APRIL 3, 2023

2023 Dyslexia Research

and Evidence Based
Practices
October 24, 2023

Featuring Martha S. Burns, Ph.D.

Carnegie Learning
October 24, 2023

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC.

Dyslexia Research and Best Practices
How the Brain Dyslexia Research: Underlying Factors Best Practices
Reads: That Contribute to
● Historical Reading, Writing, and ● New Brain
● Brain Regions Perspective Spelling Difficulties: Science on
involved in Interventions that
Language ● Perceptual predict
● Multi-Factor Intervention
● Brain Changes Frequency Band
Approach Differences Reading
Induced by
Reading Outcomes
● A Different Brain ● Brain Regional &
with Many Connection ● Instructional
● Regions and Differences Approaches
Connections Strengths
● Individual
Differences

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 2

 Reading –
The
Contribution
of Brain
Science

3
About Carnegie Learning

The Human Brain

is Very Complex
And each of us has
very different brain
organization

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 4

Last Year’s Research

Showing the Power of Reading in the Brain:

- Reading adds considerably to the areas built through
language
- Most notably
- Linking vision areas to speech areas
- Also, building executive functions (control over
thinking) of the pre-frontal cortex
- And building areas important for social skills

Jones et al., NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | (2022) 13:1643 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-29047-4 |

www.nature.com/naturecommunications

Brain research is being constantly

updated with improved technology and
larger group studies

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC.

 JUST OUT! September 23, 2023

THE TALKING BRAIN:

Brain regions used for speech and
language now confirmed based on
403 neuroimaging studies

Turker, S., Kuhnke, P., Eickhoff, S. B., Caspers, S.,

& Hartwigsen, G. (2023, September 28). Cortical,
Subcortical, and Cerebellar Contributions to
Language Processing: A Meta-Analytic Review of
403 Neuroimaging Experiments. Psychological
Bulletin. Advance online publication.
https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bul0000403

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 6

 But Hold On—Brain Organization Varies for Different Aspects of
Language
Phonemic
Grammar Vocabulary Awareness and Melodic
Comprehension Phonics Contour/Fluency

Turker, S., Kuhnke, P., Eickhoff, S. B., Caspers, S., & Hartwigsen, G. (2023, September 28). Cortical, Subcortical, and Cerebellar Contributions to
© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. Language Processing: A Meta-Analytic Review of 403 Neuroimaging Experiments. Psychological Bulletin. Advance online publication.
https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bul0000403
And, this (online last week) scheduled publication Feb. 2024
The essential interconnection between “The Talking Brain” and Reading

A special open access issue of Connections between Oral Language Processes

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |
ScienceDirect.com by Elsevier
and Word Reading and Spelling in Development
● Learning to read and spell are amongst the most
important skills to be acquired in child development.
○ These cognitively complex skills are not
innate.
○ Rather appear to be scaffolded onto oral
language processes, as children establish and
integrate mental representations for
○ sound, print, and meaning.
● This special issue, explores the interconnections
between reading and/or spelling, and specific
components of oral language, including
phonology, morphology, and semantics.

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology | Connections between Oral Language Processes

and Word Reading and Spelling in Development | ScienceDirect.com by Elsevier
 And There Are Individual Differences
(Foulkes and Blakemore, 2018; Kidd, Donnelley, & Christiansen, 2018: Wang et al. 2019)

● The human brain is a complex organ that

varies by:
○ Genetics and epigenetic influences
○ Experiences
■ If reading is difficult for a child – that child will
read less & have other experiences that build
other capacities (i.e., athletics, music, art)
■ These experiences may be positive but they
may not translate to academic success
■ This Increases the possibility of behavioral
issues associated with academic struggle

9
So, genetic differences and differences in experience
impact the other three language capacities
In addition to word learning capacities,
three more that have to be well-developed
to support reading:
1. Grammar (syntax)
2. PA (phonology)
3. Prosody (melodic contour):
imparts meaning and social
constructs like sarcasm
© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC.
SES differences, dialectal differences,
first language differences, ACES and
now the pandemic have affected
language exposure and/or socialization
experiences necessary to build these
underlying foundational language skills.
If any of these is present, a student will
likely struggle with some aspect of
reading
Eyebrow content

Now - add the visual

integration component with
language skills required for
reading:
More complicated than we
originally thought

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 11

We’ve known about the visual brain-language
changes induced by reading for several years.
Learning to read requires creating a new visual language link: connecting a visual
representation of written words to brain areas for speech sounds and meaning

12
The Role of Vision: We
can recognize any object,
even a complex drawing,
no matter what
orientation or with parts
missing or added.

