Forest Road Construction

Forest Engineering
Outline
• Introduction
• Forest Road
• Costing consideration
• Forest Road Construction
• Forest Road Trees Clearance
• Forest Road Drainage
• Forest Road Formation Methods
• guidelines for construction
• Forest road completion
• Forest road construction problems
• Forest roads are mostly
constructed for harvesting
purposes.
• The cost of extraction is
in:uenced by a number of factors
but the two greatest are probably
the road density and the type of
extraction machinery that will
likely be used.

Forest Roads
Forest Roads
• Optimum road density -
dependant on the type of
extraction (cable, forwarder,
horse or skidder) and so it is
very important to ascertain
this at planning stage.
• Many factors inBuencing
extraction method - could
include resources, such as
what road construction
equipment and road
surfacing material is
available in the area.
 right of way (r.o.w.)
development/purch road drainage
ase

methods of road

Elements
formation and culverting
construction

of road large waterway

crossings
cost road completion
(surface dressing)
works
(waterway area
being greater than
1.5m2) or other
structures
operational
overheads
(planning
annual
development
maintenance, and
charges, design
costs, holidays
etc.).
 • The cost of timber extraction comprises
the following:
• setting up on site (machine
delivery/skyline set up/removal,
etc.);
• machine upkeep (fuelling, operator
maintenance, etc.);
Elements of • travelling from road to timber
extraction cost (empty movement);
• loading;
• travelling loaded to forest road (full
movement);
• unloading and stacking; and
• overheads (machine management,
downtime, etc.).
SFD, RIL (2009)
Road design
FOREST ROAD
FORMATION METHODS
Considerations in Planning and
Design of forest roads
Planning and Design

Environmental
environmental impacts;
considerations

• landscape, water, soil,

habitat and
social/community
• phases in the
construction of forest
roads are carried out in a
manner that is
compatible with
Ryan et al,environmental
2004 values
and sustainable forest
management
Environment
al values for
various road
construction
phases

Ryan et al, 2004

 Sustainabl
e values
necessary
in all forest
operations.

Ryan et al, 2004

Road design and location
Important considerations when planning the road network are:
»≫ The location of timber resources
»≫ The location and condition of existing roads
»≫ Where new roads should be constructed
»≫ The amount of tra=c that will use the roads
»≫ The slope of the land
»≫ Environmental factors such as highly erodible soils, drainage
features and environmental exclusions
Road Design
The characteristics of property will a1ect road design.
»≫ Flat or gentle conditions are easier to road than steep
slopes
»≫ Steep roads increase erosion and make it more
di<cult in e1ectively draining the road
»≫ Stable soils are better to work with erodible or
dispersible soils. Road design will also be inAuenced by
the amount of tra<c which is expected.
»≫ Truck tra<c has a heavy impact on road condition
»≫ The number of trucks using the road will guide the
choice of road surface and road width
»≫ Trucks, especially when fully loaded, have di<culty
travelling on steep roads
Road location
• Roads are best located close to the crest of a ridge and
constructed with outfall drainage. This means that less
construction e7ort is required and drainage will be
easier to achieve.
• It also will avoid steep topography.
• If the road cannot be located on or close to a ridge, then
the best road location is the one which minimises the
amount of earthworks and enables the most e7ective
road drainage
 The engineering
phases are:
• i. road formation;
• ii. road drainage;
• iii. road completion.
Road
Engineerin
Road drainage,
g Phases which includes
culverting, is
normally
undertaken in
conjunction with
road formation.
https://www.yout
ube.com/watch?v=
Forest Road
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Construction - BMF
 Forest
Construction
• Forest Road Trees Clearance
• Forest Road Drainage
• Forest Road Formation Methods
• guidelines for construction
• Forest road completion
• Forest road construction problems
 Forest
Road Trees
Clearance
Tumbangan Matahari
 1. The road alignment is to be cleared before
commencing road formation work.
2. Any stumps, logs and other forms of organic
debris are to be removed clear of the roadway
3. Where necessary, topsoil should be
stockpiled in a manner suitable for

