Steam Generators

 High pressure
 Forced circulation
 Super critical pressure boiler
 Testing of Boiler
 Heat balance sheet-problem involving
combustion
 What is boiler & it’s types ?
• A boiler is a steel pressure vessel in which water under pressure
is converted into steam by the application of combustion.
• There are two types:
– Fire tube boilers
( Cornish, Cochran, Locomotive, Lancashire, Scotish marine)
• Hot flue gases flow inside tubes that are submerged in water within a shell.
• Pressures up to about 10 bar
– Water tube boilers
(Stirling, Babcock and Wilcox, Lamont, Benson, Loeffler, Velox)
• Water flow inside tubes that Hot flue gasses flow outside the tube.
• They are high pressure boilers. May be 42 bar and 250 bar.
 High Pressure Boiler
• Lamont Boiler
• Benson Boiler
• Loeffler boiler
• Velox Boiler
 Lamont Boiler
• It is developed in 1925 by Walter
Douglas La-Mont. The name of this
boiler also kept because of the inventor’s
name.
• The Lamont Boiler is a water boiler and
working pressure is above 150 bar. So as
it works above 150 bar, therefore the
production of steam is high 5000 kg per
hour.
• The Lamont boiler design is flexible.
• In Lamont Boiler the circulating pump is
used to circulate the water into the
furnace.
• The main advantage of this boiler is that
it is very easy to start (No problem with
the starting).
 Loeffler boiler
• It is the extent of Lamont Boiler.
• The Loeffler boiler is also a water tube and
the working pressure is around 100 bar
which is high pressure.
• The Loeffler boiler produces high steam at
a rate of 90 to 100 tonnes per hour.
• The major parts of the Loeffler boiler are
Economiser, Steam circulating pump or
centrifugal pump, Radiant super-heater,
Evaporating drum, Convection super-
heater, and Mixing nozzle.
• The major disadvantage of Loffler boiler
bubble formation is that reduces the heat
transfer rate.
• It also has overheating problems due to salt
deposits.
• To overcome these problems, we do
preventing the flow of water in the tubes.
 Velox Boiler
• Volex boiler is based on the principle “when the velocity of gas
becomes more than the velocity of sound, the transmission of heat by
gas becomes much higher as compared to heat transmission of heat at
sub-sonic speed, i.e. lower than the speed of sound”.
• In a Velox boiler velocity of the gas is higher than the velocity of
sound.
• The advantage of this theory is taken to effect the large heat transfer
from a smaller surface area in this boiler, i.e. In this boiler heat transfer
rate or steam generation rate can be increased without increasing the
size of the boiler.
• This boiler makes use of pressurised combustion.
• The gas turbine drives the axial flow compressor which raises the
incoming air from atmosphere pressure to furnace pressure.
• The combustion gases after heating the water and steam flow through
the gas turbine to the atmosphere.
• The feed water after passing through the economiser is pumped by a
water circulating pump to the tube evaporating section.
• Steam separated in steam separating section flows to the super-heater,
from there it moves to the prime mover.
 Force Circulation
• Forced circulation is a term used in the context of boilers and refers to a method of
circulating water or other fluids through the boiler system.
• In a forced circulation system, a pump is used to continuously circulate the fluid
through the boiler and the connected heat exchangers or other components.
• In a forced circulation system, the pump creates a pressure difference that pushes
the fluid through the system, allowing for greater control of the flow rate and
temperature.
• This can be especially useful in high-pressure boilers or in applications where a
consistent flow rate is required.
• This is in contrast to a natural circulation system, where the fluid is circulated
solely by the natural buoyancy and density differences between the hot and cold
fluids.
• Forced circulation systems can also be more efficient than natural circulation
systems because they allow for more precise control of the fluid temperature and
flow rate, which can lead to better heat transfer and faster heating or cooling times.
 Benson Boiler (Super critical boiler)
• The Benson boiler is developed in the
year 1922 by Mark Benson.
• This is a high-pressure water tube boiler.
• This is a supercritical boiler
(Supercritical means There is no bubble
formed).
• This Benson boiler also works on critical
pressure that means high pressure and
there is no drum used here.
• This boiler works above the critical
pressure which are 225 bar and can work
up to 350 bar pressure and the water
which is entered into the system is
directly converted into steam because of
Latent Heat.
• The efficiency of the Benson boiler is
good.
 Sulzer Once though Boiler or Monotube Boiler
• A supercritical pressure boiler is a type of boiler that operates at pressures above the
critical temperature and pressure at which the liquid and gaseous phases of a substance
become indistinguishable from each other.
• For water, the critical temperature is 374°C (705°F) and 221 bar (22.1 MPa) (3,208 psi)
of pressure.
• Supercritical pressure boilers are designed to operate above this critical point, typically at
pressures between 22.1 MPa and 31.2 MPa (3,208 psi to 4,525 psi) and temperatures of
around 565°C (1,049°F) or higher.
• At these pressures and temperatures, water exists as a single-phase, homogenous fluid
that exhibits unique properties such as high thermal conductivity, low viscosity, and
excellent heat transfer characteristics.
• One of the primary advantages of supercritical pressure boilers is their high thermal
efficiency, which is a measure of how effectively the boiler converts the energy in the
fuel into usable heat.
 Supercritical pressure boilers can achieve efficiencies of up to 45%, which is
significantly higher than conventional subcritical boilers.
 This higher efficiency translates into lower fuel consumption and reduced greenhouse
gas emissions, making them an attractive option for power generation.
 Supercritical pressure boilers are commonly used in large-scale power plants and
industrial applications, particularly in countries where energy demand is high and
environmental regulations are stringent.
 However, they are also more complex and expensive to build and maintain than
conventional boilers, which can limit their widespread adoption in some regions.
The main difference between Sulzer once-through boilers and
Benson boilers lies in their design and construction.
• The Sulzer once-through boiler uses a vertical tube design, where the water flows
through a series of vertically arranged tubes that are heated by the combustion gases.
• The water enters the boiler at the bottom and flows upward through the tubes, where it
is converted into steam.
• This design allows for a more efficient heat transfer and faster steam generation. Sulzer
boilers also have a smaller footprint, making them easier to install in tight spaces.

