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hdt20 Flu Stat2
hdt20 Flu Stat2
The figure below shows how the pistons and the lifting arm of the tractor move as a result
of the forces applied at the indicated main lever and load‐depth control lever.
load and depth
control lever
main lever
lifting
arm
connecting
load rod small
contrrol piston
sensor large piston
pump
down rate
regulator fluid reservoir
Fig. 20‐1 Hydraulic System of a Tractor
Applying a force with magnitude on the main lever indicated in Fig. 20‐1, we find the
transmission of force shown in Fig. 20‐2 to Fig. 20‐6 in the pages that follow.
force and its main
components applied force and its
components acting at Fig. 20‐3 lever
acting at
bottom end top end the main lever.
of main lever.
main lever
top of bar 1
Fig. 20‐2 pushed
bottom of top of rod 1 rod 1
to the left
rod 1 pushed pulled to the right
to the left rod 1
bar 1
bar 1
bar 2 small
small piston
bar 2 and bottom of bar 1 pushed
piston to the left, causing small piston
bar 2
to move to the left too
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 1
When the small piston is pushed to control lever main lever
the left, the opening “b” inside the
housing of the small piston becomes Fig. 20‐4
lifting arm
free, allowing the fluid inside the large small piston
piston housing to move inside the
the empty small piston housing.
a b
Reduced fluid volume inside its
housing causes the large piston to
move to the right, pulling the connecting connecting
rod
rod along with it while the lifting arm large piston
goes down as shown in Fig. 20‐4.
The next two figures that follow show what happens when the load and depth control
lever at the left side of the main lever is pushed towards the left.
applied force and its load and depth
load and depth
components acting at control lever
top of the control lever. control lever
force and its
Fig. 20‐5
components Fig. 20‐6
top of rod 2
acting at the
pulled to
bottom of
control lever. the right
top of rod 3 rod 2
bottom of rod 2 pulled to top of bar 1
the right rod 1 pushed to
also pulled rod 2
rod 1
to the right the right
bottom of rod 3 bar 1
small piston
rod 3 bar 1 rod 3 pushed
pushed
to the left
inward
bar 2
bar 2
bar 2 and bottom of
bar 1 pulled to the left
The leftward movement of the bottom
of rod 3 in Fig. 20‐6 pushes bar 2 to the control lever main lever
left, causing the metal plate at the left
end of the bar to move forward and Fig. 20‐7
lifting arm
rotate upward, making the lifting arm small piston
rise in the process as it pulls the large
piston outward to the left. The larger
volume created inside the housing is a b
then filled by additional fluid coming
from the housing of the small piston connecting
rod
as the piston moves to the right, making large piston
the opening “b” free again, but this time
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 2
not in the fluid empty part of the housing but inside the fluid filled part, allowing additional
fluid to enter the housing of the large piston with increased volume.
Note: Hydraulic press is the hydraulic equivalent of a mechanical lever like a seesaw
one of two applications of fluid power, wherein liquids, such as
hydraulics ` mineral oil a distillate of petrolium or water, under pressure
are used to generate, control, and transmit power
the other application of fluid power which commonly uses
pneumatics compressed air or compressed inert gases in place of liquids
, ,
f
the principle behind
fluid power systems
,
, f ,
cylinders and motors also called "actuators" that do the desired
within a fluid power system work to harness mechanical power
******
Clarifications regarding ordinary pressure positive pressure
hydrostatic pressure compression as isotropic
as an inward push in 3D normal stress
stress wherein the fluid is under equal
compression or tension in all directions
isotropic so that the stress across any imaginary
normal
internal surface is always directed
stress
perpendicularly to the surface ,
independently of its orientation
all directions are equivalent so
isotropic
there is no preferred direction isotropic normal compression
The type of stress just mentioned is valid only if the material is homogeneous all positions
in the material are equivalent without the atoms in any part being closer together denser
than those in another part and the effect of gravity and other external forces can be
neglected.
See next page for the values of the densities of selected materials.