Guidelines rehabilitation works

4. The area cleared should be kept to the
minimum required for eCective construction,
• to allow sunlight and air movement onto the
road surface for eCective drying.
• This will normally be 15 m width but may
need to be increased for certain types of
work.
 • The standard width of clearing
will be a minimum of 15 m,
except for reversal roads where
the minimum will be 20 m.
• Preparing the road right-of-way
or construction area is referred to
as clearing and grubbing.
• During the clearing phase, trees are
felled.
• Grubbing refers to the clearing and
removal of stumps and organic
debris.
• Trees should be felled and
cleared a minimum of 1 to 3 m
from the top of the cut or toe of
the Gll 

Forest Road Trees

Clearance
 • Inadequate tree clearance causes a
number of problems including:
• It creates di:culties during
construction;

Forest Road • It results in poor drainage and greater

maintenance costs;
Trees • Overhanging boughs cause trucks to
drive on the road edges which causes
Clearance damage
• dangerous; and
• Reduced sight distances at bends are
hazardous.
• Penetration of sunlight to road surface
 • Clearing of shrubs and trees for road
construction and maintenance is
Forest Road minimised.
• Clearing should not be greater than 3
Trees metres either side of the edge of the
road prism.
Clearance • Cleared trees and debris must not be
stacked in any landscape feature or
any riparian bu<er or exclusion zone.
Forest Road Trees
Clearance
• Where excavation of the formation is
intended, all unsaleable trees and lop
and top are to be removed from the
roadway.
• Where an embankment road on
undisturbed ground is intended, they
may be utilised as a fascine layer.
• Timber must never be extracted over
an unsurfaced road formation.
 Guidelines
The outer perimeter of all bu4er and exclusion
Bu#er zones should be clearly demarcated on the ground.
and Machines should not enter these zones during road
exclusion construction operations, except where it is
unavoidable.
Fuel storage, maintenance, refuelling and repair
zones work must not take place within 50 m of the
nearest aquatic zone.
Methods Methods for the construction of forest roads and
associated special construction works including the
of speciDcation of machinery and ancillary equipment
construct should be selected to promote eEcient construction
and minimise environmental impact.
ion
Guidelines Carriageway (Permukaan
jalan)
Timing • The formation/carriageway should
• Road construction be in accordance with the
should ideally be standards and to be constructed
undertaken when by either:
lower rainfall and • compaction of the natural
drier soil conditions formation (or sub-grade), where
minimise the risk of its composition is such that it will
erosion. give adequate strength; or
• placing and compacting a layer of
imported base material on the
compacted formation, followed
by a layer of imported surfacing
material; or
• placing and compacting a layer of
surfacing material only.
Guidelines
Fills and embankments
(Penimbusan)
• Fills and embankments should
be allowed time to
consolidate.
• The side-slope of
embankments should be the
natural angle of repose of the
material, usually of the order
of 1 vertical unit to 1.5
horizontal units.
• All faces and slopes requiring
stabilisation and drainage
should be treated prior to the
removal of equipment from
the site.
Cuttings (Pemotongan)
• The banks of cuttings should
be battered wherever
necessary to minimise
erosion. This is particularly
necessary where seepage
through the banks is a
problem.
• In any instance of bank
slippage, loose material must
be removed as soon as
possible to prevent
sedimentation of
watercourses.
Guidelines
Culverts and drains Partially built roads

• All roadside drains, • All partially built roads (or

culvert drains and other those being left to settle)
drainage structures must be closed to tra?c
should be installed until they are completed.
concurrently with the • Where road construction
formation of the road. is halted or suspended,
Sections of partially adequate temporary
constructed road to be stabilisation must be
left uncompleted over employed to deal with site
winter or for other earthworks drainage.
extended periods should
be drained by cross
drains.
Guidelines

