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hdt21 Flu Flow1
hdt21 Flu Flow1
Classification of Fluid Flows
1. 1D, 2D, and 3D flows
3D flow actual fluid flow in three dimensional space where the velocity vector is a
function of the three space variables , , and
2D flow a flow in which the velocity vector is a function of only two space variables
and
The flow shown is a plane Plane, stagnation
point flow
flow normal to a plane
Fig. 21‐1
surface. The fluid decelerates
and comes to rest at the
stagnation point.
, 0
stagnation
point
1D flow a flow in which the velocity vector is a function of only one space variable,
such as those that occur in long, straight pipes or between parallel plates,
as shown in the figures on the next page.
velocity in the pipe with circular
varies only with :
cross section of radius r
velocity between || plates varies only with the coordinate :
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 1
1D flow
a flow in a pipe
Fig. 21‐2 b flow between || plates
developed flow one in which the velocity profiles do not vary with the space
coordinate in the direction of flow, as in figure b above
2. viscous viscid and inviscid flows
inviscid flow one in which viscous effects are negligible because they do not
significantly influence the flow
viscous flow one in which the effects of viscosity are important and cannot be ignored
viscous effects effects created by the viscosity of the fluid, its material property that
indicates the internal stickiness produced by friction between the
molecules of the fluid
Some Effects of Viscosity
1 resistance to deformation by applied shear stress or tensile stress
2 opposition to the relative motion between two surfaces of adjacent layers of the
fluid that are moving at different velocities
Fluid particles moving with moderate Fig. 21‐3
speeds within the concentric cylindrical
layers shown, move fastest at the center
and slowest near the wall of the circular
pipe, those in layer farther away moving
slower than those in the next layer nearer
the center, all because of viscosity
3 dissipation and eventual loss of energy
modeling inviscid
simply set the viscosity to zero
flow analytically
creating an inviscid more difficult to achieve since all fluids of
flow experimentally interest, such as water and air, have viscosity
primary class of flows which can be external flows, flows which exist exterior
modeled as inviscid flow because to a body, such as those around the wings
viscous effects are negligible of an airplane or a hydrofoil
confined to a thin layer, called the boundary layer, attached
viscous effects in
to the boundary, such as the white layer surrounding the
an external flow
airfoil shown in the flow diagram of Fig. 21 4
thin boundary layers
can be ignored when studying the gross features of a flow
for many flow situation
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 2
free stream
thin
boundary layer unsteady
thin boundary layer a
Fig. 21‐4 b
Velocity is zero at the surface no‐slip
Classification of Viscous Flow
laminar flow fluid flow without significant mixing of neighboring particles
fluid flow in layers as in Fig. 21‐3
turbulent flow fluid flow with irregularly varying flow velocity showing random
variation in time and space coordinates that cause the immediate
mixing of the fluid particles see Fig. 21‐4 b
if the flow disturbance
the flow is unstable and may become turbulent
to the velocity increases
if the disturbance decreases
the flow remains laminar, or it may develop into a
different laminar flow
3. Compressible and incompressible flow
incompressible flow one in which any volume element ∆ of the fluid moving in the
flow field does not change its volume significantly so that its
density ∆ ⁄∆ can be treated as a constant for a fixed
value of its mass ∆
Note: Demanding that the density is everywhere constant is too restrictive. Atmospheric
flow, in which , where is along the vertical, and flows that involve layers of
fresh and salt water are examples of incompressible flows in which the density varies.
other examples of … f …
incompressible flows
f …
f …
compressible flow one in which any volume element ∆ of the fluid moving in the
flow field changes its volume appreciably so that, for any given
value of its mass ∆ , its density cannot be considered constant
… f
some examples of … f
compressible flows
… f … f
…
due to complications in flow the discussions that follow will be
of real fluids mentioned restricted to the flow of an ideal fluid
in the preceding pages in order to simplify understanding
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 3
f :
f ,
f ,
an ideal fluid
f ,
f .
nonviscous flow AKA
complete absence of resistance to fluid flow
inviscid flow, see page 2
not compressible so volume is not reducible,
incompressible
signifying that the volume is constant
constant for a fixed value of an incompressible fluid is a
⁄
mass m if volume V constant fluid with density constant
irrotational flow not rotational flow
f f ,
rotational
. ,
flow
f f
a rotational flow with imaginary paddle wheel
f f ,
irrotational
. ,
flow f f
f
f f f ,
steady b irrotational flow with imaginary paddle wheel
,
flow Fig. 21‐5
f
See page 1 for a brief description of steady flow and streamline.