13
 Not so with letters
b p
b p
or with words
ggle Gobble
But, what does that mean for reading accuracy and comprehension?
mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk/personal/matt.davis/cmabridge/

14
 Let’s Read Aloud
Together

mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk/personal/matt.davis/cmabridge/
This text circulated on the internet in September 2003. It's been passed on many
times, and in the way of most internet memes has mutated along the way.

It surprised researchers at Cambridge - Matt Davis, especially, who works at

Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, in Cambridge, UK, a Medical Research Council unit
that includes a large group investigating how the brain processes language.

Davis states,”There are elements of truth in this, but also some things which
scientists studying the psychology of language (psycholinguists) know to be
incorrect. Most strikingly, a recent paper showed an 11% slowing when people read
words with reordered internal letters.”
Raeding Wrods With Jubmled Lettres There Is a Cost
Keith Rayner, Sarah J. White, Rebecca L. Johnson, and Simon P. Liversedge
Psychological Science, 17(3), 192-193
 Why does this matter?

For adults who know how to read

well, unless words on a page or the
grammar is very complex, we do not
need to read letter by letter.
● We can go directly from word
Even newspaper
to meaning, even if a word is
misspelled or jumbled. editors miss major
typos in headlines
For example, how often have you from time to time
missed a spelling error or typo on a
text or email you wrote, even after a
careful reading?

The Point - Reading is much more complex

than many of us realize.
So, What Is Dyslexia?

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 18

Let’s start with a 2023 research summary
● Stein, J. Theories about Developmental Dyslexia. Brain Sci.
2023, 13, 208. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/brainsci1302020
○ Phonological Theory of Dyslexia - Its main weakness is that it is not
really a theory at all in the sense of providing an explanation for the
condition; it does not provide any hint as to its cause [12].
○ Rapid Automatised Naming (RAN) and the ‘Double Deficit Maryanne
Wolf showed rapid naming was not a phonological problem in the
sense of learning the right phonemes, but that it was due to the slowed
production of the correct sounds, i.e., it was a speech timing and
fluency problem [15].Again, however, this is only descriptive and does
not explain why dyslexics have these problems.
○ Reduced Visual Attention Span , For students with dyslexia,” visual
problems are not dominant. Nevertheless, it is now clear that reading
starts with learning to sequence the letters in a word [10], and many
children do have visual processing problems of various sorts [17,18].
Sylvianne Valdois advanced the hypothesis that dyslexics often may
have a limited ‘visual attention span’ [19]. This is consistent with the
increasing evidence showing that their deployment of visual attention is
slow and less accurate [20], “ But, Why?

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 19

 So what does this all mean
for understanding dyslexia and assuring students get the
most effective and efficient intervention?

1. There are a number of studies that indicate “there is unlikely

to be a single mechanism underlying dyslexia. It is certainly
true that some people with DD have more visual problems,
while others have more auditory problems or a mixture of
both.”
2. But why? Differences probably derive from a basic
temporal processing deficit that affects these two
systems to different extents in different individuals”
Stein, J. Theories about Developmental Dyslexia. Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 208. https://doi.org/
10.3390/brainsci1302020
So, what does that mean?
What is a “temporal processing deficit,” for
heaven’s sake?

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 21

 Nearly 40 years ago, Paula Tallal was the
first to suggest that phonological
weaknesses may actually be caused by an
underlying auditory temporal processing
deficit. .

Such a temporal processing

disorder in the visual or auditory
domains, or both, has now been
found in most people with
developmental dyslexia
[Mascheretti, 2018]

Thus, neural timing differences may be the actual root

cause of developmental dyslexia itself, and so, …. what the neural
basis of this abnormality might be.(Stein,2023)

Stein, J. Theories about Developmental Dyslexia. Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 208. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/brainsci1302020
Mascheretti, S.; Gori, S.; Trezzi, V.; Ruffino, M.; Facoetti, A.; Marino, C. Visual motion and rapid auditory processing are solid endophenotypes of22
developmental dyslexia. Genes Brain Behav. 2018, 17, 70–81.
Neural Timing Differences?

