CHAPTER 6:

PERFORATION
CGE578: DRILLING ENGINEERING II
Course learning outcomes
▪ Describe option for perforating
▪ Describe perforating process using shaped charge
▪ Describe the importance of charged design
Overview of Perforation
▪ Purpose of perforation: Provide communication path between the reservoir
and the wellbore, by producing holes through the wall of casing & cement and
penetrate into formation.
▪ Basic operation: a series of explosive charges are lowered into the well (either
on an electric conductor wireline cable / on tubing / drillstring) and detonated
at selective depth to produce a series of perforations.
▪ Initially, type of charges used in perorating gun were bullets but then after the
World War II, shaped charges @ jet perforator almost exclusively used due to
development of armor penetrating explosive during that time.
▪ Perforations are essentially hole in the casing: -
▪ To provide sufficient connection between wellbore & all desired reservoir
zones
▪ To allow selectivity between reservoir zones
▪ To allow efficient hydrocarbon recovery, hence maximize profitability
 Overview of Perforation
Openhole Completion Cased hole Completion
Overview of Perforation
▪ Perforation allow selectivity between intervals to:
▪ Control flow from different layers
▪ Control flow from incompatible hydrocarbon zones
▪ Incompatibility may be fluid type and / or pressure
▪ Incompatibility may be current or occur in future
▪ Control well treatments : stimulation or other well intervention
▪ Avoid weak zones (both sand and chalk formations)
▪ Perforation by pass near wellbore formation damage (drilling,
cementing)
▪ The important issue: Completion efficiency + safety + costs
Overview of Perforation
Shaped Charges
Characteristic &
Performance
1. The basic shaped charge consist of:
• A primer explosive charge
• The main explosive charge
• A charge case or container
• A conical metallic line Figure 1: Shaped Charge and Its
Important Elements

2. The primary high explosive (primer) is denoted by electrical or other signal

3. Main explosive charge is RDX (Cyclonite) type of explosive, contained within a
charge container.
• Extremely powerful in term of energy release per unit weight of explosive
& react quickly.
• The process completed after 100 – 300 µ seconds once the main charge is
detonated.
• Fast reaction time is important as it Concentrates the detonation energy of
exploding charge to a very limited target area & excludes any thermal
effects
4. Charge container which is manufactured in metal /disintegrable case (e.g.
ceramic) which will be shattered during the explosion.
• Metal case would assist in containing and directing the forces of the explosion
to a certain target area
• Target area would be diffused; depend the diameter of exit area for the
explosion from the charge case and its distance from the target area
5. To concentrate the impact of the explosive force on the target, the charge case is
designed with a conical liner. It can also be used with conical cavity or conical
cavity with metallic liner
• Flat end effect - the force of the explosion is spread over a wide area of the
target with very limited penetration
• Usage of unlined conical cavity effect - increase the force of the explosion
provides greater penetration of target
• Lined cavity effect - assists in concentrating the explosive force of charge thus
provides maximum penetration of the target

Figure 2: Type of Conical Liner and the effect on

perforated hole
Shaped charges (steel case)
Mechanisms of
Explosion
1. The detonation is actuated from surface (either by electrical current in the case of
wireline conveyed gun or by mechanical/hydraulic/electrical – if gun conveyed on
tubing).
2. The primer charge is detonated thus fires the main charge.
3. On detonation main charge, detonation wave is produced and move the apex of the
charge container at a speed 30,000 ft. /sec. and exert pressure up 2 - 4 x 106 psi against
the liner, which then started to start deform.

Figure 3:Detonation process and deformation of the conical liner

4. Material of the liner on the outside flows towards the center of the cone to form a jet
of fluidized material.
5. Material of the liner on the outside flows towards the center of the cone to form a jet
of fluidized material.
6. Material of the cone initially in contact with explosive charge collapses inwards towards
of the central of the cone to produce slug / tail of fluidized material, and will lag behind
the jet.
7. Jet leaving the charge has a velocity of 20, 000 ft./sec. & impact pressure on
the casing of 5 x 106 psi, causing the material in the formation compacted and
move into the formation ahead of jet as the tunnel is created through casing &
cement also formation.
8. The material of slug will follow the jet into the perforation, and will be
deposited thus giving rise to plugging of the perforation.
9. This process take place instantaneously since no effects take place, no burning
occurs and penetration is due solely to the extremely high impact force
exerted on the target by jet. Penetration process is controlled to a large extent
by the characteristics of a jet moving at very high velocity which impacts on
the target material.