Contamina
tion The refuelling and maintenance of
machines must not take place
close to sensitive sites in order to
prevent spillage of fuel and oils
from entering streams and
watercourses - this work to be
carried out at least 50 m from the
nearest aquatic zone on a dry,
elevated site.
 Over the last twenty years, hydraulic
excavators have taken over from dozers
as the most popular method of
constructing unbound roads. The
principle reasons for this change are:
MACHINERY • improved technology;
USED • greater versatility – they can
perform a greater range of tasks;
• less dependence on dry weather;
and
• more sensitive to the environment.
Road construction equipment characteristics. (from OSU Extension Service, 1983) (FAO, 1998)
 There are three main
construction
techniques for roads.
Most road networks
will use all three
Road techniques:
• Minimal earthworks –
Formation when roads are located
Methods on ridgetops or in =at or
undulating conditions,
minimal earthworks may
be all that is required.
• Cut and Bll (or side-cut) –
the most common
technique.
 There are a number of road construction
methods at formation stage depending on
site conditions but they can be generally
described as either of the following:

FOREST i. excavated roads (on mineral soils and on

ROAD organic soil to 2 m deep); or

FORMATI
ON ii. embankment roads on peats over 2 m
deep; or

METHODS
iii. reversal roads which can be either
excavated or embankment type roads.
 Road construction with a
bulldozer.