Different tasks require different brain processing

speeds
● This complex human brain of ours allows some
individuals hit moving spheres easily and accurately
○ A fast ball pitch thrown by a professional can
reach 100 miles an hour
○ Could you hit that?
● Listening to speech and hearing all the speech
sounds is one task that requires fast sound
processing

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 23

 What is it like for students with temporal
processing differences? Similar to what we
experience when listening to a British
accent on TV or what an English language
learner experiences in an English
classroom.

Sounds and syllables are not “processed”

accurately, meaning some speech sounds
or syllables may be lost or mixed up. Let’s
listen to a simulation.

https://apple.news/AVmIiBL2cS4COkxLyxrnJL

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 24

 How and why does that happen?

Remember this complex brain of ours?

● There are different types of cells that develop to handle
(process) different kinds of incoming information.

One group of cells that develop before we’re

born are called magnocells - they enable the
brain to handle very fast changing information.
● When a large number of those don’t
develop for listening - it affects the ability
of the brain to rapidly relay some types of
fast moving information
● like easily hearing all the speech sounds in
a running conversation (or in vision,
following a ball moving toward you at 100
miles an hour) Averaged probabilistic white matter connectivity for neurotypicals and dyslexics between the left motion-sensitive
© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC.
planum temporale (mPT) and the left medial geniculate body (MGB) (green). NeuroscienceNews.com image is credited
to Tschentscher et al., JNeurosci (2019).
 Reduced development of
magnocellular timing neurons in
the brain is the ultimate cause of
developmental dyslexia (Stein,
2023)

Auditory ‘Parvocellular’
Perception Both auditory and
visual timing systems are
affected in dyslexia - with less
development of a set of brain
cells that handle that
perception hence, parvocells
may proliferate in both.

Because of this, those with dyslexia

BUT…
“may actually be inherently more
talented and creative” than many of the
rest of us. (Stein, 2023) 26
….. the positive side to research,
as reviewed by Stein 2023.

The converse of this is that other

neurons may be able to proliferate to
fill the space vacated by fewer
magnocells.
More than 90% of the new neurons born in
the baby’s brain in the last few months
before birth fail to thrive and are eliminated jn
early infancy because they did not make
successful and useful connections

This means that the most numerous neuron,

parvocells (parvus, Latin for small), may be able
to flourish more than usual.

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC.

 Wow - talk about word meanings!
What does this mean?
Auditory ‘Parvocellular’ Perception

What might the perceptual advantage be to have

increased numbers of auditory parvocells? So maybe not a
drummer
They would gain holistic vision?

In music, for example they often have difficulties

with musical rhythm

So, perhaps can play

But they may excel at detecting other instruments
the combination of components using chords, by ear
in a musical chord.

Bishop-Liebler, P.; Welch, G.; Huss, M.; Thomson, J.; Goswami, U. Auditory Temporal Processing Skills in Musicians with Dyslexia. Dyslexia 2014, 20, 261–279.
Lifshitz-Ben-Basat, A.; Fostick, L. Music-related abilities among readers with dyslexia. Ann. Dyslexia 2019, 69, 318–334.

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC.

OR, Perhaps Develop A Theory of General
Relativity
Famous
“It seems that parvocellular proliferation in People with
dyslexics may confer on them a distinctive Dyslexia:
metacognitive style that is holistic in an Caesar
abstract sense.” Augustus,
Leonardo da
Many seem to be able to take into account all the
Vinci Einstein,
elements of a problem or situation together and
Winston
thereby see clearly which fit together into a
recognisable pattern and which do not. Churchill, and
Steven
For example, dyslexics are notoriously good at; Spielberg.
(Stein, 2023)
● judging personality,
● taking all factors into account
simultaneously, not just one at a time, and
● coming to accurate conclusions.
Einstein was famous for his even more
This cognitive style fosters ‘lateral thinking’, originality, abstract mind set; he is said to have been able
creativity, inventiveness, and seeing every element of a to see patterns in 10 or 12 dimensions,
problem all at once. imagine their outcomes, and thus predict their
Stein, J. Theories about Developmental Dyslexia. unexpected properties
© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC.
Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 208. https://doi.org/
10.3390/brainsci1302020
So…… IN SUMMARY
Dyslexia results in problems
learning to read but there are also
advantages - the same genetic
neurobiological differences
that lead to dyslexia result in
other assets (Stein, 2023)

Positive Dyslexia There is a large, mainly

anecdotal, literature suggesting that people
with dyslexia are overrepresented compared
to ordinary brains in a specific set of
professions, namely

● aesthetic and artistic,

● entrepreneurial businesses,
● practical engineering, and
● mathematics and computing
© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC.
So, where does all this new research lead us
for effective reading instruction and
curriculum ?

