Carissa

Daniel

3:2

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Volcanoes

Table of Contents
Topic Page

What is a Volcano? ………………………………………………………………………………………… 2

What causes Volcanoes to erupt? …………………………………………………………………. 3

Types of Volcanoes ………………………………………………………………………………………… 5

Effects of Volcanoes ……………………………………………………………………………………… 8

Regional and International ………………………………………………………………………….. 11

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The Ring of Fire ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 13

References …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14

What is a
Volcano?
Volcanoes are vents in the crust of Earth or another planet or satellite, from which issue
eruptions of molten rock, hot rock fragments, hot vapors and gases. Volcanoes can also be found
under water, on land and on other planets in space or their moons. Volcanoes are a result of
major tectonic activity beneath the earth’s crust.
On land:

Under water:

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Other planets or their moons:

What causes Volcanoes to erupt

When a part of the earth's upper mantle or
lower crust melts, magma forms. A volcano
is essentially an opening or a vent through
which this magma and the dissolved gases
it contains are discharged. Although there
are several factors triggering a volcanic
eruption, three predominate are:
 the buoyancy of the magma
 the pressure from the exsolved gases
in the magma

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  the injection of a new batch of magma into an already filled magma chamber

Buoyancy of
Magma:
As rock inside
the earth melts, its
mass remains the
same while its
volume increases,
producing a melt
that is less dense
than the
surrounding rock.
This lighter
magma then rises toward the surface by virtue of its buoyancy. If the density of the
magma between the zone of its generation and the surface is less than that of the
surrounding and overlying rocks, the magma reaches the surface and erupts.
Pressure from gasses in magma:
Magmas of so-called andesitic and rhyolitic compositions also contain
dissolved volatiles such as water, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. Experiments
have shown that the amount of a dissolved gas in magma (its solubility) at
atmospheric pressure is zero, but rises with increasing pressure.
Injection of New magma:
The third process that causes volcanic eruptions is an injection of new magma
into a chamber that is already filled with magma of similar or different
composition. This injection forces some of the magma in the chamber to move up
in the conduit and erupt at the surface.

Erupting Volcano:

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Can scientist predict an eruption?
Although volcanologists are well aware of these three processes, they cannot yet predict a
volcanic eruption. But they have made significant advances in forecasting volcanic
eruptions. Forecasting involves probable character and time of an eruption in a monitored
volcano. The character of an eruption is based on the prehistoric and historic record of the
volcano in question and its volcanic products. Determining the timing of an eruption in a
monitored volcano depends on measuring a number of parameters, including, but not
limited to, seismic activity at the volcano (especially depth and frequency of volcanic
earthquakes), ground deformations (determined using a tiltmeter and/or GPS, and satellite
interferometry), and gas emissions (sampling the amount of sulfur dioxide gas emitted by
correlation spectrometer, or COSPEC). 

Types of volcanoes

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There are many types of volcanic forms and terms.  Some general terms that may be a
descriptive term pertaining to shape with no implication of size, rock type, or genesis;
and explosion crater, a large circular, elongate, or horseshoe-shaped excavation with
ejected debris on its rim or flanks. 

Active, Dormant and Extinct Volcanoes

Active:
An active volcano is one that erupts regularly, such as the Soufriere Hills volcano in
Montserrat. Active volcanoes have a recent history of eruptions and they are likely to
erupt again.
Dormant:
A dormant volcano is one that has not been active for a very long time (sometimes
hundreds of years), except for very occasional mineral activity such as the non-explosive
emission of smoke and mud. However, such volcanoes have had the potential to erupt
again.an example of a dormant volcano is the Mt Liamuiga, St Kitts.
Extinct:
An extinct volcano has had no activity for the past 10000 years as or more and is not
expected to be active again. One extinct volcano is the Ranokau on Easter Island, Chile.

Categories of volcanoes
There are many categories of volcanoes but there are 4 major types. Geologists
generally group volcanoes into four main kinds of Volcanoes which are:
 cinder cones
 composite volcanoes
 shield volcanoes
 lava domes.

