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hdt27 Law1 Thermo
hdt27 Law1 Thermo
any two points on the the transformation from one thermodynamic
quadric surface in the state to another can be carried out in many
diagram can be connected to ways since every point on the quadric surface
each other by many curves represents a thermodynamic state
the intensive variables transmitted, and
every curve connecting any two points
represents a different thermodynamic
the heat and work that pass across
the boundaries during the transformation
process that carries out the transformation
process as discussed in Handout 26
using certain physicochemical principles must be different along each curve or path
Fig. 27‐1 2D graphical representation of state
3
transformation in the diagram. Along the
three curves shown connecting the initial state
and the final state , among many others not 2
shown, the values of , as well as those of , are
different from each other, just like in the other 1
curves not drawn, since every kind of transformation
involving the same end points, uses different
combinations of physicochemical principles.
0
can be more appropriately expressed as a
quantities that depend on the curve
differential which can then be integrated
on which they are to be evaluated
along the curve to obtain their values
Let
đ amount of heat that cross the boundary during the transformation process
in time interval
đ the work that pass across the boundary during the same time interval
where đ denotes the differential of a quantity that depends on the curve on which it is to
be evaluated and that distinguishes it from the ordinary differential used for quantities
that do not depend on any curve taken for their values.
đ and đ are process variables it is not the case that the system “contains”
representing quantities that we one amount of đ , another of đ , at the beginning
observe only as they pass across of the transformation and other amounts at the end
the boundary between the system of the time but rather đ and đ continually
and the environment cross their boundary during the whole process
The total amount of đ and đ that cross the boundary during the entire transformation
process along each curve shown in Fig. 27‐1, namely
Handout 27 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 9 pages Page 1
which, in differential form, reduces to
đ đ 27.3
where we used the ordinary differential for read wrinkle since the integrals
for 1, 2, 3 are all equal to the total change in energy ∆ with the three of them
having the same initial and final states and so also have the same total change in energy
that has nothing to do with any path whatsoever. From the mathematical point of view
an exact differential, one whose integral is independent of the path taken
đ , đ inexact differentials, those whose integrals depend on the path
each one of đ or
đ , alone by itself
depends not only on the end points of the transformation
the initial and final states but also on the path taken
Consider the two figures that follow, one of which showing transformation of states from
the same starting point to different end points.
đ
đ
2
2
1
đ đ đ
1
đ đ đ
0 Fig. 27‐2
0
Fig. 27‐3
infinitesimal transformations along
Fig. 27‐2 and
since path 1 path 2
the same path lead to the same total
change and the same final state
there is uncertainty as to
either or , whether or not by
Fig. 27– 3 or
looking only at the values
and or , of and separately
or
not like on in Fig. 27– 2
easily removed by looking at their combined
the disadvantage of looking
at đ and đ separately
values đ đ which depend only on the
initial and final states but not on the path
taken during the transformation
the different đ ’s and đ ’s that cross the boundary
đ and đW are quantities between the system and the environment undergo different
of energy that can be
energy transformations in each path shown in Fig. 27– 1
transformed into their other
but they all come to equivalent results because starting
forms obeying the law of from only one initial state, they all arrive at the same final
conservation of energy
state although each one of them moves different paths
Handout 27 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 9 pages Page 2
, đ , and đ are , đ , and đ can be positive or
scalar quantities negative 0, đ 0, đ 0
According to the preceding arguments, since the different ’s and ’s which pass across
the system’s boundary give the same net outcome when combined together, thereby giving
the impression that the effects of the different quantities transmitted along each path
appear to be neutralized cancel out , it seems more appropriate to use subtraction in
27.2 and 27.3 rather than addition. We therefore define the change in internal energy of
a system undergoing thermodynamic transformation from state to state to be
∆ – – 27.4
and the infinitesimal change in internal energy of a system undergoing infinitesimal
transformation to be
đ đ time rate of change time rate of time rate of doing work
đ – đ – of internal energy
heat generation
–
the power generated
27.5
not that the final state has more heat
the case 0, đ 0, đ and less work đ than the initial
and đ 0, for example state but that the final state has more
internal energy than the initial state
quantities whose values depend only on the initial
state variables
and final states and not on the path taken just
state functions
like the exact differentials mentioned earlier
Examples of state variables: internal energy, pressure, volume, and temperature
process variables similar to the inexact differentials whose values depend not
like đ and đ only on the initial and final states but also on the path taken
Consider now the next two figures shown below with the two curves having the same end
points in both figures forming the closed curve shown. Following 27.2 , we find in Fig. 27‐4
∆ ∆ ∆ – 27.6
since in gaining internal energy in going from to along 2, it must lose exactly the same
amount of energy in going back to from . If not, it will arrive at another point on the
plane that is in a different energy state.