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 31

 The ‘WHAT’ of
Reading Instruction & Intervention:
Classical View Simple View of Reading (SVR)
Skilled reading involves at least two major
cognitive components:
Word Recognition Language
● word recognition (including decoding and Decoding Comprehension
phonological awareness) and
Phonological Vocabulary
● language comprehension (e.g., knowledge of Morphology
vocabulary and language structures) Awareness
● together, these strands coalesce to form what is
classically known as the ‘reading rope’

Scarborough HS. Connecting early language and literacy

to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and
practice. In: Neuman SB, Dickinson DK, eds. Handbook of Skilled Reading
early literacy research. New York: Guilford Press;
2001:97–110.

32
2023 National Reading Panel study groups
continue to advocate for intensive study
● Alphabetics
Phonemic Awareness Instruction

Phonics Instruction NICHD - Eunice Kennedy Shriver National

Institute of Child Health and Human
● Fluency Development
● Comprehension https://www.nichd.nih.gov/.../nrp/documents/re
port.pdf
Vocabulary Instruction -

Text Comprehension Instruction

● Computer Technology and Reading

Instruction
As the research continues to advance:
The Active View of Reading (Duke and Cartwright,
2021) provides a comprehensive model
I. Reading difficulties have many causes within and beyond word
recognition and language comprehension.
II. Competences (and difficulties) exist beyond the simple view
classifications.
III. Word recognition and language comprehension are not entirely
separate, and important processes bridge them.
IV. Self-regulation capacities that include executive functions and
cognitive skills are also essential
Duke, N. K., & Cartwright, K. B. (2021). The science of reading progresses: Communicating advances beyond the
simple view of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56, S25-S44.
Research indicates the
important components of
reading curriculums
2022 Research Review: Cognitive Regulatory
Components of Dyslexia
Attention - (interdependent with WM)
Working Memory (WM)
Working Memory in turn limits the ability of
Students with reading difficulties show a common deficit students with reading difficulties to sustain
across several working memory measures: their attention & resist distractions (Swanson &
Jerman, 2007)
● Verbal working memory
Just out - The relation of bilingual
● Ability to bind verbal and visual aspects of words
cognitive skills to the second language
writing performance of primary grade
This limits the ability of children with reading difficulties to
students - ScienceDirect
hold information in mind while reading

Students cannot comprehend text if they are unable to retain previous content and
combine it with new information because of poor WM and attention. Writing also
depends on working memory, and that dependence may actually increase with grade.
Shen, L. & Tspali, M (2022) Reviewing Different Types of Working Memory Training on Reading Ability Among Children with Reading Difficulties
So, where does all this new research lead us
for effective reading interventions for
students with dyslexia ?

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 37

Recall the new research review of 403 Brain Studies - Interventions
need to address all SubDomain components of language and
reading

Turker, S., Kuhnke, P., Eickhoff, S. B., Caspers, S., & Hartwigsen, G. (2023, September 28). Cortical, Subcortical, and Cerebellar Contributions to Language Processing: A Meta-Analytic Review of
403
© 2023 Neuroimaging
CARNEGIE LEARNING,Experiments.
INC. Psychological Bulletin. Advance online publication. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bul0
000403
Conclusions: A multi-component approach to intervention
is key to successful reading outcomes for students with
dyslexia
For over a decade, experts like
Maryanne Wolf have recognized the
need for multi-component
remediation of developmental
reading problems
Morris, R. D., Lovett, M. W., Wolf, M., Sevcik, R. A.,
Steinbach, K. A., Frijters, J. C., & Shapiro, M. B. (2012).
Multiple-component remediation for developmental
reading disabilities: IQ, socioeconomic status, and
race as factors in remedial outcome. Journal of
learning disabilities, 45(2), 99-127.
© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC.
Reading mastery requires multiple capacities. Ergo:
Interventions must provide individualized approaches to
identify and target the unique capacities of student including:
Underlying language/reading foundational skills:
● Alphabetics - P.A. and Phonics
● Comprehension - Vocabulary and Text
● Grammar
Fluency
Underlying Cognitive Skills MAPs
● Attention
● Working memory
● Processing
● Sequencing (morphology)
 We now have brain science tools to evaluate
and predict effective outcomes of interventions

Brain Dynamics in
Atypical Reading
Chyl K, Fraga-González G, Brem S,
Jednoróg K. (2021)
Are there well-researched screening
assessments for dyslexia?
The Reading Lab (Nadine Gaab)
provides a list of available screeners:
https://www.gaablab.com/early-liter
acy-screening-tools.