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 3
Table 20–1
Densities of Selected
Substances. Unless
otherwise indicated,
0°C and 1 atm.
solid; liquid; gas;
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 4
concerned with the buoyancy experienced by a
Archimedes principle body that is wholly or partly immersed in a fluid
buoyancy the tendency of a body to float or to rise when submerged in a fluid
cause of buoyancy the so‐called buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in a fluid
the net upward force exerted on a body when
buoyant force
it is wholly or partly immersed in a fluid
the dependence of pressure on the depth in
reason for the existence
liquids or the distance below the uppemost
for buoyant force
layer of gases in a gravitational field
Consider a regular solid body, say a cube, immersed in a liquid as shown in Fig. 20‐8. The
pressure acting on the four faces of the cube are shown in Fig. 20‐8 a while the corresponding
magnitudes of the forces are shown in Fig. 20‐8 b .
L R with both having opposite
pressure at same depth
L R directions so the forces along
along vertical sides of cube
the sides of the cube cancel out
T since p ⁄ with
with B T B T B
both having the same area
B T 0
buoyant force BY B T 20.1
where B magnitude of the net force acting upward at the bottom of the cube,
T magnitude of the net force acting downward at the top of the cube
T
T T
R
B
R
L L
BY
B
B
a Fig. 20‐8 b c
In Fig. 20‐8 c , we find that
the body immersed in the liquid is pushed upward
BY the body floats to the free surface of the liquid ,
signifying that the body has positive buoyancy
the body immersed in the liquid is pushed downward
BY the body sinks to the bottom of the container ,
signifying that the body has negative buoyancy
BY signifies that the body is neutrally buoyant neutral buoyancy
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 5
a body placed anywhere in a fluid medium
positive buoyancy that has an infinite extent moves continually
upward away from its initial position
a body placed anywhere in a fluid medium
negative buoyancy that has an infinite extent moves continually
downward, away from its initial position too
a body placed in a fluid medium simply
neutral buoyancy remains stationary anywhere it is placed
Two examples of neutral buoyancy
, .
. L , . ,
, f ,
human
f
brain ,
f ,
F .
Negative buoyancy would cause the brain to sink, just as if there were no surrounding fluid.
Positive buoyancy would cause the brain to float upward that would make its upper parts
to be pressed against the skull, hindering blood flow to the brain cells found there.
brain The dark region between the skull and
the brain is the cerebrospinal fluid.
skull
intestine
swim bladder
Fig. 20‐9 Fig. 20‐10
f , f f
f
swim bladder f
see Fig. 20– 10
f ,
, ,
causes the fish to become lighter so that
increasing the amount od gas inside,
its density and specific gravity decrease
thereby inflating the swim bladder
enabling the fish to rise without any effort
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 6
causes the fish to become heavier so that
decreasing the amount od gas inside,
its density and specific gravity increase
thereby deflating the swim bladder
enabling the fish to sink without any effort
The use of swim bladder enable bony fish to go to any depth of water and stay there
without wasting valuable energy in swimming, energy that can be more profitably used in
hunting prey for food.
f
development of swim
bladder in bony fishes
Cartilaginous fish, like sharks, which do not have swim bladders, can control their depth
only by swimming against the downward pull of the earth or by storing fats or oil, inside
their body, with density less than that of seawater to produce a neutral or near neutral
buoyancy.
The next figure below shows one interesting possibility that could occur when two
regularly shaped bodies, with exactly the same shape and volume but made up of two
different materials, are immersed in a container filled with the same kind of liquid.
displaced displaced
liquid liquid
partial immersion Fig. 20‐11 total immersion
the volume of the liquid displaced is equal
total immersion
to the total volume of the body submerged
the volume of the liquid displaced is equal to the volume
partial immersion of the body below the free surface of the liquid, which is
a fraction of the total volume of the body
According to Archimedes Principle
The buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in
a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
mathematical expression
buoyant force BY 20.2
of Archimedes Principle
where weight of the fluid displaced …… mass of the fluid displaced ……
acceleration due to gravity … density of the fluid … volume of fluid displaced
Using the formula for the weight of the submerged body where
mass of the body … 0 density of the body … volume of the body …
we find the following results from eq. 20.2 :
positive buoyancy
BY 20.3
with BY
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 7
negative buoyancy
with BY
BY 20.4
neutral buoyancy
BY 20.5
with BY
Notice that for a body totally immersed in a fluid so that
neutral buoyancy
20.6
for total immersion
as we have seen in the case of the human brain and the cerebrospinal fluid.