- The machine starts at the

top and in successive passes
excavates down to the
required grade.
- Excavated material is side
cast and may form part of
the roadway.
SFD, RIL (2009)
Three basic
road prism
constructio
n methods.
Comparison Chart for Road Shape
Excavated roads
Stripping the formation site
• All organic soil, or peat, and tree stumps
over the formation area are to be
stripped and run to both sides.
• Some sub-grade material, at a lower
level, may also be run to spoil with a
view to exposing better bearing material.
• The decision to do this will depend on
the balance struck between savings in
road completion and the additional cost
of excavation and possibly more di?cult
drainage.
Levelling of spoil banks
• As far as possible high
obstructive spoil banks are
to be avoided. They should
be levelled over verges
where they will provide
useful timber
stacking/processing ground.
• Gaps should be pushed
through at regular intervals
as required to facilitate o>-
road access (say 30 to 100
m intervals).
Access ramps
• In the course of formation excavation,
ramps should be provided, from the
formation to higher verges, to
facilitate o8-road vehicles.
• They should be at reasonably
frequent intervals (say 100 m) and
advantage should be taken at local
low spots in the excavation.
• On longitudinal road gradients, access
ramps should be located just below
formation run o8 culverts.
 Excavation and cambering
• When the formation area is fully stripped, the sub-
grade is shaped to a cambered pro8le, the degree
of camber depending on the nature of the sub-
grade material. For formation work, camber will
range from 200 mm to 300 mm depending on soil
type.
Compaction of formation
• Construction plant will achieve a
certain degree of compaction.
• However, where possible and at
or near its optimum moisture
content, the cambered formation
should be further compacted by
use of either a three-point, non-
vibratory roller (of approximately
8 tonnes) or by a vibratory roller
of 3 - 5 tonnes dead-weight
towed by a motor-grader.
• The number of passes is usually
4 or 5, there being little strength
gain beyond that point.
‘BUILD ON TOP’ EMBANKMENT ROADS
• On embankment roads, the natural vegetation is left untouched as it
contributes to the bearing strength of the site. Trees growing on the road
line should be felled close to ground level and stumps left. Where available,
closely spaced, felled poles (delimbed trees), covered with brash can be
spread across the formation base width to help load distribution.
• In the absence of timber, geotextiles are used in the base of embankments.
Several proprietary geotextiles are available which serve the function of a
layer of fascines. As structural geotextiles are expensive for forest roads
they are used only on speciOc sites.
• Low cost separation geotextiles
are commonly used. These help
to reduce the volume of :ll
necessary to construct the
embankment.
• Embankment roads will require
depths of :ll material from 500
mm to 1000 mm. This results in 3
to 5 m3 of material per linear m
of road. In circumstances where
large quantities are to be used,
lower grade material can be used
for the capping layer.
 ‘REVERSAL’ OF EMBANKMENT ROADS
• The term ‘reversal’ more or less describes the
method of construction whereby mineral soil is
taken from beneath the peat layer and is placed
as an embankment on top of the peat.
• In order to carry out this operation successfully,
the peat layer should rarely exceed 2 m depth –
otherwise there will be diMculty in obtaining
suMcient mineral soil.
• The main advantages of this type of construction
are as follows:
1. it provides a very cheap method of construction,
providing low cost Qll on the site as against having to
import it;
2. it reduces, if not eliminates, the spoil heaps from the
side of the road making timber extraction easier; and
3. it raises the level of the road, enabling it, in wet
areas, to be kept above the water table and also
facilitates the run oT of surface water.
Road Construction
• Roads must be properly constructed and maintained to provide
comfort and safety to the road user, reduce transportation costs,
and minimize areas of disturbed soil erosion.
• Roads shall be constructed in accordance with the road design and
speci;cations determined by the SFD from time to time.
Steep areas
• Roads must be constructed, upgraded and maintained with a
maximum grade of 10 degrees. If a steeper grade will result in an
improved environmental outcome (e.g. avoiding the need for a
drainage feature crossing) or will mean avoiding diEcult ground
conditions (such as rock), then the road grade can be increased up
to 15 degrees.
Graphical determination of minimum clearing width and cutting depth.
 Construction methods
• There are three main construction techniques for roads. Most
road networks will use all three techniques:
 Minimal earthworks – when roads are located on ridgetops or in ;at or
undulating conditions, minimal earthworks may be all that is required.
 Cut and @ll (or side-cut) – the most common technique.
 In sloping terrain, material is cut from hillsides and used to level out other
areas. The cut batter should be made to a stable grade which depends on
the soil type. The @ll batter should be well compacted to avoid erosion and
slumpage of the batter and loss of the road surface.
• Drains should be installed as the road is constructed and drains
should be located where the @ll batter is at the lowest height.
 Road Construction
The method of construction must follow the guidelines for forest
road constructing as follows:
• Preliminary roadline clearing should be undertaken well ahead
of :nal construction in anyone site to reduce sedimentation
from undrained sections;
• Major and minor roads are to be completed well before
harvesting;
• Construction is not to commence more than 12 months before
harvesting;
• During road corridor clearing, all trees along the corridor shall
be directionally felled parallel to the road corridor alignment
wherever possible. Trees above 20-cm dbh shall be cut with
chain saw. Commercial trees with diameters above the
minimum limit as speci:ed according to existing rules, shall be
considered as harvest volume;
Road Construction
• All climbers more than 2 cm in diameter within the road shall be
cut;
• The width of right-of-way is determined by the road standard
selected, the ratio of the backslope and >llslope used, and the
percent of sideslope of the terrain along with the right-of-way
• Where side cutting is necessary, cuts are to be fonned;
• Where side cutting is not necessary, earthwork should be limited
to the width allowed for the pavement plus verge and table
drains on either side. An additional width to allow for travel by
track machines may be approved following inspection by the
SFD OFcer. Approval must be received before felling and
clearing commences;
Road Construction
• Revegetation should be undertaken and can be carried
out using a range of measures such as cereal cover
crop, grass or seeds of fast-growing shrubs or trees
immediately after construction;
• Road construction should not occur during the wet
season.
Road Construction
• Variations in pavement design are necessary in sustained periods
of wet weather and under very wet conditions uniform single
sized 75 mm crushed stone is laid as a pavement and is dressed
with quarry maintenance to prevent ingress of water.
• Commonly quarried materials are limestones , sandstones,
quartzite, schist, gneiss and igneous deposits such as reolites
and gabbros.
• Surfacing material can be coral, crushed rock, compacted clay or
gravel, the most commonly used local materials in forest road
pavements are shales, schists, sandstones and gravels
Main and secondary road construction.
Forest Road
Drainage
 Without good drainage a road will lose
considerable strength and as a result will
not achieve its design life.

