
Persom
Fig. 19‐8 World’s Largest Trees
the reason for the change in mode of mutual interaction of the
change of state of stress water molecules from repulsion to attraction
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 10
,
the reason for ,
the change of ,
,
mutual interaction
,
With the tree holding on the water molecules at
the top of the conducting tube, most of the water
Height
molecules are pulled down by the gravitational
force leaving fewer molecules at the top as shown
in Fig. 19‐9.
more molecules ,
,
at the bottom
less molecules
at the top
,
,
Gravity
stronger attraction stronger outward pull
A large negative pressure is therefore created at the
top producing a strong suction effect that draws
Fig. 19‐9
water from the soil upward into the leaves.
A molecule evaporating from a leaf due to the heat of the sun also draws the water column
upward, because of the mutual attraction between the molecules, as it escapes into the atmosphere.
Note: Conduction of water in smaller plants is by means of the so‐called capillary action
wherein the water molecules are attracted upward by the molecules of the conducting
tube, thereby counteracting the downward pull of gravity. However, capillary action
cannot support the heavier weight of the long column of water involved in
conduction in. tall trees.
Two Important Principles in Fluid Statics
1. Pascal’s Principle concerned with the transmission of pressure in a confined
PasPri
incompressible fluid
2. Archimedes Principle concerned with the buoyant force exerted on a body
ArcPri wholly or partly immersed in a fluid
Pressure exerted anywhere in a confined
statement of
incompressible fluid is distributed undiminished
Pascal’s Principle
throughout the interior of the containing vessel.
That means, if pressure at any point within the incompressible fluid changes by a certain
amount, then the pressure at all other interior points will change by exactly the same quantity.
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 11
Fig. 19‐10 shows Pascal’s principle in action, wherein
a test tube that was totally filled with mercury Hg
was placed upside down into a container also filled 0
vacuum
with mercury. Since the weight of the original column
of mercury inside the test tube could not be fully
supported by the force due to the atmospheric
pressure acting on the free surface of mercury, 13.6 10
that was then transmitted undiminished underneath kg ⁄m
in accordance with Pascal’s principle, the column
fell down before attaining equilibrium, leaving on 1 atm
top of the test tube a small space of vacuum.
At point marked by in Fig. 19‐10, we have according
to eq. 19.7 in the case of liquids
0 Hg
13.6 10 kg⁄m 9.8 m⁄s 1 atm
1 atm⁄ 1.3328 10 kg ⁄m s Fig. 19‐10
1.013 10 N⁄m ⁄ 1.3328 10 kg ⁄m s 0.760054 m 76.0054 cm
1 atm 76 cmHg
From the microscopic point of view, the pressure on the free surface is the overall effect of
the many air molecules moving downward and colliding with the surface. It follows that in
the presence of a strong wind blowing like during a stormy weather , many of the air
particles moving toward the free surface are swept away, thereby reducing the number of
molecules colliding with the surface and consequently reducing the air pressure that causes
the mercury column to drop lower, just enough to be balanced by the lower air pressure.
one practical application of Pascal’s principle, wherein a
hydraulic press fluid is confined in a container with two movable pistons
having different cross sectional areas as shown in Fig. 19‐ 11
S L
L
S movable pistons
S L
fluid
Fig. 19‐11
Fig. 19‐12
With the two pistons having the same elevation,
S L S ⁄ S L ⁄ L L S L⁄ S 19.10
L S L⁄ S 1 L S magnification of the applied force S
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 12
Notice that for the magnification of a small force, such as that exerted by the barber’s left
foot on the pedal of the barber’s chair shown in Fig. 19‐12, to adjust the elevation of the
customer seated on the chair, the ratio L ⁄ S in eq. 19.10 must be large enough to
balance the weight of the chair and the customer.
piston area L too large piston area S in eq. 19.10 can be made
to be practically useful smaller instead to make L large enough
Similarly, to raise a considerable load of weight resting on top of the large piston in Fig. 19‐11
by a vertical distance L , the small piston must move downward a distance S that is large
enough in order to displace fluid on the side of the large piston with the correct volume
that will raise the load to the desired height.
L S L L S S S L L⁄ S 19.11
vertical distance S may become too large
piston area S too small
to be practically useful for the simplified
for a given value of L
hydraulic press shown in Fig. 3‐ 14
The one shown in Fig. 19‐13 is more practical.
load
• When the handle is pushed down, valve A
remains closed but valve B opens, handle
large
allowing the fluid to enter the chamber
Fig. 19‐13 vent piston
of the large piston, making it rise. small
• When the handle is pulled up, valve B closes oil piston
oil
while valve A opens so that the fluid in reservoir
the reservoir enters the chamber of valve B
the small piston as replacement for those valve A release valve
those left behind in the other chamber.
• By moving the push‐pull handle a number of times, fluid in the chamber of the large
piston accumulates, raising the large piston carrying a heavy load to the desired height.
• The load is lowered without using the handle by opening the release valve.