1
Consider now the two streamlines intersecting at point P L
shown in Fig. 21‐6.
L line tangent to streamline 1 at P
L line tangent to streamline 2 at P also L
With velocity as the time derivative of the position vector
and the derivative as slope of a line tangent to a curve 2
P P
P flow velocity at P in streamline 1 2
P flow velocity at P in streamline 2 1
P
P flow velocity at P
Fig. 21‐6
true velocity at P P P or P P
streamlines in steady flow, where the flow
ambiguity in the flow velocity
velocity is well defined at every point in
when streamlines intersect
the field of flow, must never intersect
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 4
bundle of parallel
form a tube of flow
streamlines in
called a streamtube
steady flow
streamlines close indicates high Fig. 21‐7
together in tube
flow speed
of flow
streamlines farther indicates low
apart in tube of flow flow speed
Note: Streamlines do not actually exist but streamtube
are only imaginary curves used to
visualize the flow patterns.
Two Fundamental Principles in the Flow of an Ideal Fluid
• Principle of conservation of mass mass cannot be created nor destroyed;
equation of continuity an expression of the principle of conservation of mass
• Principle of conservation of energy energy can only be transformed from one form to
another and never created nor destroyed;
Bernoulli’s equation an expression of the law
of conservation of energy
mass flow inside
the total mass the tube of flow
law of mass
of an isolated
conservation system is constant
mass cannot
Fig. 21‐8
be created nor
destroyed
f ,
f , ,
, f
In an incompressible flow field, a streamtube
As water falls from an open
a decreases in diameter as the flow accelerates
faucet, its speed increases is
as the flow speeds up or converges and larger like a free falling body
b increases in diameter as the flow decelerates dropped from rest, so that the
as the flow speeds down or diverges. stream of falling water becomes
small but
Fig. 21‐9 large narrower is smaller .
Fig. 21‐10
For a branching tube of flow branching streamtube
constant ∑
where 0 refers to that before branching while 0 refers to that after branching.
Note: The cross sectional area depends, of course, on the geometry of the cross section.
First Formulation of the Equation of continuity:
• for a single streamtube: constant 21.1
A is large if u is small while
where
A is small if u is large
• for a branching streamtube: ∑ 21.2
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 6
see Handout 7, page 4 . Assuming for simplicity that the force is acting along the
displacement ∆ so that 0, we find from eq. 21.4 that
∆ ∆ cos ∆ ½ ∆ ½ ∆
⁄ ½ ∆ ½ ∆
½ ½
½
LCE total energy constant ½ constant 21.5
Equivalently, at two positions 1 and 2 along the same streamline
½ ½ 21.6
Eqs. 21.5 and 21.6 are the two forms of Bernoulli’s
equation for ideal fluid flow. From the point of view
of LCE, we find in Fig. 21‐11 that
first term due to the kinetic energy of
in eq. 21.5 the moving mass element
due to the gravitational
second term
potential energy GPE of
in eq. 21.5 reference line
the fluid mass element
Fig. 21‐11
third term
in eq. 21.5
with the reference line at zero GPE
Bernoulli’s lift . .
the component of the force, exerted by a fluid flowing
aerodynamic lift past the surface of a body, that is perpendicular to
the oncoming flow direction at right angles to the flow
Fig. 21‐12 Fig. 21‐13
Lift is defined as the component of the total
A cross‐section of a wing aerodynamic force perpendicular to the flow
defines an airfoil shape. direction, and drag is the component parallel
to the flow direction.