A ‘wet road’ may be as little as 25% as

Forest strong as a similar well drained road.

Road
Drainage Road drainage, which includes culverting,
is normally undertaken in conjunction with
(Saliran) road formation.

Proper drainage will minimise a roads

impact on the environment. Without good
drainage there can be considerable
sediment loss into the environment.
 Preparation of a
map containing a
broad terrain Delineation of
classi5cation, aquatic zones and
details of aquatic bu<er zones;
zones and sources
of water supply

Guidelines Roadside drainage

is to be designed to
Roads should be
discharge away
located at least 50
from bu<er zones
m from an aquatic
and not allowed
zone, where
discharge directly
possible;
into an aquatic
zone.
Guidelines

Roadside drainage Carry out

should not construction in dry
Sediment traps will
intercept runo9 weather – ideally
be necessary;
from higher from April to
ground; October?
Do not remove
gravel from a
bu9er zone; It is
Cement must not
essential to
be discharged into
maintain roadside
an aquatic zone.
drains and
sediment traps;
and
Guidelines

Where the intended route of a road must pass through

waterlogged or impervious soils, these areas should be
drained prior to commencement of construction.
When the formation area is fully stripped, the sub-grade
should be shaped to a cambered pro<le, the degree of
camber depending on the nature of the sub-grade material
but within the range 200 – 300 mm.
Roads are to have a minimum gradient of 1 in 100 to
facilitate drainage and water runoC.
Guidelines
Roadside drains should
Interceptor drains or
be provided to
culverts are to be Sediment traps to be
minimise the
spaced according to the provided where
concentrations and
road grade and have necessary to prevent
velocity of runo7 and
su<cient capacity to direct discharge into
ensure that water
convey the peak >ow streams.
drains from the road
from a storm.
surface.

Drainage from road

sections to be
discharged through a
bu7er strip before
entering a stream.
 Three types of drain are
commonly used :
Types of i. Subsoil drains;
Drainage ii. Interceptor (or cut-o>)
drains.
iii. Roadside drains.
 • Lowering of the water table
is particularly important in
peat and gley sites.
• Drains should be provided
well in advance of formation
work particularly where it is
intended to build an
embankment road on the
natural ground surface - a
time interval of 1 year or
more between preliminary
and formation work is
recommended where this
can be arranged.

Sub-soil drain
Sub-soil
drain
• On deep peats,
drainage excavation
staged over many years
is necessary to improve
the strength of the peat.
• Subsoil drains will
usually be from
approximately 450 mm
to 750 mm deep and be
a minimum distance of
2 m from the edges of
the roadway.
 • On sloping sites these are
best provided by
excavating two or three
drains parallel with the road
line, the closest drain being
at least 3 m from the
estimated position of the
top edge of roadway
excavation.
• On dry permeable wooded
hillsides it is frequently
unnecessary to provide any
cut o= drain..

Interceptor (cut-o-)
drains
Roadside drains
• These are provided at the edge
of the formation. In general the
angle between the toe of the
cutting and the edge of the
cambered formation will be
adequate to control the run-o;
from the formation area itself.
• Occasionally a deeper drain
may have to be provided
where a high water table
persists in the formation,
especially in cuttings.
SEDIMENT TRAPS
• Sediment traps (also known as
sedimentation ponds or silt traps) are
constructed to contain sediment that
primarily arises during road construction.
• Their size is site dependant, but they will
generally be approximately 3 m long by
1.5 m wide by 1 m deep.
• They need to be cleaned and maintained
on a regular basis until the sediment
problem abates after 1 to 4 years.
 • Roadside drainage must not be allowed to
discharge directly into natural watercourses.
Instead it should be allowed to run out
through bu>er strips.
• Bu>er strips are zones of natural vegetation
through which the water passes and in so
doing deposits sediments.
• Bu>er strips are preferred to sedimentation
traps in forest road construction because the
traps need constant monitoring and
maintenance. Bu>er zone widths vary from
10 to 25 m depending on the terrain.