Cinder Cones:
Cinder cones are the simplest type of volcano. They are built from particles and blobs of
congealed lava ejected from a single vent. As the gas-charged lava is blown violently into
the air, it breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as cinders around the vent to
form a circular or oval cone. Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit
and rarely rise more than a thousand feet or so above their surroundings.
Composite Volcanoes:
Some of the Earth's grandest mountains are composite volcanoes, sometimes
called stratovolcanoes. They are typically steep-sided, symmetrical cones of large
dimension built of alternating layers of lava flows, volcanic ash, cinders, blocks and

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bombs and may rise as much as 8,000 feet above their bases. Some of the most
conspicuous and beautiful mountains in the world are composite volcanoes, including
Mount Fuji in Japan.
Shield volcanoes:
Shield volcanoes are built almost entirely of fluid lava flows. Flow after flow pours
out in all directions from a central summit vent, or group of vents, building a broad,
gently sloping cone of flat, domical shape, with a profile much like that of a warrior's
shield. They are built up slowly by the accretion of thousands of highly fluid lava
flows called basalt lava that spread widely over great distances, and then cool as thin,
gently dipping sheets. Lavas also commonly erupt from vents along fractures (rift
zones) that develop on the flanks of the cone. Some of the largest volcanoes in the
world are shield volcanoes.
Lava Domes:
Lava domes are formed by relatively small, bulbous masses of lava too viscous to
flow any great distance; consequently, on extrusion, the lava piles over and around its
vent. A dome grows largely by expansion from within. As it grows its outer surface
cools and hardens, then shatters, spilling loose fragments down its sides. Some domes
form craggy knobs or spines over the volcanic vent, whereas others form short, steep-
sided lava flows known as "coulees." Volcanic domes commonly occur within the
craters or on the flanks of large composite volcanoes.

Active volcano: Dormant volcano:

Soufriere Hills volcano, Montserrat

Mt Liamuiga, St Kitts
Extinct volcano:
Cinder Cones:

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Ranokau on Easter Island, Chile

Composite Volcanoes:

Shield volcano: Lava Domes:

Effects of Volcanoes
Volcanoes have a large effect on their locality. They produce ash, lava, volcanic
bombs, pyroclastic flows and lahars. Ash from large volcanoes has been known to
affect global climates. The effects of volcanoes can be both positive and negative.

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Negative effects
The list of hazards associated with volcanic eruptions is long and
varied: lava flows, explosions, toxic gas clouds, ash falls, pyroclastic
flows, avalanches, tsunamis, and mudflows. In addition to these immediate
dangers, volcanic activity produces secondary effects such as property damage,
crop loss, and perhaps changes to weather and climate.

 Lava flows
lava flows can and will destroy anything in its path, which means
that it can damage or completely destroy buildings, its surrounding
animal habitats, ecosystems, vegetation, and any form of life.
 Toxic gasses and ashes
the smoke and ashes from the volcano contaminates the oxygen
making it hard to breathe and can stifle people and animals to death
by filling their lungs with the toxic gasses and smoke.
 Avalanches
 Avalanches of rock and ice also are common on active volcanoes.
They may occur with or without an eruption. Those without an
eruption are often triggered by earthquakes, by weakening of rock
into clay by hydrothermal activity, or by heavy rainfall or snowfall.
Those associated with eruptions are sometimes caused by
oversteepening of a volcano’s flank by intrusion of a shallow body
of magma within or just beneath the volcanic cone.
 Tsunamis
A caldera collapse that is in part or entirely submarine usually
generates a tsunami. The larger and more rapid the collapse, the
larger the tsunami. Tsunamis also can be caused by avalanches or
large pyroclastic flows rapidly entering the sea on the flank of a
volcano.

An example of the negative effects of volcanoes is Mount Vesuvius, a

volcano near the Bay of Naples in Italy in the ancient Roman
city of Pompeii
An almost exactly accurate move was made with the events of
the eruption: 2014 film Pompeii

Trailor for movie:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t6TRwfxDICM

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 Positive Effects

While the negative effects of volcanic eruptions are immediate, positive effects are
much more long term.

 New land
when lava flows and other volcanic materials settle over extended periods of
time without further volcanic activity this can result in the creation of new
areas of land
 Fertile soils
the soils in areas covered in the past by volcanic materials are usually very
fertile because they contain nutrients such as basalt and iron.
 Generation of Energy
volcanic activity is a major source of geothermal energy, that is heat-
generated energy that is stored in the earth. A number of countries around
the world have tapped in to this energy for producing electricity.
 Thermal springs (hot springs) and spas
these are natural features often found in volcanic areas. They contain
mineral waters used as a source of mineral drinking water and as a location
for natural spas.

