CHAPTER-3

3. GATES AND VALVES

Introduction
Modern dams are frequently of very large size, requiring the control of great volumes of water under high head.
The energies involved are often tremendous, whether the discharge should pass through outlet pipes, through
penstocks, or over the dam spillway. The problems involved in the development of suitable control works for
modern dams are many and complex.
The main operational requirements for gates are failure-free performance, water tightness, rapidity of operation,
minimum hoist capacity, and convenience in installation & maintenance
The control equipments are usually required for conduits (including sluices and penstocks) and spillways.
These include various types of gates and valves.
Hydro mechanical control equipments are basically of two types.
1. Hydraulic gates
2. Hydraulic valves
3.1 Hydraulic Gates
Hydraulic gates are so constructed that the closing member is completely removed from the water passage when
the gate is fully opened. In hydraulic valves the closing member remains in the waterway and therefore partially
interferes with the water flow.
3.2 Hinged Gates
The following are the common types of hinged gates:
I. Radial Gate
ii. Drum Gate iii. Flap Gate
3.2.1. Radial Gates
They are also known as tainted gates or sector gates. Radial gates are the most widely used type of spillway crest
gates and usually the most reliable and least expensive. The gate leaf consists of a curved skin plate shaped so as to
form a sector of a curved surface of a horizontal cylinder. The skin plate is supported at the two ends of the gate
span on end beams which are in turn supported on radial arms converging on pin bearing mounted on horizontal
pins (trunnions) attached to the piers.
Radial gates are usually operated by means of hoisting cables provided at both span ends of the gate leaf and lead
to winches on the platform above the gate. The winches are usually motor- driven. Close fitting rubber seals are
provided on the gate sides and bottom.
Since skin plate that supports water is cylindrical, the resultant water pressure acting on it passes through its center
and hence in this gate the resultant water pressure creates no moment against the lifting of the gate. Radial gates
have the following advantages. Friction is concentrated at the pin and is much less than that for sliding gates. Since
the trunnion bears part of the load, the hoisting load is nearly constant for all gate openings, and it is much less
than for vertical lift gates of the same size.
Other advantages of tainted gate over vertical lift (sliding gates) are:
 Smaller hoist
 Increased speed of raising
 Higher stiffness
 Lower piers
 Absence of gate slot
 Less prone to vibration
However, they require longer and thicker piers.
3.2.2. Drum Gates
1
It consists of a segment of a cylinder, which fits, in a recess on the top of the spillway when the gate is in an open
position. For lifting the gate in its closed position, water is admitted into the recess to create a buoyant force.
Because of the large recess (cavity) required by drum gates in the lowered position, they are not used for small
(low) dams.
Drum gates on dam crests are usually of the upstream hinge type, with the hinge about 0.25H above the
downstream gate sill and a radius of curvature r ≅ H. The heads can be as high as 10m and the span 65m (long
span gate).
Controlling device (for admitting or releasing water from the chamber) may be manual or automatic.
3.2.3. Flap Gates / Bottom Hinged Gates/
Simplest and most frequently used type of regulating gates used on their own or in conjunction with vertical lift
gates. They were developed as a replacement for wooden flashboards.
Flap gates when used on their own, span up to 30m and used for heads as high as 6m. For larger spans several flaps
connected to each other, but actuated by their own hydraulic hoist; may be used.
They provide fair level of regulation and easy flushing of debris.
3.3. Hydraulic Valves /Control Valves
The distinguishing feature of valves from gates is that they are constructed in such a way that the closing member
remains in the water passageway for all operating positions.
3.3.1. The Needle Valve
These are intended to operate at the downstream end of an outlet conduit under free discharge conditions and
extremely high heads (up to 215m). The needle valve consists of an outer globular casting housing cylindrical
inner mechanism consisting of a movable closed cylinder telescoping over a stationary cylinder.
The discharge end of the annular passage is closed when hydrostatic pressure is supplied to the proper chamber
inside the cylinder. Needle points are provided at the upstream and downstream face of the cylindrical mechanism
to guide the water flow. The pressure required for operation is supplied by a compensating valve located beneath
the body of the main valve. These types of valves are costly to install and maintain, are prone to cavitation damage
and have low coefficient of discharge.
3.3.2. Tube Valve
It is essentially a needle valve with the tip of the downstream or movable needle eliminated. It was designed to
minimize the cavitation erosion, which developed at the downstream end of the needle valve.
They are designed for discharge regulation for heads up to 90m. They have low coefficient of discharge. These
valves are not satisfactory for all regulated openings as the jet is rough and unstable up to 35% openings. They also
have problem of vibration at nearly full openings and nearly closed positions.
3.3.3. Hollow- Jet Valves
It is U.S.B.R’s most recent and outstanding development in control valves. It is essentially a needle valve with the
movable or closing needle pointed upstream and the downstream portion of the body eliminated, thus allowing the
water to discharge from the bell-shaped body in a tubular or hollow part.
This is called hollow-jet valve because the jet as it leaves the valve is in the form of a longitudinal slotted tube or
segmental jet having a hollow instead of a solid stem. These valves have better coefficient of discharge than needle
or tube valves. They are intended for heads up to 305m. These valves should not be operated at openings less than
5% for long periods because of risk of cavitation.
3.3.4. Butterfly Valves
These are simple, rugged, economical valves used to shut off flow in a penstock or outlet conduit. It is essentially a
circular leaf, slightly convex in form mounted on a transverse shaft carried by two bearings in the valve body.
Butterfly valves are occasionally installed as regulating controls for low head discharges, but their primary use is
as service or guard gate in power penstocks immediately upstream from the turbine. Some of these valves have
been designed to operate under a head greater than 300m. When used for emergency closure it operates either fully
open or closed and not as partially open.
2
 CHAPTER-4
4. DAM SAFETY, INSTRUMENTATION, AND SURVEILLANCE
4.1. Introduction
Reservoirs constitute a potential hazard to downstream life and property. The flood plain is at risk in the event of
catastrophic breaching may be extensive, densely populated and of considerable economic importance. In such
instances dam failure can result in an unacceptable loss of life and damage.
4.2 Application and Objectives
Monitoring instruments are provided in almost all new dams and basic level of instrumentation to monitor existing
dams.
 In new dams, instrumentation data are interpreted to provide an indication of the validity of design
assumptions and to determine an initial datum pattern of performance against which subsequent observations
can be assessed.
 In existing dams (particularly elderly or less adequate structures) instruments are installed to provide a
measure of reassurance, i.e. they serve to detect significant and abnormal deviation of the dam behavior in the
long-term. They are also used to record specific parameters of behavior in response to suspected design
deficiency or behavioral problem.
Planning and commissioning of instrumentation should be handled by relatively senior and experienced personnel
within responsible organization. The primary function of instrumentation may be for:
(a) Construction Control: Verification of critical design parameters for feed back to design and
construction.
(b) Post-construction performance: Validation of design; determination of initial or datum behavioral
pattern.
(c) Service performance/surveillance: Reassurance of structural adequacy; detection of regressive
change in established behavior pattern; investigation of identified or suspected problems.
(d) Research/Development: Academic research; equipment proving and development.
There are possible overlaps between certain of the functional classifications.
4.2.1. Parameters in Monitoring Dam Behavior
The most significant parameters in monitoring dam behavior are:
1. Seepage and leakage (quantity, nature, location and source)
2. Settlement and loss of freeboard in embankments (magnitude, rate)
3. External and internal deformation (magnitude, rate, location)
4. Pour water pressure and uplift (magnitude, variation)
5. Internal stress or pressure (magnitude)
Certain key parameters are of primary concern regardless of the type of dam considered, e.g. Seepage and external
movement or deflection; others are relevant to a specific type of dam, e.g. Pour water pressures in relation to earth
fill embankment dams.
The desirable minimum provisions for monitoring and surveillance on all dams should account for the
measurement of seepage flows and crest deformations. Table 5.1 shows parameters and instruments employed.
Table 4.1 Primary monitoring parameters and their relationship to possible defects
Dam
Parameter Instruments Measurement Illustrative defect type