BUFFER STRIPS
CULVERTS
Roadway culverts will be for two purposes, conveyance of run-o>
from uplands and the periodic removal of run-o> from the
formation before it can give rise to structural weakening or
erosion.
• Culverts for upland run-o1
• These will occur at existing drains or outlets created in the
drainage programme.
• Culverts for formation run-o1
• These will be of 300 mm diameter jointed concrete pipes
usually but the use of 375 mm to 450 mm diameter is
recommended on easily eroded sub-grades.
• Culvert spacing will vary from 40 m to 100 m depending on
road gradient and susceptibility of sub-grade to erosion. The
proximity of culverts increases with steeper road gradient
and the erosion risk.
• Relief culverts divert road and
ditch water onto the forest
3oor.
• Improper location of relief
culverts may result in
signi:cant road-related
resource damage.
• Overloading a site with
drainage water can result in
soil saturation and may cause
overland 3ow, gullying and
slope instability.
Comparison of Drainage Structures
Forest road
completion
Forest road
completion
• This is the stage where a
formation is treated with a
5nishing layer of stone to safely
transmit vehicle loads to the
road formation.
• Carriageway width is a minimum
of 3.4 m and is widened at
bends. On embankment roads
this minimum width is increased
to 4 m for safety reasons.
Forest road
completion
• Completed formations should be carefully
maintained and free from rutting prior to
completion of the carriageway.
• Maintenance of formation before
completion
• Formations not requiring surfacing
• Timing of surfacing
• Materials
• Delivery
• Spreading and compaction
• Depth of surfacing material
Forest road
construction
problems
ERODABLE SOILS
• All ,ne grained soils are
erodable and this is particularly
a problem in drainage channels
that have gradients exceeding
5%.
• Therefore, forest roadside
drains with gradients up to 10%
are very prone to erosion.
• Frequent culverting
• The spacing and size of culverts
must be very carefully planned to
minimise the erosion threat.
LOOSE BOULDER
• Sloping sites with loose boulders
are unsuitable for solely dozer
construction as these machines
cannot safely handle boulders.
• Excavators must always be used
for the safe movement of boulders.
Level benches must be dug out for
the stable placement of boulders
below the formation level.
• Boulders above the formation but
within the road reserve should also
be removed and placed safely
below the formation.
LANDSLIDES/MUDSLI
DES
• Landslides/mudslides may
occur on sloping sites where
the soil is saturated (or
almost liquid in state).
• When excavated material is
placed on a saturated soil the
additional burden from the
embankment formed/spoil
heap may be suHcient to
cause a landslide.
CLOSURE OF ROADS DURING
THE CONSTRUCTION PHASE