Figure 4: Perforating jet characteristic and properties at impact

of the target
Figure 5: Shaped charge detonation
Crush Zone/Dirty Perforation
▪ The impact of perforation jet upon the formation it penetrates is one of
compaction of the rock which it encounters
▪ Since rock is not vaporized, it will pushed back into the formation around
perforation tunnel created
▪ Material in formation will be crushed and compacted.
▪ Consequent → perforation tunnel and surrounding formations will thus
consist of several zones in which in which the natural state of reservoir rock
has been changed
▪ Zone immediately adjacent to the perforation tunnel will consist compacted
& crushed formation grains and will possess a permeability substantially
lower than the original reservoir permeability.
▪ Adjacent to this layer will be a series of layers in which the rock will have
been overstressed → a combination of micro-fractures and grain compaction
and breakage.
Crush Zone/Dirty Perforation
▪ These layer referred to as the crushed zone will extend to a radial
depth of the order of ½ inch around the perforation tunnel wall.
▪ Permeability has been estimated to be 20 % of the original
permeability.

Figure 6: Crushed zone and compaction regions around the

perforation tunnel
Figure 7: Perforation plugging prior to flow caused by solid
invasion from the fluid in the wellbore
Crush Zone/Dirty Perforation
▪ The properties and extent of the crushed zone will depend upon a
number of factors;
▪ Size of perforation
▪ Casing wall thickness and strength
▪ Cement sheath thickness and strength
▪ Grain composition, size and shape of the formation rock
▪ Stress conditions in the near wellbore region
▪ Proximity of nearest perforation in the same vertical plane
Clean perforation
Damaged perforation (crushed zone after creation)
Factors Influencing
Charge
Performance
1. Gun size/explosive charge size
• Size of perforating gun will dictate the maximum explosive load that can
accommodate in the charges
• Penetration and the diameter of the entrance hole will increase as the gun
diameter increase – size explosive charge also increase
2. Wellbore fluid pressure, temperature and density
• Fluid in wellbore were very dense – reduce jet velocity & damage the
physical performance
• The thickness of the fluid film through moving jet is normally small
• Charge size is small or gun clearance is large – penetration could be reduce
• Elevated well temperatures – lead to significant degradation of the charges
with consequence poor performance
3. Gun clearance
• Distance between OD of gun and casing inner wall
• Control perforation length
4. Compressive strength of formation rock
• Compressive strength of the rock to have a large effect on the physical
performance of jet perforators
• Perforation obtained is inversely proportional to rock compressive strength
(Figure 6)

Figure 8: Penetration reduction produced by high compressive

strength of the formation rock
5. Strength of casing and radial support of cement sheath
• If the casing to be perforated is constructed from high grade tensile steel – it
will absorb more energy while being perforated hence reduce overall length
of the perforation
• As the number of perforations shot into casing increases – the structural
integrity of casing is reduced
• When the cement sheath is incomplete - there is a possibility of casing
rupture as perforating the casing when there no cement exist behind the
casing
Perforating Gun
System
Key Features in Classifying
Perforating Operation
1) Whether the gun will be run on wireline or be conveyed on tubing
or a drill string
2) Whether the pressure in the wellbore at the time of perforating will
be less than reservoir pressure (underbalanced condition) or be
greater than reservoir pressure (overbalanced condition)
3) Retrieveability to surface of gun and charge carries after perforation
completed
4) Whether the perforating will be carried out prior to, or after
running the final completion string.
Wireline Conveyed Through
Tubing Guns
▪ Gun can be run in after well is mechanically complete and the the
equipment pressure tested.
▪ The guns are available in range of diameters from 1-3/8” to 3-1/2”
with smaller chargers; can be either from retrievable, semi-
expendable and fully expendable perforating guns.
▪ Underbalance perforating possible since completion (Tubing, Packers
etc.) already in place.
▪ Underbalance only achievable while running first gun when multiple
perforating runs required.
▪ Guns may be damaged or blown up the wellbore if too high an
under-balance pressure (drawdown) is used
▪ Perforate lower interval first .
Wireline Conveyed Through
Casing Guns
▪ Constrained by two factors:-
1) Gun diameter must be less than the casing inside diameter – thus need to use large
diameter gun (hence large charges with larger explosive loads, and also higher shot
densities). Common diameter guns size in a range of 3-3/8” – 5”.