3
Seepage Drains-underdrains Seepage flow Could indicate initiation of E, C
to V-notch, weirs quantity, and cracks and/or internal
(ideally several, nature of seepage erosion
‘isolating’ sections water, e.g. clear or
of dam-foundation) turbid
Collimation Precise survey Alignment Movement E, C
(optical or
electronic)
Porewater Piezometers Internal water Leaking core, or incipient E
pressure pressure in instability
earthfill
Uplift Piezometers Internal water Instability, sliding C
pressure in
concrete or rock
foundation
Precise survey Crest settlement Tilting (C) or loss of
Settlement (surface) freeboard (E), e.g. core E, C
Settlement gauges Internal or relative subsidence, or foundation
(internal) settlement deformation
External Precise survey Surface deflection Local movement, E, C
deformation (surface) instability
Photogrammetry(E),
pendula or joint
meters
Internal
deformation Inclinometers, strain Internal relative Incipient instability
or strain: - gauges or duct tubes movement E
vertical
- horizontal
Stress or Pressure cells Total stress Hydraulic fracture and
pressure internal erosion E
E = embankment dams, C = concrete dams
4.2.2. Instruments: Design and Operating principles
Monitoring instruments are required to function satisfactorily under very harsh environmental conditions and
essentially for indefinite period of time. Therefore, a desirable instrument must be:
(a) as simple in concept as is consistent with their function
(b) robust and reliable
(c) durable under adverse environmental and operating conditions and
(d)Acceptable, through-life cost (i.e. sum of purchase, installation, and monitoring cost).
A comprehensive detail of the various equipment, their operating principles and characteristics should be referred
to, which could be provided by manufacturers or qualified society/Authors.
4.2.3 Instrumentation Planning
The planning and specification of a comprehensive suite of instruments involves a logical sequence of decisions:
(a) Definition of the purpose and objectives (why? and what?);
(b) Definition of observations appropriate to the dam considered;
(c) Determination of the locations and numbers of measuring points for the desired observations;