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 7
, ,
major disadvantage
of Bernoulli’s lift f
,
, . ,
lift Equal transit time in
cambered airfoil
Fig. 21‐14
low pressure Fig. 21‐15
upper high velocity
streamline
longer distance
lower
streamline high pressure Air over a wing with lift faster
shorter distance
low velocity transit time above the wing
mathematical analysis show unequal transit times for the passage
and computer simulations of air above and below the wings, with that
of the flight of a plane above taking shorter as illustrated in Fig. 21 15
while Bernoulli’s lift make intuitive
,
sense for conventional wings that are f
flat on the bottom and curved on top f f
symmetrical airfoil
plane in
inverted flight
Whitcomb supercritical airfoil
Fig. 21‐16 Fig. 21‐17
increase in lift acting on
another important fact in aerodynamics
an airfoil as the angle
that cannot be expained by Bernouli’s lift
of attack increases
angle of attack
angle of
attack flow direction
f Fig. 21‐18
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 8
Newton’s third law of motion:
For every action there is an explains those previously mentioned that
cannot be explained by Bernoulli’s lift
equal and opposite reaction.
Fig. 21‐19 shows a symmetrical airfoil with zero angle of attack. Notice that the air leaves
the wing exactly as it appeared just in front of the leading edge of the wing. There is no net
action on the air. In order to generate a lift, the wing must do something to the air,
according to Newton’s third law, so that the air will do something to it. By pushing the air
downward, the air can react to the wing by pushing it upward.
Fig. 21‐19 Fig. 21‐20
Fig. 21‐20 shows the streamlines of a symmetrical wing with nonzero angle of attack
obtained by computer simulations. The leading edge of the wing meets the air at a slight
angle the angle of attack and is deflected slightly upward the upwash , passes over the
wing, and is bent down the downwash . Newton’s first law says that there must be a force
on the air to bend it down the action . Newton’s third law says that there must be an equal
and opposite force upward on the wing the reaction . This force of the air the reaction
force causes lift which is called dynamic lift we can also call it Newtonian lift . To
generate Newtonian lift, a wing must divert lots of air down.
approximate direction
and magnitude of the
downwash as seen by
direction and obsever on the ground
angle of speed of wing hole in
attack the fog
approximate direction and
magnitude of the downwash Fig. 21‐21 Fig. 21‐22
as seen by the pilot
Fig. 21‐21 indicates how the downwash appears to the pilot and the observer on the
ground. To the pilot, the air is coming off the wing at roughly the angle of attack and at
about the speed of the airplane. To the observer on the ground, if he or she could see the air
as the plane goes by, the air would be coming off the wing almost vertically at a relatively low speed.
Fig. 21‐22 shows the effect of the air being diverted down from a wing. A big hole is
punched through the fog by the downwash from the plane that has just flown over it, giving
a strong argument against lift being just a surface effect as implied by Bernoulli’s equation.
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 9
Fig. 21‐23 shows the lift of a typical wing as a function of the angle of attack. If the angle of
attack is changed both up and down, one finds that the lift is proportional to the angle until
a certain critical angle is reached. A similar lift versus angle of attack relationship is found
for all wings, independent of their design.
An angle of attack can be
Fig. 21‐13 positive, neutral, or negative.
Fig. 21‐24
The inverted wing when an airplane flies upside down can be explained by its angle of attack,
despite the apparent contradiction with the popular explanation of lift in terms of Bernoulli’s
equation. A pilot simply adjusts the angle of attack to adjust the lift for the speed and load.
presented in the f
preceding discussions
B ’
’
dynamic lift Bernoulli’s lift Newtonian lift
,
, f
f
Ferrari F1 car with spoiler High‐ performance car with rear
Ferrari F1 car at the front and back. spoiler attached to the trunk.
turning a curve.
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 10
Car spoilers work like an airplane wing, but upside down. They are designed to create a low
pressure area below the spoiler surface and a high pressure area above which pushes the
car harder to the ground and make it stick better to the road.
disadvantage
generates drag, a retarding force that slows down the car
of the spoiler
Racecar designers try to maximize the lift⁄drag ratio so that the car has just enough drag to
still get around the sharp curves fast enough, but not so much that it becomes too slow.