They also have their own screening

literacy app:
https://www.gaablab.com/early-liter
EARLY LITERACY SCREENER
acy-screener-study-1
Can an intervention cover all of these
capacities effectively, using an
individualized approach adapting to target
unique specific skills as needed?

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 42

Reading interventions that focus on
‘processing’ of all subcomponents of language
and reading - phonology, alphabetics….
With fun characters, animated rewards, real-time progress meters
and other gamified features that engage students and adapt to their performance
As well as… emphasizing grammar and
vocabulary in comprehension

Meaningful gamification & sophisticated, personalized instruction

target foundational reading skills in an engaging way without feeling juvenile
 And with MAPs (Memory, Attention &
Processing) Cognitive Components Embedded
in the Decoding and Vocabulary Exercises

Visual Working Memory Response Inhibition Visual Left to Right Tracking Letter Sequences

https://drive.
google.com/f
ile/d/1q6rKw
SHY3FVjY7t
Yo7yiMB566
57n13CJ/vie
w?usp=shari
ng\
Outcome:
● Effective reading and cognitive capacity outcomes
in students with dyslexia after a few months—not
years (DeHaene, Reading in the Brain, pg. 260)
● with brain changes predictive of reading mastery
(Chyl K, Fraga-González G, Brem S, Jednoróg K., 2021)

Typical Reading Children Reading Impaired Before FFW Reading Impaired Children After FFW

Angular Cyrus AG

Visual Word
Gabrieli,

Form Area
2009

Left Anterior Inferior Left Medial

Frontal Gyrus IFG Temporal Gyrus
Brain Dynamics in Atypical Reading: Chyl K, Fraga-González
G, Brem S, Jednoróg K. (2021)

4
3

2
Long-Term Outcome with a
Comprehensive Individualized
Strategic Intervention

Linkedin Post 10/6/23

#Dyslexia#Teaching#Inspiration
Camille Burns, CEO at Women’s Presidents Organization

“Having dyslexia forced me to see things differently — I had to

listen more carefully to understand, and I had to put an
emphasis on relationships…. in a way, having dyslexia has
given me advantages in life.”

So this #WorldTeachersDay, I am grateful to my ….incredible

tutor who understood my strengths and patiently taught me
to read.”

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC.

 Evidence of Accelerated Achievement –
Long-Term Gains in a High-Poverty School
District in the U.S.
…in Multiple Subjects
St Mary Parish LEAP-ELA St Mary Parish LEAP-Science

Basic or Above on Science

90 90

Percent of Fourth Graders

Percent of Fourth Graders
Basic or Above on ELA
80 80

(Initial Testers)
(Initial Testers)

70 70

60 60

50 50

40 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 40 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

30 30
St Mary Parish LEAP-Math St Mary Parish LEAP-Social Studies

Basic or Above on Social Studies

8
90 90

Percent of Fourth Graders

Percent of Fourth Graders
Basic or Above on Math

0
80 80

(Initial Testers)
(Initial Testers)

7
70 70

5
60 60

7
50 50

0
40 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 40 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

6
30 30
St. Mary Parish School District State
5

5
Tracking Progress in Fast ForWord
Reports with real-time data that helps drive instruction
and guides teachers to specific needs of students

Student Reading Progress Indicator Report

52
So, instead of spending hours in tutoring away from other
class activities

Students with dyslexia can quickly build the cognitive

and learning skills needed for reading and writing, and
more importantly…….
participate effectively in other classroom and
extracurricular activities where they can excel and
show off all of their many other skills!
Eyebrow content

Fast ForWord®

Help students make fast and lasting gains!

This adaptive online reading program uses the

science of learning to catch students up to grade-level
reading—for good.

Learn more at:

https://www.carnegielearning.com/fastforword

© 2023 CARNEGIE LEARNING, INC. 54

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