• The Benson boiler, on the other hand, uses a spiral-wound water wall design.
• The water flows through a continuous spiral tube, which is wound around the furnace
walls.
• This design allows for a more compact boiler and eliminates the need for a steam drum
or circulating pump.
• Benson boilers also have a more uniform temperature distribution, which reduces the
risk of thermal stresses and fatigue.

• Another difference between the two boilers is the method of controlling steam
temperature, In Sulzer boilers, the steam temperature is controlled by varying the feed
water flow rate, while in Benson boilers, it is controlled by varying the boiler pressure.
• However, the choice between the two types of boilers depends on various factors, such
as the specific application, the fuel used, and the desired efficiency and power output.
 Testing of boiler
Testing of boilers is an important process that is carried out to ensure the safety,
efficiency,
and reliability of the boiler. Some of the common tests performed on boilers include:
• Hydrostatic test: This is a pressure test in which the boiler is filled with water and
pressurized to a level that is higher than its operating pressure. This test is carried out to
check for leaks and verify the structural integrity of the boiler.
• Non-destructive testing (NDT): NDT is a method of testing the boiler without causing
damage to its components. Some common NDT techniques used to test boilers include
ultrasonic testing, radiography, and magnetic particle testing.
• Combustion efficiency test: This test is carried out to measure the efficiency of the
boiler in converting the energy in the fuel into usable heat. This involves measuring the
amount of fuel and air used by the boiler, as well as the temperature and composition of
the exhaust gases.
• Water quality testing: This involves analyzing the chemical and physical properties of
the water used in the boiler to ensure that it is of the correct quality and free from
contaminants that could damage the boiler or affect its efficiency.
• Boiler safety valve testing: The safety valves of the boiler are tested to ensure that they
function correctly and can release excess pressure in the event of an emergency.
• Electrical testing: The electrical components of the boiler, such as the controls, sensors,
and safety devices, are tested to ensure that they function correctly and are not damaged.
 Heat balance sheet-problems involving
combustion
• Heat balance sheets are used to determine the amount of heat transferred to and from
various components in a combustion-based boiler system.
• The heat balance sheet takes into account the amount of fuel burned, the air and fuel
flow rates, and the heat transfer rates to calculate the efficiency of the boiler system.