Assuming small differences in elevation so that ∆ is approximately equal to zero
∆ 0 , we get the simplified form of Bernoulli’s eq. 21.5 and 21.6 :
½ ½ ½
constant 21.7
is large when is small while
is small when is large
The roof detaching itself from the house fixtures,
shown in Fig. 21‐25, during a stormy weather is not
due to the strength of the force of the wind blowing on
the roof, which should also have caused the house walls
to fall down as well but they did not. Bernoulli’s
simplified equation tells us why.
pressure inside
, house pressure
outside house 1 atm
Fig. 21‐25
1 atmosphere inside
house greater than 1 acting upward
,
atmosphere outside house
since
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ 0
where is the magnitude of the force, inside the house, acting upward on the roof with
surface area , while is the magnitude of the force, outside the house, acting downward
on the roof. The net upward force due to the pressure difference inside and outside the
house during a stormy weather causes the roof to detach itself from the house fixtures.
According to both the continuity equation and simplified Bernoulli’s equation
constant A small, large and
small, small force small
½ constant large, small
That means, for example, that in areas of narrow streets cross sectional area small with
tall buildings crowded close to each other, the wind velocity along the street might become
large enough large during bad weather conditions that air pressure outside might drop
too small small in such a way that the air pressure inside closed rooms of buildings
becoming large in comparison to air pressure outside produces large enough force to break
glass windows and cause harm to people walking outside the street.
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 11
Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
• Venturi meter a device used to measure the flow of a fluid in a pipe
At positions 1 and 2 along the same streamline,
Venturi meter
According to the continuity equation
⁄
Bernoulli’s eq. then becomes 3
manometer
– – ⁄ – 5 4
tube
⁄
– Fig. 21‐26
⁄
– 1
To use the difference in height of the fluid levels inside the manometer tube, notice at
the right side of the tube that
4 and 5 at the same level
so with the same pressure
On the other hand, at the left side of the tube
– –
⁄
– – – –1
⁄
2 – –1
2 ⁄ – 1 ⁄ –1
It follows that
2 ⁄ – 1 ⁄ – 1
21.7a
⁄ 2 ⁄ – 1 1– ⁄
• simple Pitot tube a device used to measure the flow speed of a liquid in a pipe
The pipe is fitted with two glass tubes as
shown, to the pipe. The tube on the left
points straight up with one of its openings Pitot
|| to the direction of flow. The other glass tube
tube on the right side of the first one goes
straight up and down but is bent 90° at the end
immersed in the liquid.
no component of
1 • 2
to the entrance
of the vertical tube Fig. 21‐27
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 12
to entrance of
90° bent Pitot tube
physical significance of point 2 at the
conversion of kinetic energy of flow
entrance of the Pitot tube in Fig. 21– 27
to gravitational potential energy
becoming an stagnation point
Applyimg Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 and 2 lying on the same streamline in Fig. 21‐27
21.8
since 0 with point 2 being an stagnation point.
the stagnation pressure, or the total
in eq. 21.8
pressure at a point in flowing fluid
in eq. 21.8 the static pressure, or the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest
½ in eq. 21.8 the dynamic pressure
stagnation static dynamic
21.9
pressure pressure pressure
Before discussing more about eq. 21.9 , let us continue further with the result obtained in
eq. 21.8 . Notice that
– – – 2 – 21.9a
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 13
a concept that relates the energy in an incompressible fluid
head in fluid
to the height of an equivalent static column of that fluid
dynamics
used to calculate the total head in and out of a pump
Therefore, we obtain
⁄ ⁄ 21.10
B 2 B 2
for the speed of the gas outside the Pitot tube.