4
 (d)Consideration of the time period to be spanned, i.e., long-or short-term monitoring;
(e) Consideration of the optimum sensing mode in relation to the desired rapidity of response, required
accuracy; etc.
(f) Selection of hardware appropriate to the task as defined under a-e.
Step (c) is one of particular importance and sensitivity. Instruments must cover known critical features of the dam;
but should also be placed at locations where 'normal' behavior may be anticipated. In new dams, at least two
sections should be instrumented, including the major section. It is good practice to draft an ideal layout in the first
instance, and then to progressively eliminate the less essential provisions until an adequate, balanced and
affordable plan is determined.
It is advisable to consider instrumentation program in terms of the overall ‘system’ required, i.e. instruments,
installation, commissioning, monitoring, and data management and interpretation.
The following figure shows a representative instrumentation profile for a new earth fill

Figure 4.1 Representative instrument layout: major section of a new embankment dam
4.2.4 Data Acquisition and Management
Logical planning of data acquisition and processing is essential if the purpose of an instrumentation program is to
be fully utilized. Unless observations are reliable and the information is interpreted quickly the value of the
program will be severely diminished.
Within the operating plan the frequency of monitoring should be determined on a rational basis, reflecting the
objectives and the individual parameters under scrutiny. Detailed prescription of periodicity is a question of
common sense and engineering judgment.
- An excess of data will prove burdensome & may confuse important issues; too little information will raise
more questions than it resolves. It should not also be too complex system (in terms of equipment or
operating skills required)-should be responsive and flexible system.
As an example, the following table shows representative monitoring frequencies for
Embankments.
Parameter Frequency
Water level Daily wherever possible
Seepage Daily or weekly
Piezometers Once or twice weekly (construction) to three to
six monthly (routine)
Settlement-deformation Daily (suspected serious slip) to three to six
monthly (routine)

5
 4.3 Surveillance
All types of dams require regular surveillance if they are to be maintained in a safe and operationally efficient
state.
The primary objective of surveillance program is to minimize the possibility of catastrophic failure of the dam by
timely detection of design inadequacies or regressive changes in behavior. A further objective is to assist in the
scheduling of routine maintenance or, when necessary, of major remedial works.
Surveillance embraces the regular and frequent observation and recording of all aspects of the service performance
of a dam and its reservoir. It includes routine observation and inspection, the monitoring and assessment of
seepage and instrumentation data and the recording of all other relevant information, including hydrological
records. Less frequent but more rigorous statutory inspections by specialist engineers are also carried out as part of
a comprehensive surveillance program and may include a complete investigation reappraisal of the dam's integrity.
For the purpose of describing necessary surveillance activities, many of which are interdependent, five critical
phases in the life cycle of a dam must be identified:
1) The design or pre-construction phase
- Assessments must be made of the conditions that can be imposed upon the structure by its boundary
environment or those existing conditions affected by the structure.
2) The Construction period
- When opportunity for verifying design predictions is available, the accuracy of the design assumptions often
revealed, and the initial effects of structural loading can be assessed.
3) The period of first reservoir filling
- When the impact of hydraulic loading and reservoir induced seepage effects can be initially observed &
assessed.
4) The early operation period of the dam,
- When the structure is subjected to an increased range of operating /loading conditions, and the time
dependent effects of the reservoir reaching equilibrium.
5) The subsequent aging of the operating structure and its infrequent exposure to extremes of hydraulic
and seismic external loading.