• Formation works may have to be

suspended if there is a risk of
landslides as the road is formed.
• Dozers on formation work cannot
shape or camber formations that
are saturated and work must
cease until the weather improves.
• Capping layer construction may
have to cease after heavy rainfall
as the layer may become
saturated and the material can
slurry and behave as a liquid.
CLOSURE OF ROADS DURING THE CONSTRUCTION
PHASE
• Completion of pavements may have to be suspended
in wet weather if the sub grade is saturated.
Continuing to complete the road in poor weather
conditions results in extra pavement material.
• Road construction must cease when pavement or
formation material is entering watercourses and
should only be resumed following mitigation
measures to prevent environmental damage.
• Roads must be closed following an accident on site
and the area cordoned oI until sanction is given by
the Health and Safety Authority (HSA).
• If any archaeological site is discovered on the
roadway then operations should cease until an
archaeological investigation is complete.
Road Maintenance
Road maintenance
• Properly maintained roads reduce soil erosion and water
pollution because the road surface is stable and
drainage structures divert water to stable areas.
• Maintenance is also cheaper than either rehabilitation of
degraded roads or new construction.
• Well maintained and drained roads can also be used
sooner after wet weather.
Key principles
1. Plan road needs to minimise disturbance and cost, and
to maximise usefulness and longevity
2. Use existing roads rather than building new ones,
where possible
3. Maintain as much vegetation and topsoil cover as
possible
4. Keep roads as far away from drainage features as
practicable
Key principles
5. Choose the most appropriate drainage structures to
ensure that water leaves the road with minimal erosion
6. Avoid steep slopes
7. Maintain road surfaces and drainage structures to
avoid the risk of soil erosion and water pollution
8. Seek expert advice if unsure
Maintaining groundcover
• Groundcover can stabilise soils and prevent erosion and water
pollution. Groundcover can be vegetation such as grass and
herbs, but can include litter, rock and other material that protects
the ground surface.
• The reintroduction of topsoil is critical for establishing ground
cover.
• Where clearing for road construction is wider than 3 metres from
batters or drains, at least 70% groundcover must be established
within 1 month of clearing.
Road maintenance
Road maintenance
• Properly maintained roads reduce soil erosion and water
pollution because the road surface is stable and
drainage structures divert water to stable areas.
• Maintenance is also cheaper than either rehabilitation of
degraded roads or new construction.
• Good practice in forest road maintenance and repair is
essential to:
• protect the road foundation;
• disperse water;
• minimise environmental impact; and
• optimise return from the expenditure invested in the road
network.
 GUIDELINES
1. Roads are to be inspected on a regular basis.
2. Roads are to be maintained as necessary to minimise erosion of the road
surface. The surface of roads should be cambered, and any windrows of soil on
the outside of the road be regularly breached, except where they have been
intentionally constructed for the protection of Flls.
3. Road drainage systems are to be maintained to protect the road from erosion
and to minimise discharge of turbid waters into streams.
4. Vegetation beside roads should, where necessary, be controlled to improve
visibility for drivers and prevent vegetation invading the road surface or blocking
roadside drains.
5. All trees which fall onto or across roads are to be removed as soon as possible.
6. Roads should be assigned a regular maintenance schedule prioritising,
according to risk, the need for maintenance and reduction of potential adverse
environmental impact.
7. All forest drains must be cleared of lop and top during harvesting operations to
ensure that watercourses are not redirected as this can result in serious damage
to roads.
 Road Maintenance – Key Principles
1. Plan road needs to minimise disturbance and
cost, and to maximise usefulness and longevity
2. Use existing roads rather than building new
ones, where possible
3. Maintain as much vegetation and topsoil cover
as possible
4. Keep roads as far away from drainage features
as practicable
 Road Maintenance – Key Principles
5. Choose the most appropriate drainage
structures to ensure that water leaves the road
with minimal erosion
• All drains, pipes, culverts and bridges are to be
kept open at all times. They are to be inspected
thoroughly and repaired before the onset of
the wet season and during periods of heavy
rainfall;
6. Avoid steep slopes
 Road Maintenance – Key Principles
7. Maintain road surfaces and drainage structures
to avoid the risk of soil erosion and water
pollution
• Road surface maintenance should be performed
as needed. Crossfall and road shape should be
maintained to allow e@ective drainage;
• Good surfacing gravel should not be pushed to
the road edge or into drains.
8. Seek expert advice if you are unsure
Sediment and erosion
control
Sediment and erosion control
Drainage structures concentrate water. Therefore the exit point of
the drainage structure must:
»≫ Slow the water down – slowing water =ow helps to prevent
erosion
»≫ Disperse water via silt traps or ground cover – this allows
sediment and nutrients to be @ltered out of the water and reduces
pollution
Stable surface
A stable surface is able to withstand erosion and damage from
concentrated water5ow. Stable surfaces at a drainage structure
outlet include:
»≫ Good ground cover (established grass and vegetation)
»≫ Natural rock or artiAcially rocked surfaces
»≫ Concrete
»≫ Fill batter drop down structures
Examples of good outlet protection