Sample Problem
a If the small piston of a hydraulic
press has a diameter of 3.72 cm and Fig. 19‐14
the large piston one of 51.3 cm, what
weight on the small piston will support
S
18.6 kN e.g., a car on the large piston?
b through what distance must the
L S 3.72 cm
small piston move to raise the car 1.65 m? L S
Case 1. Solution using the hydraulic
press shown in Fig. 19‐14:
L 51.3 cm
a According to eq. 19.10
fluid
S⁄
S L S ⁄ L L
L⁄
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 13
where S ⁄ L 3.72 cm ⁄ 51.3 cm 5.2584 10 ‐
so that S 18.6 10 N 5.2584 10 ‐ 97.8 N weight of a 10 kg mass
b Neglecting the weights of the pistons, we have by conservation of energy
S S ∆ L L S L ⁄ S
18.6 10 N 1.65 m ⁄97.8 N 314 m
which is a very large vertical distance downward. Notice that the work done
S S 97.8 N 314 m 3.0709 10 J ∆ L L
18.6 10 N 1.65 m 3.0690 10 J
Case 2. Solution using the leverage provided by the pump handle shown in Fig. 19‐13:
Suppose that the length of the handle is 36 cm. With the right end of the handle as the pivot
point indicated in Fig. 19‐15, let 9.4 cm be the distance from to the point of
attachment of the small piston on the handle. If a downward force of magnitude is applied
to the handle as shown in Fig. 19‐16, the small piston is pushed down by a force with
magnitude S , valve B opens, and the fluid rushes into the chamber of the large piston,
causing it to rise.
load
handle
large S
vent
L
piston
small
oil piston valve B
oil
reservoir opens
valve B
valve A release valve
Fig. 19‐15 Fig. 19‐16
2a Just like in part a of Case1, we get according to eq. 19.10 the value S 97.8 N. Looking
at the forces acting on the handle while still in the horizontal position:
first condition of
‐ S 0
static equilibrium
where the magnitudes and are unknown. The force S acting on the handle is the
reaction force of ‐ S acting on the small piston. Taking the axis of rotation about
second condition of
‐ S 0 S S ⁄
static equilibrium
97.8 N 9.4 cm ⁄36 cm 25.5 N
which is just equal to the weight of a 2.6 kg mass.
2b Raising the large piston, with a load, to a height of 1.65 m would require a volume of
water amounting to
L L L ⁄4 L 51.3 cm 1.65 m ⁄4
51.3 cm 165 cm ⁄4 341 L
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 14
to be transmitted into its chamber or housing, which is quite large to be delivered in just
one downward stroke of the pump handle. Assuming that the hand goes down a vertical
distance of 28 cm in each downward stroke of the handle, the small piston goes down a
vertical distance, indicated as in Fig. 19‐16, every time too. Since the two right triangles
shown in Fig. 19‐16 are similar, we get, by ratio and proportion of the vertical side and
hypotenuse of the two triangles, the following,
28 cm ⁄ ⁄ 28 cm ⁄ 28 cm 9.4 cm ⁄36 cm 7.31 cm S
for the vertical distance traveled downward by the small piston in every handle stroke.
According to eq. 19.11 , the corresponding distance traveled upward by the large piston is
L S S ⁄ L S S ⁄4 ⁄ L ⁄4 S S ⁄ L
7.31 cm 3.72 cm ⁄ 51.3 cm 0.03844 cm
0.3844 mm 3.844 10 ‐ m
for every downward stroke of the pump handle.
preventing the transmitted fluid from allows the fluid in that housing to
leaving the housing of the large piston eventually accumulate until the large
in every upward stroke of the handle piston rises to the desired height
by having a valve in the housing of the large
a way to achieve
piston that closes, like valve B in Fig. 19‐ 15,
the above goal
when the pump handle is pulled up
transmission of fluid by the small
depletion of fluid inside the
piston to the housing of the large
housing of the small piston
piston in every stroke of the handle
replacement of the fluid, transmitted by the
another desirable goal small piston, coming from a fluid reservoir
into the housing of the small piston
by opening a valve in the housing of the small piston
a way to achieve
to let fluid in coming from the reservoir, like valve A
the other goal
in Fig. 19‐ 17, during the upward stroke of the handle
By repeating many strokes of the pump handle,
enough fluid can be accumulated in the housing
of the large piston to lift the heavy load to any
height it is intended to reach. pull
Going back to the particular problem that we
have of raising the load of car on the large piston valve A
to a height of 1.65 m, when every stroke raises opens
the large piston to a height of only 0.3844 mm,
we find that
1.65 m 0.3844 mm 3.844 10 ‐ m
Fig. 19‐17
1.65 m ⁄ 3.844 10 ‐ m 4293
for the number of pump strokes that must be repeated to lift the load to the desired height.
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 15
Although plenty of people are not familiar with the many uses of hydraulic press in
industrial manufacturing, they are most probably familiar with the following applications:
• raising and lowering of customer’s chair in barber shops, beauty parlors, and dental
practice offices, or beds and operating tables in hospitals;
• hydraulic jack for lifting cars to change worn out tires or the hydraulic lift for raising cars
high enough for cleaning and visual inspection of its underside;
• earth‐moving machines in construction sites like tractors, bulldozers, and hydraulic shovels.
load and depth
control lever
main lever
lifting
arm
connecting
load rod small
contrrol
piston
sensor large piston
pump
down rate
regulator fluid reservoir
Fig. 19‐18 Hydraulic System of a Tractor
Handout 19 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 16 pages Page 16