6
 CHAPTER-5
5. RIVER DIVERSION HEAD WORKS
5.1 Introduction
River diversion headwork is constructed at the head of the canal to divert the river water towards the canal, so as to
ensure a regulated continuous supply of silt-free water with a certain minimum head into the canal. It usually
provides a small storage capacity.
5.2 Purposes of diversion headwork
(i) It raises the water level in the river so that the commanded area is increased
(ii) It regulates the supply of water into the canal
(iii) It provides storage of water for a short period
(iv) It controls the entry of silt into the canal
(v) It reduces the fluctuations in the level of supply in the river.
5.3 Selection of actual site for canal head works
The selection may be made in accordance with the following considerations.
i) As far as possible a narrow, straight, well defined channel confined b/n banks not submerged by the
highest flood;
ii) It should be possible to align the off taking canal in such a way that the command of its area is
obtained without excessive digging.
iii) The material of construction such as stone, sand, etc. should be available in the vicinity of the site.
iv) The site should be accessible by road. And there should be (enough) workers available in the
vicinity of project site.
5.4. Components of Diversion Head Works
The components of diversion head works consists of:
(1) Weir or barrage
(2) Divide wall
(3) Fish ladder
(4) Pocket or approach channel
(5) Under sluices or scouring sluices
(6) Silt excluder
(7) Canal head regulator
(8) River training works, such as marginal bunds, guide banks

7
 Figure 5.1. Typical layout of diversion headwork
5.4.1. Weirs and Barrages
Weirs and barrages are permanent river diversion works and are relatively low dams constructed across a river to
raise the river level sufficiently to divert the flow in full, or in part, into a supply canal or conduit for the purpose
of irrigation, power generation, domestic and industrial uses, etc.
Weirs are with or without gates, whereas barrages are always gate controlled.
5.4.1. 1 Weirs
If the major part or the entire ponding of water is achieved by a raised crest and a small or nil part of it is
achieved by the shutters, then this head work is known as weir.

5.4.1.2. Barrages
The crest level is kept at a low level and the raising up of water level (or pounding) is accomplished mainly by
means of gates. During floods these gates can be raised clear off the high flood level and thus enable the high flood
to pass with minimum of afflux (or heading up of water on the upstream side). A barrage provides better control on
the water level in the river

8
 But it is comparatively more co style. The design of a barrage involves the same procedure as a
Concrete weir.

Figure 5.4 Typical cross section of a Barrage on pervious foundation

5.4.2. Divide wall
It is masonry or concrete wall with top width of 1.5 to 3m constructed at right angles to the axis of the weir and
separates the ‘weir proper’ from under sluices. The divide wall extends on the upstream side beyond the beginning
of the canal head regulator and on the downstream side, it extends up to the end of downstream protection of the
under sluices.
The main functions of a divide wall are:
a) To separate the floor of the under sluices which is at lower level from the weir proper;
b) To help in providing a comparatively less turbulent pocket near the canal head regulator resulting in
deposition of silt in this pocket and, thus, to help entry of silt free water into the canal;
c) To isolate the pocket upstream of the canal head regulator and facilitate scouring operation;
d) To prevent formations of cross-currents to avoid their damaging effects on the weir.
5.4.3. Fish Ladder
This structure enables the fish to pass upstream. It is device by which the flow energy can be dissipated in such a
manner as to provide smooth flow at sufficiently low velocity, not exceeding 3 to 3.5m/s .This is generally
accomplished by providing a narrow opening adjacent to the divide wall and provide suitable baffles or staggering
devices in it, so as to control the flow velocity.
The various types of fish ladder are (i) pool type, (ii) steep channel type, (iii) fish lock type and (iv) fish lift or
elevator type. Types (iii) and (iv) are suitable for high dams only. Types (i) and

9
 (ii) Are generally provided for barrages.