To know the other significance of the last results, it is enough to consider only one
inequality, say eq. 20.3 for positive buoyancy. That equation, in fact both equations,
involve essentially two kinds of quantities, namely density and volume , characterizing
two substances. We can vary the quantities to see what happens.
varying and V
leads to a result relatively more difficult to interpret
simultaneously
varying only one while
gives a result that is easier to interpret
keeping the other fixed
Case 1: the volume varies while the density is fixed
ensuring by making the choosing the proper shape
volume of the fluid displaced and geometry of the body
as large as it could possibly be to be immersed in the fluid
In Fig. 20‐12, we find that the iron
nail 1 , although having a mass 3
of only several grams, and the ball
of iron 2 , sink in water because
they have the wrong shape that
displaces an amount of water that
is not equal to their own weight. On water
the other hand, the hull 3 of a small iron
ship, shown also in Fig. 20‐12, with a
mass that is the same as that of the 1 2 Fig. 20‐12
iron ball, floats because it has the proper geometric shape that displaces an amount of
water that is equal to its weight.
Case 2: the density varies while the volume is fixed
Having examined the left hand side of the inequality in case 1, we now examine the right
hand side:
ensuring by making the choosing the body to be immersed
density of the body immersed in in the fluid to have a density smaller
the fluid to be as small as possible than the density of the fluid
if the medium of immersion is a light gas the body immersed
like air, containing 80% N gas, and the contains gas lighter than
body innersed is still positively buoyant N gas H or He gas
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 8
Fig. 20‐13 shows a sport balloon and a dirigible an airship that contain the inert gas helium.
It is not safe to use hydrogen gas because it is inflammable, owing to its high tendency to react
readily with other kinds of atom and releasing energy in the process exothermic reaction .
ballast tank ballast tank
Fig. 20‐13
a
Fig. 20‐14
b
mass varies, attainable by having an
⁄ variable with
additional mass combined with a fixed
V constant in case 2
mass of the body immersed in a fluid
,
the case of bony fish
mentioned in page 6
f ,
f f
f
the case of a submarine F . ‐
submerged under the ,
sea to avoid detection
,
By pumping water out of a filled ballast tank, as shown in Fig. 20‐14 b , the total weight of
the submerged submarine decreases and enables the upward buoyant force exerted by the
water to effectively counteract the downward force of gravity, causing the submarine to
rise to the free surface of the water once more.
Given any amount and of fluid in eq. 20.3 , we find the following:
⁄ 1 ⁄ ⁄ if …
⁄ 1 ⁄ ⁄ if …
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 9
using the algebra of inequality, showing that the two cases above satisfy the condition of
positive buoyancy if . Likewise, . That means any
amount of two liquids having different densities do not mix together, the lighter one always
buoyed upward by the heavier liquid which remains below, when placed in a one container.
a body immersed in two the body experiences
iquids that do not mix two buoyant forces,
as shown in Fig. 20‐ 15 one from each liquid
buoyant force due to volume of liquid
due to liquid 1 displaced in 1 only
1
buoyant force due to volume of liquid
2
due to liquid 2 displaced in 2 only
,
center of ,
buoyancy G f
Fig. 20‐15
CB
f f
when the buoyant
⁄ indicates that
force equals the weight of the body
since , so that CB CG
when floating on the surface
If the two points CB and CG lie on the same vertical line, as shown in Fig. 20‐16 a , then the
object can float in equilibrium: both the net force and the net torque are zero.