Establishing groundcover Arti4cially rocked surface

Example of poor outlet protection
Draining roads
Draining roads

• Forest roads, if not adequately drained, can erode and lead to land
degradation and water pollution.
• Appropriate drainage structures and outlets built into new roads in the
right locations, ensure that water can leave the road surface without
causing damage or pollution.
Types of road drains
• Crossfall drainage
• Table drains
• Relief culverts
• Rollover banks / Water-Bumps
Crossfall drainage

• 'Cross-Drains' are self draining structures or trench

constructed across SKTs and non-permanent hauling roads,
which will not have vehicular tra=c, to intercept and divert
surface run-o> from roads, SKTs or side ditches to a
vegetated area, as erosion remedial measures.
• For e>ective crossfall, the slope of the road surface (from
one side to the other) will be between 3 to 4 degrees (4% –
6%). This equals a 20 to 30 centimetre fall across a road 5
metres wide.
Crossfall drainage

• There are two types of crossfall drainage.

»≫ Infall drainage directs water to a table drain and is
generally appropriate for roads in hilly and steep land,
or where safe road design requires it.
»≫ Outfall drainage directs water from the road surface to
a stable road verge or shoulder.
Crowned roads

• Wider roads and roads on level surfaces are often crowned.

• A crowned road is higher in the centre than on the sides.
The road surface can then shed water in both directions,
either to a stable road verge, or to a table drain.
• Generally crowning of roads requires a grader for
construction, and requires regular maintenance in very dry
or wet conditions unless the road has been sealed with a
good quality gravel material.
Table drains

A table drain runs parallel with

the road and captures crossfall
water 4ow from the road
surface. The water is then
diverted out of the table drain
and across the road at regular
intervals using either a relief
pipe, a rollover crossbank or a
spoon drain.
Mitre drains - A mitre drain is
constructed as a water exit
point for crowned roads. Mitre
drains must divert water onto a
stable surface
Relief culverts

Relief culverts divert water

from table drains under
the road surface to a safe
Pipes can be made from a
exit point on the other side
variety of materials,
of the road. Relief culverts
including concrete, plastic
should not discharge onto
and steel.
9ll batters unless the
batter is protected from
scouring.
 Rollover banks are a type of cross drain. They
are a low mound constructed across the road
surface, which diverts runo; from the road.

Rollover They are a good way of draining roads with a

low grade (less than 5 degrees) during timber

banks /
haulage but can be di@cult for trucks to
negotiate on steeper grade roads.

Water- They are useful structures to build on

completion of operations where use of the

Bumps
road in the future is planned.

Rollover banks can be used with either infall

or outfall drainage and must have an
e;ective height of 15 centimetres.
 Spoon drains are another type of
cross drain. They are a shallow ditch
in the surface of the road which
works in a similar way to rollover
banks.

Spoon They are generally not as e;ective

as rollover banks, and so are better
drains used on =atter ground.

Spoon drains can be used together

with either infall or outfall drainage
and must have an e;ective depth of
15 centimetres.
References
• Buku panduan Operasi RIL, Jabatan Perhutanan Sabah 3 rd Edition
(2009)
• Guidelines for Forest Roads, Board Manual-05/2006
• Forest Road Manual, Guidelines for the design, construction and
management of forest roads by Tom Ryan, Henry Phillips, James
Ramsay and John Dempsey (2004)
• Logging of mountain forests FAO Rome. (1981)
• Operational eQciency in Forestry Volume 2, Silversides &
Sunberg, 1996
• Texas Best Management Practices for Silviculture, Texas Forestry
Association. USA