2 2
1 1
0 0
Fig. 27‐4 Fig. 27‐5
In Fig. 27‐5, we see a version of the cyclic transformation see Handout 26, p.4, for the
definition of cyclic or cyclical transformation obtained from Fig. 27‐4. Starting from the
Handout 27 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 9 pages Page 3
initial state and going to along path 1 during the first half of the cycle, and then going
back to from along path 2 during the second half, we find that according to 27.6 , the
total change in the internal energy is given by
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ – 0
It follows that moving along any closed curve in the diagram, the total change in internal
energy of the system is zero and that its total internal energy is conserved.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Law of Conservation of Energy the second among the four laws
In any thermodynamic transformation between equilibrium states the initial state and
the final state , the combination of the heat and work , namely – , that
pass across the system’s boundary has the same value for any path connecting the states
and . This quantity – is equal to the change in the value of a state function called
the internal energy :
∆ – – 27.7
is called a state function, or a state variable, since the change ∆ depends only on the
initial and final states and not on the path connecting them.
sign convention for 0
and in the first law system while Q 0 is the heat lost;
0
as expressed in 27– 7 while 0
Note that when 0 and 0, so that work is done by the system, the system uses
energy in the process and according to 27.7 its internal energy decreases.
Notice also that when state is equal to state in going along a closed curve in the
diagram, eq. 27.2 gives us
∆ ∆ – 0 conservation of the internal energy of the system
The First Law is also valid whenever two systems interact with each other, transferring
and across their common boundary, while at the same time the remaining parts of their
outer boundaries are isolated from their environments.
Consider the situation shown in Fig. 27‐6 wherein a gas is
piston
enclosed in a rigid cylinder by a movable piston.
system gas and cylinder
piston interacting with the system
ℓ the distance of the piston from the end
wall of the cylinder and the only one
external parameter
ℓ ℓ
The force exerted by the system on the piston is where
is the pressure exerted on the piston by the gas in state
and is the area of the piston. If the distance ℓ is changed Fig. 27‐6
very slowly a so‐called quasi‐equilibrium process by an
Handout 27 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 9 pages Page 4
amount ℓ, the system remains in state with a well defined pressure and performs an
amount of work
đ ℓ ℓ 27.8
a process wherein, in passing successively from
one intermediate state to the next, the deviation
quasi– equilibrium from equilibrium is infinitesimal, analogous to a
process
reversible Handout 26, p. 4 quasi– static process
a process, which may be reversible or irreversible,
quasi– static
process occurring at an infinitesimal rate of change
According to eq. 27.5 , with đ 0 purely mechanical interaction, without any difference
in temperature between the interacting systems , and eq. 26.8 see Handout 26, p.9
đ – đ – đ – – – – , 27.9
Handout 27 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 9 pages Page 5
According to eq. 27.7
∆ 0 – 0
mechanical equivalent of heat not as energy but
as a substance even when ∆ is not zero : 27.13
1 calorie 4.186 joules 3.968 10– Btu
an early unit of heat used, not as energy but as an invisible
calorie cal substance, called caloric, transferred from one body to another
in physical contact with the first, causing its temperature to rise
The practical experience of seemingly boiling away an infinite amount of water needed to
cool the boring implements used in making metal cannons was incompatible with the law
of conservation of mass if heat was a substance so the caloric theory of heat was eventually
abandoned.
English system FPS unit of heat defined as that needed to
Btu for British
raise the temperature of 1 lb of water from 63°F to 64°F;
Thermal Unit
1 Btu 1055 J 252.0 cal
the “calorie” in common use as
1 Cal 1000 cal 1 kcal 4186 J
a measure of food nutrition
Problem 27‐1
An athlete decides to lose weight and decides to do it by “pumping iron”. a How many
times must an 80.0‐kg weight be lifted a distance of 1.3 m in order to burn off 1 lb of fat,
assuming that it takes 3500 Cal to do this? b If the weight is lifted once every 4 s, how
long does it take?