Figure 5.5 fish ladder

5.5
5.4.4. Canal head regulator
It is provided at the head of the off taking canal and serves the following functions:
(a) It regulates the supply of water entering in the canal;
(b) It controls the entry of silt in the canal;
(c) It prevents the river floods from entering the canal.
The head regulator is normally aligned between 90 0 and 1200 to the axis of the weir. The regulation is done by
means of gates.
The maximum height of gated opening is determined by the differences in crest level of regulator (sill level) and
the pond level. During high floods, the water level in the river will be much higher than the pond level. To avoid
spilling of this water over the gates, a R.C. wall, called Breast wall, is provided from pond level up-to river HFL.
This wall rests over the piers of the regulator bays.
The entry of silt into the canal is controlled by keeping the crest of the head regulator by about 1 to 1.5m higher
than the crest of the under sluices.
Head regulators are generally provided with a very wide and shallow waterway and drowned weir formula given
below is used to calculate the discharge (see Fig)

Q= Cd1 2 GB [(h + ha) 32 − ha32] + Cd2Bh1 2g (h + ha)

Where Cd1 = 0.577 and Cd2 =0.80 h = difference between upstream and downstream water levels,
i.e.
(Pond level – Maximum FSL of canal)
Ha = head due to velocity of approach, B = clear width of water way h1 =
depth of downstream water level above the crest.
When all other variables are fixed and known, value of B can be calculated.
The width of the waterway (B) calculated above; generally works out to be more than the normal width of the
canal downstream. In such a case, the sill level may be lowered, so as to increase the head and to decrease the
waterway to make it equal to the width of the canal. But the sill level is also governed by silt exclusion
considerations, and therefore, many times it may not be possible to lower the sill level. In such a case, the
calculated value of waterway is provided and the normal required width of the canal is obtained by contacting the

10
wings. The length and thickness of horizontal floor, glacis protection aprons, etc. is designed on the same
principles as are applicable to weir design.
5.4.5. Protection Works
The concrete floor of a weir or barrage is protected on the upstream as well as downstream by loose apron. In the
immediate vicinity of the floor, a certain portion of the loose apron is made non-launching. The non-launching
apron prevents the scour hole travel close to the floor or sheet pile line; whereas launching apron is designed to
launch along the slope of the scour hole to prevent further scooping out of the underlying river bed material.
5.5. Designs of Weirs and Barrages
5.5.1 Causes of Failures of Weirs on Permeable Foundation
Causes of failures of weirs on permeable foundations may be classified into two broad categories.
(1) Due to seepage or subsurface flow
(2) Due to surface flow
The seepage may cause the failure of a weir in two ways.
i) By piping or undermining: If the water percolating through the foundation has sufficient force when it emerges
at the downstream end of the impervious floor it may lift up the soil particles at the end of the floor. With the
removal of the surface soil there is further concentration of flow in to the resulting depression and more soil is
removed which progressively result in subsidence of the floor in the hollows so formed.
To prevent three kinds of failures:
(a) Provide sufficient length of the impervious floor (so that the path of percolation is increased) and
reduce exit gradient.
(b) Provide piles at upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor
(ii) By uplift pressure: If the uplift pressure is not counterbalanced by the weight of the floor, it may fail by
rupture.
To prevent failure by uplift:
(a) Provide sufficient thickness of the impervious floor
(b) Provide pile at the upstream end of the impervious floor so that uplift pressure is reduced on the
downstream side.
The Surface Flow may cause the failure of a weir in the following two ways:
(i) By suction due to standing wave or hydraulic jump: The standing wave or hydraulic jump developed on
the downstream side of the weir causes suction or negative pressure which also acts in the direction of uplift
pressure. If the floor thickness is insufficient it may fail by rupture in suction.
The following measures may be taken to prevent such kind of failure:
(a) Providing additional thickness of the impervious floor to counterbalance the suction pressure due to
standing wave.
(b) Constructing floor as monolithic concrete mass instead of in different layers of masonry.
(ii) By scour on the upstream and downstream of the weir: Upstream and downstream ends of the
impervious floor and bed of the river may be scoured during floods. If not prevented, lead to damage to the
floor and an ultimately failure.
Preventive measures which should be taken against failure due to scour are:
(a) Providing deep piles both at upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor. The piles should
be driven much below the calculated scour depth.
(b) Providing launching aprons of suitable length and thickness at upstream and downstream ends of the
impervious floor.
5.5.2. Design of Impervious Floor for Subsurface Flow
11
5.5.2.1. Bligh’s Creep Theory
Bligh assumed that the percolating water creeps along the base profile of the structure, which is in contact with the
subsoil. The length of the path thus traversed by the percolating water is called the creep length. Bligh also
assumed that the head loss per unit length of creep (called hydraulic gradient) is proportional to the distance of the
point from the upstream of the
Foundation (constant).