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 14
Magnus effect something concerned with the deflection of a spinning body from its normal
undisturbed path that is not present when the object is not spinning
f ,
, ,
cause of deflection
in Magnus effect
f
f
, B ’
cause of velocity changes that give rise to the shape of the airfoil or airplane wing
pressure differences in Bernoulli’s effect in translational motion through the air
the rapid turning motion of a body, like
cause of deflection
that of a spinning ball, that is moving
in Magnus effect
translationally in air at the same time
wind tunnel studies
of Magnus effect on ,
baseballs and others f
tubular passage for air made to move past a solid body
wind tunnel by means of a powerful fan system in order to study
the effects of the air moving past the test object
the development of a turbulent wake AKA f
or track behind a body in an airflow
The detaching boundary layer may be turbulent or not and that has a significant effect on
the wake formation.
early separation
Fig. 21‐30 shows the difference between
laminar and turbulent boundary layers
for air flowing over a curved surface.
Laminar flow the picture on top results in
early separation, while at higher air speeds
or over rough surfaces, the boundary late separation
layer becomes turbulent and remains
attached to the surface for a longer time
the bottom picture . The flow was made
visible using titanium tertrachloride
painted on the front surface which forms a
thick white cloud on contact with humid air. Fig. 21‐30 Flow over a stationary curved
earlier separation of earlier onset of low flow speed since high
laminar boundary layer flow speed does not produce laminar flow
turbulent boundary layer
high flow speed persists in its vicinity
remains attached to surface
In what is known as topspin, wherein the ball rotates about a horizontal axis to its direction
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 15
of translational motion that moves the top Direction of travel
surface of the ball in the direction of travel Topspin
as well, the upper boundary layer can become Side view Delayed separation
turbulent due to the high relative speed of Direction
of airflow
the air and the surface. If the lower boundary
layer remains laminar, due to the low relative
speed of the air and the surface, then it separates
rotation
earlier than the turbulent layer at the top,
reducing the air speed higher pressure
Earlier separation
earlier at the bottom while the air speed at
Magnus force Line of boundary
the top remaining higher lower pressure layer separation
Fig. 21‐31
for a longer time. The wake of separating
boundary layer of air is therefore pushed upward as shown in the figure above. As a reaction,
the air pushes the ball downward, resulting in a negative Magnus force.
In what is called backspin, the ball rotates about a horizontal axis to its direction of translational
motion that moves the upper surface of the ball rotating backwards from the direction of
movement as shown below. Due to the sufficiently high ball speeds in this case, the boundary
layer is turbulent both at the top and the bottom
of the ball and causes the line of boundary Magnus force
Backspin
layer separation to move closer to the front Side view Direction of travel
of the ball as the ball speed increases. In a
Delayed separation
spinning ball, this line is closer to the front of the
ball on the side where the relative speed of rotation
the air and the ball is largest, meaning at the
bottom of the ball where the spinning motion is Direction
directly towards the direction of airflow. Earlier of airflow
separation of the turbulent boundary layer Earlier
Line of boundary separation
results to the earlier onset of higher airspeed and layer separation
Fig. 21‐32
lower air pressure at the bottom of the ball.
The wake is therefore pushed downward by higher pressure at the top of the ball as can be
seen in Fig. 21‐32. As a reaction, the air pushes the spinning ball upward.
A golf ball hit by a club head with a backspin Magnus force
Club head
experiences a Magnus force that counteracts
the force of gravity slightly and allows it to be backspin
airborne a little longer than without the spin.
The dimpled surface of the ball also prevents Fig. 21‐33
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 16
air friction to act continuously on the ball and allows it to travel farther out than a smooth one.
Note also that a smooth table tennis ball with a strong backspin can curve down rather
than up if the higher relative velocity at the bottom of the ball results in a turbulent
boundary layer in spite of reduction in velocity due to friction while the top layer remains
laminar due to the stronger effect of friction on the relative velocity at the top . In table
tennis, the Magnus effect is easily observed because of the small mass and low density of
the ball. A good table tennis player can impart a wide variety of spins on the ball.
Flight without ballspin.
Aside from the effects of Magnus force on many ball sports mentioned above, Magnus effect
also has useful engineering applications in propulsion of ships and airplanes. Spinning
guided missiles are also significantly affected by the Magnus force.
Handout 21 [Phys. for Engs., 2nd Sem AY19‐20] … RMadridejos] Total of 17 pages Page 17