Thermal springs and spas:

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 Iceland’s blue lagoon:

Lava flow:

Regional and International

Volcanoes
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Regional Volcanos
(the Caribbean)
Volcanoes are the building blocks for many Caribbean islands. There are 19 active
volcanoes in the Caribbean, according to the University of the West Indies (UWI)
Seismic Centre. These towering natural wonders can be found on islands as far north as
Hispaniola to Grenada in the south.

One of the many volcanoes in the Caribbean region is: Soufrière Hills Volcano,
Monserrat
Soufrière Hills volcano is a complex stratovolcano that forms the northern half of the
small Island of Montserrat in the British Lesser Antilles. After 350 years of quiet, it came
back into life in 1995 and started to build a new lava dome. The eruption alternated
between less or more intense phases including rapid dome growth with associated
powerful vulcanian explosions and large pyroclastic flows from dome collapse.The
eruption, in particular the effects of pyroclastic flows and lahars caused by heavy rains
have destroyed a large part of the island, including the capital Plymouth, and the
population has been relocated to the northern part of the island and has been fighting,
with the help of the UK government, to maintain life on the island.One of the world's
most modern volcano observatories, the MVO, has been installed on the island and while
largely unknown prior to 1995, Soufrière Hills volcano now counts as one of the best
monitored active volcanoes world-wide.

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International Volcanoes (outside of the Caribbean region)
Eyjafjallajökull Iceland:
In April 2010, Eyjafjallajökull, one of islands many volcanoes, caused merry hell
for the aviation industry. Hundreds of flights were cancelled and thousands of
travelers stranded due to ash clouds. By October, the eruption was officially
declared over, though there’s no saying when it might happen again. In May 2011,
a nearby volcano called Grímsvötn followed suit…watch this space. A lot of
activity occurred in Eyjafjallajökull at the beginning of the year 2010.  In the wake
of heavy landslides, and earthquake activity, there was a small effusive in the
northern part of Fimmvörðuháls. That eruption started on the 20th of March and
lasted 23 days.Then the eruption took a break for two and a half days before
starting again on the 14th of April on summit top of Eyjafjallajökull stratovolcano
itself. Within the first days, the glacier had melted substantially and a few glaciers
runs had occurred. Along with it came clouds of ash which reached all the way to
central Europe.

The Ring of Fire

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The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a path along the
Pacific Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Its
length is approximately 40,000 kilometers (24,900 miles). It traces boundaries
between several tectonic plates—including the Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos,
Indian-Australian, Nazca, North American, and Philippine Plates.
Seventy-five percent of Earth’s volcanoes—more than 450 volcanoes—are located
along the Ring of Fire. Ninety percent of Earth’s earthquakes occur along its path,
including the planet’s most violent and dramatic seismic events.
The abundance of volcanoes and earthquakes along the Ring of Fire is caused by
the amount of movement of tectonic plates in the area. Along much of the Ring of
Fire, plates overlap at convergent boundaries called subduction zones. That is, the
plate that is underneath is pushed down, or subducted, by the plate above. As rock
is subducted, it melts and becomes magma. The abundance of magma so near to
Earth’s surface gives rise to conditions ripe for volcanic activity. A significant
exception is the border between the Pacific and North American Plates. This
stretch of the Ring of Fire is a transform boundary, where plates move sideways
past one another. This type of boundary generates a large number of earthquakes as
tension in Earth’s crust builds up and is released.

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 References
INTERNET:

https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/types.html#:~:text=Geologists%20generally
%20group%20volcanoes%20into,shield%20volcanoes%2C%20and%20lava
%20domes.

https://www.britannica.com/science/volcano

https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/pompeii

https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/types.html#:~:text=Geologists%20generally
%20group%20volcanoes%20into,shield%20volcanoes%2C%20and%20lava
%20domes.

https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/volcanoes2/en/

https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/volcanoes/en/

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/volcanoes/

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z8p9j6f/revision/3

https://www.looptt.com/content/volcanoes-caribbean-5

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/ring-fire/

BOOK:
NAME OF BOOK: Social Sciences My Self, My World Student book 3
AUTHORS: Anthony Luengo, Clare Eastland
PAGES: (155, 167-171)

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