Figure 5.6 a Bligh’s creep theory

y – Sketch
Shortcoming of this theory is that it does not discriminate between the horizontal and vertical creeps in estimating
the exit hydraulic gradient.
Creep length, L, is given by
L= b + 2d1 + 2d2 + 2d3
As the hydraulic gradient is constant, if L1 is the creep length up to any point, then head loss up to this point will be
(H/L) L1 and the residual head at this point will be (H - (H/L) L1).
The head losses at the three cutoffs will be (e.g.)
(H/L) 2d1, (H/L) 2d2 and (H/L) 2d3
The reciprocal of the hydraulic gradient, i.e., L/H is known as Bligh’s coefficient of creep, C.
According to Bligh
(a) Safety against piping: The creep length should be sufficient to provide a safe hydraulic gradient
according to the type of soil.
L = CH
Bligh recommended certain values of C for different soils. According to Bligh if the hydraulic
Gradient (H/L = 1/c) ≤1 (for the soil) there is no danger of piping.
Table 6.1 Recommended values of Bligh coefficient of creep C and safe hydraulic gradient
Safe
Type of soil Value of C Hydraulic Gradient
Light sand &mud (River Nile) 18 1/18
Fine Micaceous sand 15 1/15
Coarse grained sand 12 1/12
Sand mixed with boulder and gravel; and for loam 5 to 9 1/9 to1/5
soil

(b) Safety against uplift pressure

The ordinate of the subsoil hydraulic gradient line above the bottoms of the floor at any point

12
 Represents the residual seepage headOr the uplift pressure at that point.

Figure 5.7b
If h´ is the uplift pressure head at a point under the floor, the pressure intensity is,
P = ρgh′
This is to be resisted by the weight of the floor, the thickness of which is t and density ρ m (for concrete, m = 2400
kg/m3). Downward force per unit area due to the weight of the floor
The design will be economical if the greater part of the creep length (i.e. of the impervious floor) is provided
upstream of the weir where nominal floor thickness would be sufficient. The downstream floor has to be thicker to
resist the uplift pressure. However, a minimum floor length is always required to be provided on the downstream
side from the consideration of surface flow to resist the action of fast flowing water whenever it is passed to the
downstream
Moreover, the provision of maximum creep length on the upstream side of the weir (barrier) also reduces uplift
pressures on the portion of the floor provided on the downstream side of the barrier (Fig 6.7a). This is because a
large portion of the total creep having taken place up to the barrier; the residual heads on the downstream floor are
reduced. Further, (see Fig 6.7b) a vertical cutoff at the upstream end of the floor reduces uplift all over the floor.
Thus, according to Bligh’s theory a vertical cutoff at the upstream end of the floor is more useful than the one at
the downstream end of the floor.
Limitations of Bligh’s Theory
1. Bligh made no distinction between horizontal and vertical creep.
2. The theory holds well as long as horizontal distance between cut-offs or pile lines is greater than twice their
depth.
3. No distinction is made between the effectiveness of the outer and inner faces of sheet piles and short and
long intermediate piles. However, investigations, later, have shown that the outer faces of the end piles are
much more effective than the inner ones. Also intermediate piles of shorter length than the outer ones are
ineffective except for local redistribution of pressure.
4. No indication on the significance of exit gradient. Average value of hydraulic gradient gives idea about
safety against piping. Exit gradient must be less than critical exit gradient (for safety).
5. The assumption, loss of head is proportional to creep length is not true and actual uplift pressure
distribution is not linear, but it follows a sine curve.