Solution:
a lifting an 80.0– kg weight ∆ 80.0 kg 9.8 m⁄s 1.3 m
a distance of 1.3 m
1.0192 10 J energy in J in every lift
3500 Cal required to
3500 Cal 1000 3.5 10 cal
burn off 1 lb of fat C
J
3.5 10 cal 4.186
1.4651 10 J total energy needed
J . J
1.4375 10 14,375 lifts
J . J
Handout 27 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 9 pages Page 6
thermodynamic quantity associated with each process. b Calculate the numerical value of
the work done by the system for the complete cycle .
a
50
b
40
∆
Pressure /Pa
30
20
10 Fig. 27‐7
0 1 2 3 4 5
Volume /m
Solution:
process is an isobaric constant
∆ with
a pressure volume expansion with
0
∆ – 0
0
, ,∆ , ,
process is an isometric isochoric
constant volume process with 0 ∆ 0
since 0 and ∆ 0
, ,∆ , 0,
closed curve in
∆ ∆ ∆ 0
Fig. 27– 7 is a cycle
∆ – ∆ – ∆ ∆ 0
volume compression
work done on system 0
in process
∆ 0
, ,∆ –,–,–
since 0 with
b
isometric
process
is isobaric
– 20 Pa 3 – 1 m 40 J
determine the equation of line
process with
having the form ;
variable pressure
get the values of and
From Fig. 27‐7a, we find the following:
Handout 27 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 9 pages Page 7
subtraction gives 20 2 or 10,
3 40 gives 40 3 ,
20 – gives 10, so that
1 20 gives 20
10 10 10 1
Therefore
10 1 10
1
5 2 5 1 2 – 3 6
3
5 3 – 15 5 – 12 – 60 in joules
Finally
40 J – 60 J –20 J
Problem 27‐3
When a system is taken from state to state along
the path in the diagram of Fig. 27‐8, it is
found that 50 J and 20 J, while
along the path , 36 J .
a What is along the path ?
b If –13 J along the curved return path ,
what is along this path?
c Take 10 J . What is ?
d If 22 J , find for the process
0
and the process .
Fig. 27‐8
Solution:
First, we write the given values as follows for easier reference:
50 J …… 20 J …… 36 J …… –13 J ……
a Along the path
– – 36 J
And since the paths and have the same initial and final states, then
– – –
50 J 20 J – –
36 – 50 – 20 6
6 J 27.14
b Along the curved return path , we have
– ∆ – 13 J 27.15
Find using the given values along the other paths shown to get .
Now, recall that in going from the initial state to the final state along any path
27.16
where
27.17
Handout 27 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 9 pages Page 8
since the change in internal energy ΔE , being a state variable depends only on the initial and final
states and not on the curve in the diagram. Given that 50 J and 20 J , we find from
the given values and the first equation above for the process in part a , that
50 J 20 J 30 J 30 J 27.18
It follows from eq. 27.15 and 27.18 that
30 J – 13 J 43 J 27.19
c Given 10 J , we find from eq. 27.16 and 27.18 that
10 J 30 J 40 J 27.20
d To get for the process , consider the equation
Substituting the given values in the problem statement of parts c and d , we find that the last
equation gives
22 J 10 J 12 J
Equivalently
12 J 27.21
Find to get . Notice now in the given diagram of Fig. 27‐8 that
– 0 27.22
since the process is an isometric/isochoric process with constant volume so that its pressure‐
volume work done ∆ 0. Moreover, since the processes shown all have the same initial and final
states, we have according to 27.18 and the given value of
30 J – 30 J
– 30 J
36 J 30 J 6 J 27.23
Eq. 27.21 finally gives us
12 J 12 J 6 J 18 J 27.24
To get , we look at the process . Using the First Law again and eq. 27.22
According to eq. 27.20 and the given in part d , we finally obtain
40 J – 22 J 18 J 27.25
Handout 27 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 9 pages Page 9