1. The heat loss in dry flue gases can be calculated using the following formula:
Heat loss in dry flue gases/kg of fuel = We x Cp x (tf - tb)
where: We = weight of dry flue gases per kg of fuel
Cp = mean specific heat of dry exhaust gases
tf = temperature of flue gases leaving chimney
tb = temperature of the boiler room (ambient air temp.)
• The weight of dry flue gases per kg of fuel (We) can be calculated using the following formula:
We = (mass of air supplied / mass of fuel burnt) x (1 - moisture content in fuel)

• The mean specific heat of dry exhaust gases (Cp) can be calculated using the following formula:
Cp = (0.24 + 0.00017 x tf) kcal/kg°C
where 0.24 is the specific heat of flue gases at room temperature and 0.00017 is the specific heat
of flue gases per degree Celsius.
2. The heat loss in moisture present in the fuel can be calculated using the following formula:
Heat loss due to moisture in fuel/kg of fuel =

where: w = weight of moisture per kg of fuel

Cp = mean specific heat of superheated steam in exhaust gases
tf = temperature of flue gases leaving chimney
tb = temperature of the boiler room
hb = sensible heat of water at boiler room temperature

• The weight of moisture per kg of fuel (w) can be calculated using the following formula:
w = moisture content in fuel / (100 - moisture content in fuel) x 1000
• The sensible heat of water at the boiler room temperature (hb) can be calculated using the following
formula:
hb = w x (tw - tb) x 1
where :- tw is the temperature of the water and 1 is the specific heat of water
3. Heat lost to steam formed by combustion of hydrogen/kg of fuel
Let, H2 = weight of hydrogen present per kg of fuel.
Weight of Steam (w) = 9H2
Then the heat lost to steam/kg of fuel:- w * (Cpw * (Tfg - Tin) + hfg)
where: w is the weight of hydrogen in kg per kg of fuel
Cpw is the specific heat of water vapor in J/kg*K
Tfg is the flue gas temperature in Kelvin
Tin is the inlet air temperature in Kelvin
hfg is the latent heat of vaporization of water in J/kg
4. Heat loss due to unburnt carbon is ash pit
The heat loss due to unburnt carbon per kg of fuel :- w1 * C1
Where, w1 = Weight of carbon in ash pit per kg of fuel.
C1 = Calorific value of carbon.
5. Heat loss due to incomplete combustion of carbon to carbon monoxide (CO)
• This loss occurs in the boiler due to insufficient air supply.
• Heat loss due to incomplete combustion :- w2 * C2
where, w2 = weight of carbon monoxide in flue gas per kg of fuel, and
C2 = Calorific value of carbon monoxide

Heat loss due to radiation

• There is no direct method for finding the beat lost due to radiation. This loss is calculated by
subtracting the heat used in increasing steam and heat losses from the heat supplied.
 Heat Balance Sheet
• A heat balance sheet shows the complete account of heat supplied by 1 kg of dry fuel and
heat consumed.
• The heat supplied is used for increasing the steam and the remaining heat is lost. We know that
heat used in increasing steam/kg of fuel:-
we * (H – h1)
 2nd Unit
Boiler draught

• Natural draught
• Artificial draught and fan
• Height of chimney
 What is Boiler Draught and its type
• Boiler draught is the difference between the pressure inside the
boiler and the pressure in the surroundings, which causes the air to
flow through the boiler to supply Fresh air for combustion and to
remove the exhaust gases through chimney to surrounding.