13
 6. Bligh did not specify the absolute necessity of providing a cutoff at the downstream end of the floor,
whereas it is absolutely essential to provide a deep vertical cutoff at the downstream end of the floor to
prevent undermining.
5.5.2.2. Lane’s Weighted Creep Theory
Lane made distinction between vertical and horizontal creep. He indicated that the horizontal creep is less effective
in reducing uplift (or in causing head loss) than the vertical creep. He, therefore, used a weightage factor of (1/3)
for the horizontal creep. Thus, the weighted creep length, L w, is given by
Lw = N+V

Where N = sum of all the horizontal contacts and all the sloping contacts less than 45 0 to the horizontal.
V = sum of all the vertical contacts and all sloping contacts greater than 450 to the horizontal.
To ensure safety against piping Lw > C1H
Where H = Total seepage head (difference in water head between upstream and downstream)
C1 = Lane’s coefficient (empirical) of creep
Table 5.2.Recommended values of Lane’s coefficient of creep C1 and safe hydraulic Gradient.

⎛
Type of Soil (Material) Value of C1 Safe Hydraulic Gradient ⎜⎜⎝C11
⎞
⎟⎟⎠

Very fire sand or silt 8.5 1

8.5
Fire sand 7.0 1
7.0
Medium sand 6.0 1
6
Coarse sand 5.0 1
5
Fire Gravel 3.5 1
3.5
Medium Gravel 3.0 1
3
Gravel & Sand 3.5 to 3.0 1
3 .5 1
to 3
Coarse gravel including cobbles 3.0 1
3
Boulders, with some cobble & gravel 2.5 1
2.5
Soft clay 3.0 1
3
Medium clay 2.0 1
2
Hard clay 1.8 1
1.8

14
 Very hard clay or Hard pan 1.6 1
1.6
Clayey Soil 3.0 – 1.0 1 to 1
3 1.6

Lane’s method for determination of the uplift pressure is criticized on the grounds that it is an empirical method
and not based on any mathematical approach. However, because of the simplicity of the method it is also widely
used.
5.5.2.3. Theory of Seepage Flow:
Darcy’s low holds good and Laplace equation can be used in the soil and results in flow net. From the flow net
one can determine quantity of seepage, hydraulic gradient, and uplift pressure.
5.5.2.4. Khosla’s Theory of Independent Variables
The application of the previous three methods is limited to foundation of regular geometry. When the base of the
foundation is on different levels, several cut-off walls are provided and / or the floor is too thick to ignore its
influence on uplift pressure, the previous methods do not give reliable results or are complicated (e.g. Flow net).
Khosla understood the following points over Bligh’s Theory:
 The outer faces of the end sheet piles are more effective than the inner ones and the horizontal length of the
floor.
 The intermediate sheet piles if shorter than the outer ones in length are ineffective except for redistribution
of pressure.
 Undermining starts at downstream end and if exit hydraulic gradient is more than the critical it results in
progressive degradation of the subsoil as a result of piping.
 Reasonably deep vertical cut off at downstream end is necessary to prevent undermining.
To apply the analytical solution to any practical composite profile of a weir or a barrage, Khosla evolved the
method of independent variables. In this method the base of the structure is split up into a number of simple
standard forms of known analytical solutions. The standard forms proposed are:
(a) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile at either end, i.e. at
upstream or downstream end.

Figure 5.8a Pile at upstream end and Figure 6.8b Pile at the downstream end
(b) A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but with no vertical cut-off.

Figure 5.9 Depressed floor

(c) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line at some intermediate position.

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Figure 5.10 Intermediate pile
In general, the usual weir section consists of a combination of all or some of the three forms mentioned above.
Each elementary form is treated as independent of the others. The pressures as a percentage of the water head are
read from Khosla’s curves at the key points. The key points are the junction of the floor and the pile or cut-off
walls, the bottom points of the pile or walls, and the bottom corners in the case of depressed floor. The percentage
pressure observed from the curves for the simple form into which the profile has been broken up, is valid for the
profile as a whole if corrected for:
(i) Mutual interference;
(ii) The floor thickness; and (iii) The slope of
the floor.
Distance less than twice the
e length of the outer pile.

Fig.5. 11 Mutual Interfer ence of Piles

i) Correction for Floor Thickness
In the standard forms with cutoffs, the thickness of the floor is assumed to be negligible. Thus as observed from
Khosla’s curves, the percentage pressures at the junction points E and C pertain to the level at the top of the floor
whereas the actual junction is with the bottom of the floor.
The percentage pressures at the actual points E and C are interpolated by assuming a straight
line pressure variation from the hypothetical point E to D and also from D to C.

Fig. 5.12 Correction for Floor Thickness

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 ii) Correction for Slope of the Floor
A correction is applied for a sloping floor, and is taken as positive for the down and negative for the up slopes
following the direction of flow. The values of correction for various slopes are tabulated below.