Fig. 20‐16
CG A CG A CG
A
B
CB
B
CB
B
BY
CB
restoring
floating body overturning
torque
in equilibrium torque
a stable b stable c unstable
f
if floating body is
,
tipped slightly from
its equilibrium position f F . ‐
We therefore find a torque acting on the floating body that might tip the body back to its
equilibrium position, as shown in Fig. 20‐16 b , or it might act in the other direction to tip
it completely over as illustrated in Fig. 20‐16 c .
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 10
Sample Problems Using Archimedes Principle
1. The most widely known anecdote about Archimedes 287 212 BC , generally considered
the greatest mathematician of antiquity, one of the greatest of all time, and an excellent
engineer, tells that after he was asked by a king to determine whether some silver had
been substituted by a dishonest goldsmith in the amount of pure gold given to him in
order to make a crown, Archimedes noticed that the level of water in the bathtub rose as
he got in. He quickly realized that he could use that just recently discovered fact to solve a
rather difficult problem because he was specifically told by the king not to damage the
newly created crown so he could not melt it down and change its form into a regularly
shaped body in order to compute its density. Not long thereafter, Archimedes must have
completely formulated in his mind the principle of buoyancy now named after him.
weighing the given newly
created crown in air
crown completely crown displaces an amount of water
immersed in water equal to the volume of the crown
. N
.
⁄ 18.8442 10 kg⁄m
’
Knowing that 19.3 10 kg⁄m for gold and 10.4 10 kg⁄m for silver,
we find that, indeed, the crown is not made of pure gold, since and that some
cheaper and less dense metal of silver had been substituted for the more expensive and
denser metal of gold weight of crown made with same volume of pure gold would have
been 19.3 10 3.980 10 9.8 7.53 N . Gold, unlike silver, does not
react with oxygen in the air that causes discoloration of cheaper metals.
To compute the amount of silver substituted, let
, be the mass and volume of gold … , be the mass and volume of siver …
Then, we have from the mass and volume of the crown
or
…
and …
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 11
Notice that
⁄ 5.18 10 5.18 10
5.18 10 3.980 10 m 2.0616 10 m
3.980 10 0.20616 10 m 3.7738 10 m
19.3 10 3.7738 10 10.4 10 0.20616 10 0.74978 in kg
0.74978 9.8 7.3478 in newtons
2. A balloon is filled with 100 cm of mercury
H 1.36 10 kg⁄m and then filled with
helium H 0.178 kg⁄m until just half the He
balloon sticks out of the water on which it floats, as
shown in the figure. What is the radius of air
the balloon? Use 1000 kg⁄m for the density
He water
of water and 1.29 kg⁄m for the air density.
Solution:
Given the following: Hg
H 100 cm for volume of mercury …
H 1.36 10 kg⁄m for the density of mercury …
H 0.178 kg⁄m for the density of helium … 1000 kg⁄m for the density of water
1.29 kg⁄m for the density of air …
Unknown: the radius of the balloon
is the volume
4⁄3 H H
of the balloon
H H 4 ⁄3 H
gives the volume of helium inside the balloon.
neglecting the weight of the
H H H H H H
outer covering of the balloon
H H H 4 ⁄3 H
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 12
half the balloon sticks
½ 4⁄3 2 ⁄3
out of the water
BY 2 ⁄3 20.8
Static equilibrium BY from eqs. 20.7 and 20.8 gives
H H H H 4 ⁄3 2 ⁄3
Solving for , we get the following:
H H H 2 ⁄3 H 4 ⁄3
2⁄3 2 H
⁄ 2
3 H H H 2 H
3 H H H 3 1.36 10 kg⁄m 0.178 kg⁄m 100 cm 10 m⁄cm
3 13600 0.178 10 m kg⁄m
3 1.3599622 10 10 m kg⁄m
2 2 H 2 1000 1.29 2 0.178 kg⁄m
2 1000.934 kg⁄m
√6.4873 10 cm 0.08657 m 8.6 cm
The balloon has, therefore, a radius of 8.6 cm.
Handout 20 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 13