• There are two types of draught systems in boiler:

a. Natural draught
b. Artificial draught
i. Mechanical Draught:- forced draught, Induced Draught, Balanced
ii. Steam Jet draught
 Natural draught

• In a natural draught system, the movement of air is due to the difference in

the weight of the column of hot gases inside the chimney compared to the
weight of an equivalent column of cooler air outside.
• The chimney height plays an important role in natural draught, as the taller
the chimney, the greater the draught produced.
• Natural draught has the advantage of being simple and low-cost, as it does
not require any additional equipment.
• However, it has some disadvantages, such as the requirement for a tall
chimney, which may not always be possible, and the draught produced can
be affected by weather conditions.
 Artificial draught and Fans
• Artificial Draught: In an artificial draught system, the movement of air is created by
mechanical means, such as a fan or blower.
• There are two main types of artificial draught systems:
1. Forced draught
2. Induced draught.
• Forced Draught: In a forced draught system, a fan or blower is used to force air into
the boiler.
• This increases the pressure inside the boiler and helps to create a positive pressure
difference, which allows for better control over the flow of air and fuel.
• Induced Draught: In an induced draught system, a fan or blower is used to draw air
out of the boiler.
• This decreases the pressure inside the boiler, creating a negative pressure difference,
which pulls air and fuel into the boiler.
• Balanced Draught: A balanced draught is a combination of forced and induced
draught.
• The forced draught supplied sufficient air in the boiler furnace for proper and complete
combustion of fuel. The induced draught fan removes the gases from furnace and
maintaining the pressure in the furnace below the atmospheric pressure.
• Artificial draught systems have the advantage of providing greater
control over the flow of air and fuel, which can result in better
combustion efficiency.
• They also allow for flexibility in boiler design and can be used where
natural draught is not feasible. However, they are more expensive to
install and maintain than natural draught systems.
• In an artificial draught system, the size of the fan required depends on
the same factors that affect the chimney height.
• The fan must be able to supply enough air to meet the combustion
requirements of the boiler and to create the necessary draught pressure.
• The size of the fan required may also depend on the type of artificial
draught system being used, whether it is a forced draught system or an
induced draught system.
Steam Jet draught: In steam jet draught the exhausted steam of turbine or steam
engine use for producing draught.
In this draught the steam nozzle located near the smoke box induced the flow of
gases through the tubes, ash pit and grate.
The use of steam jet draught requires careful control and monitoring to ensure safe
and efficient operation. It is generally used in locomotive boiler.
It is important to maintain the proper balance of steam and air to prevent overheating
and other hazards.
 Height of chimney
• The height of a chimney is an important factor in the design of a
combustion system, such as a boiler or a furnace.
• The main purpose of a chimney is to provide a means of exhausting the
products of combustion from the combustion chamber to the outside
atmosphere. The height of the chimney plays a critical role in this
process.
• The height of a chimney is determined by several factors, including the
size of the combustion system, the type of fuel being burned, and the
surrounding environment.
• In general, a taller chimney will provide better draft and more effective
exhaust of the products of combustion.
• The draft is the force that pulls air and the products of combustion up
and out of the chimney.
• It is created by the difference in pressure between the inside of the
chimney and the outside atmosphere.
• A tall chimney creates a greater pressure differential and a stronger
draft, which can improve the efficiency of the combustion process by
providing a more complete burn and reducing the amount of pollutants
released into the environment.
• In addition to the draft, the height of the chimney can also impact the
dispersion of pollutants into the environment.
• A taller chimney will allow the products of combustion to be released
at a higher altitude, which can help to disperse them over a wider area
and reduce their impact on the surrounding environment.
• The design of a chimney is a complex process that takes into account
many factors, including the height, diameter, and shape of the chimney.
• Engineers and architects work together to design a chimney that will
meet the needs of the combustion system while minimizing the impact
on the environment.
• In a natural draught system, the height of the chimney is an important
factor in creating the required draught.
• As a general rule, the chimney should be at least 10-12 meters tall to
create the necessary draught.
• However, the actual height required may vary depending on the
specific design of the boiler and the fuel being used.
Problem:- To calculate the height of chimney
required to produce a draft equivalent to 1.6
cm of water, if the flue gas temp. is 2600C &
ambient temp. is 240C and minimum amount
of air/kg of fuel is 18kg.