2) The length of gun is defined by either:

◦ weight at which can safely suspended by the wireline
◦ or length of lubricator into which the gun will be retrieved (after perforating in
underbalanced conditions.

▪ Heavy (7m typical maximum length).

▪ Perforating long intervals is time consuming.

▪ Cause minimum casing damage.

▪ Long intervals – longer lengths.

▪ Normally used prior well completion.

Tubing Conveyed Perforating
(TCP) Gun
▪ Involves the assembly of a perforating gun on the end of drill pipe
string, production tubing or coiled tubing. Thus; can be employed
bye either:-
▪ The running guns with a conventional drill stem test assembly or
▪ The running gun attached to the base of completion string tailpipe below packer.
▪ Running and retrieving the gun on coiled tubing.
▪ Its lowering and positioning in the wellbore prior to detonation.
▪ After detonation, the gun can either be pulled from the well or
detached to drop into the wellbore sump below the perforated
interval.
▪ Firing options: mechanical firing, hydromechanical or wiring firing.
 Perforation techniques

a) Through-casing perforation (Conventional) – wireline conveyed

b) Through tubing perforation (TTP) – wireline conveyed
c) Tubing-conveyed perforation (TCP) – tubing conveyed
a)

b)

a) Casing guns
b) Through-tubing guns
Key Features in Classifying the
Perforating Guns
Perforating guns are vary according to the extent to which they are
expendable:-
(1) Retrievable @ hollow carrier
• The individual charges are fitted to
a carrying strip & connected to a
primer or detonation cord
• Carrier strip with charges is then
inserted into a steel carrier tube
which sealed prior to running
downhole on wireline
• Big guns, high shot density, multi
phased, extreme conditions
• Can be run in longer lengths
Key Features in Classifying the
Perforating Guns
(2) Fully expandable
• The gun will self-destruct on detonation, thus only the connectors and
depth correlation equipment will be retrieved from well.
• The number of chargers are strung together; not rigid carrier strip or tube is
used.
• Its charges are designed such that the charge case will
fragment/disintegrate on detonation
• Material used must be friable – ceramic /aluminium, but still robust to
protect charges during handling operation
• The length of gun is not limited by height availability or lubricator size sine
the assembled gun is not rigid.
• Small OD guns for through tubing applications
Key Features in Classifying the
Perforating Guns
(3) Semi expandable
• Designed to offer the advantages of gun durability & robustness
• Exist with hollow carrier & charge disintegration of fully expendable guns
• Guns are designed such that the charges which are expandable and
mounted on a carrier strip for running into the wellbore
Operational
Considerations
1. Surface Pressure Equipment
◦ Majority of perforating operations are conducted under conditions of under
balanced pressure
2. Safety Procedure
◦ Concern – accidental detonation by a stray electrical current of a perforating
gun using an electrical detonation system
◦ Radio silence to be observed on the rig and adjacent to the location
◦ No welding
◦ No crane operation
◦ No high amperage lights in the drill floor vicinity
◦ Shut down temporarily cathodic protection system if working in offshore
◦ Shutdown safety procedure should be observed in retrieving the gun until
the gun been checked to ensure that all the charges have fired
3. Gun length/perforated interval
◦ Length of gun which can be used in the case of retrievable or semi
expandable guns is limited by the lubricator length
◦ Gun will be between 15 – 40 ft., if required perforated interval is larger than
this multiple trips with perforating gun will be necessary
4. Perforating multiple zones
◦ If the zones are large, they will normally be perforated separately with
individual guns
5. Temperature effects
◦ Explosive charges can spontaneously detonate if exposed to high
temperature
◦ e.g. RDX explosive will detonate at 340 oF
Scallop Guns
THE END