Fig. 5.13 Correction for Slope of the Floor

Table 6.3: Correction for floor slope
Slope (V. Correction (%
H) of pressure)
1.1 11.2
1.2 6.5
1.3 4.5
1.4 3.3
1.5 2.8
1.6 2.5
1.7 2.3
1.8 2.0

The correction given above is to be multiplied by the horizontal length of the slope and divided by the distance
between the two pile lines between which the sloping floor is located. This correction is applicable only to the key
points of the pile line fixed at the beginning or the ends of the slope.
Table 6.4: Safe exit gradient for different types of soils
Type of soil Safe exit gradient
Shingle ¼ to 1/5
Coarse sand 1/5 to 1/6
Fine sand 1/6 to 1/7

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 Chapter -6
6. Cross-Drainage works and Drop structure
6.1 Introduction
Cross drainage structure is a structure which is constructed at the crossing of a canal and a natural
drain so as to dispose of drainage water without interrupting the continuous canal supplies.
A cross drainage work is generally a costly construction and must be avoided as far as possible.
In order to reduce
 The artificial canals are generally aligned along ridge line or watershed.
 Diverting one drain into another.
 Changing the alignment of the canal so that it crosses below the junction of two
Drains.
6.2 Types of Drainage Works:
The drainage water intercepting the canal can be disposed off in
Either of the following ways.
1. by passing the canal over the drainage: This may be accomplished either through
i. Aqueduct
ii. Siphon-aqueduct
2. by passing the canal below the drainage: This may be accomplished either by
i. Supper passage
ii. Canal siphon generally called a siphon
3. By passing drain through the canal so that the canal water
And drainage water allowed to intermingle with each other.
i. A level crossing
ii. Inlets and outlets.
1. Aqueducts and siphon aqueducts:
 in these works the canal is taken over the drain such that the drainage water runs below
The canal either freely or under siphoning pressure.
 When the HFL of the drain is sufficiently below the bottom of the canal, so that drainage
Water flows freely under gravity, the structure is known as an aqueduct.
 in this type of work, the canal water is taken across the drainage in a trough supported on
Piers.
 Inspection road is generally provided along with the trough.

1.1 Aqueduct:
An aqueduct is like a bridge except that instead of carrying a road or railway, it carries canal
On its top. Outlets.

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 1.2. Siphon aqueducts:-
However, if the HFL of the drain is higher than the canal bed and the water passes through the aqueduct under
symphonic action, the structure is known as siphon aqueduct. In the case of siphon aqueduct, the drain bed is
generally depressed and provided with puce floor. On the upstream side, the drainage bed may be joined to the
pucca floor either by a vertical drop (when drop is of the order of 1m) or by a glacis (slope of 3:1).
The downstream rising slope should not be steeper than 5:1.

2. 1 Supper passage
In these works the drain is taken over the canal such that the canal water runs below the drain either freely or under
siphoning pressure. When the FSL of the canal is sufficiently below the bottom of the drain trough, we use supper
passage. Supper passage is the reverse of an aqueduct. Inspection road cannot be provided along the canal and a
separate bridge is required for the roadway.

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2.2 canal siphon:-
For effecting economy the canal may be flumed, but the drainage trough is never flumed. If the FSL of the canal is
sufficiently above the bed level of the drainage trough, so that the canal flows under symphonic action under the
trough, the structure is known as a canal siphon or a siphon.
In the case of a siphon the canal bed is depressed and a ramp is provided at the exit so that the trouble of silting is
minimized.

3 .1 Level Crossings:-
In this type of cross drainage work, the canal water and drain water are allowed to
Intermingle with each other.This is provided when large canal and huge drainage (such as stream or a river)
approach each other practically at the same level. A regulator is provided across the drainage just on the
downstream side of the crossing so as to control the discharge passage at the outgoing canal to control the
discharge into the canal sometimes at the incoming canal.

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3.2 Inlets and Outlets:-
An inlet is a structure constructed in order to allow the drainage water to enter the Canal and get mixed with the
canal water and thus to help in augmenting canal Supplies. Such a structure is generally adopted when the drainage
is small and the drain Crosses the canal with its bed level equal to or slightly higher than the canal FSL. For the
canal to remain in regime, the drain water must not admit heavy load of Silt into the canal. When the drainage
discharge is high or if the canal is small, so that the canal Section cannot take the entire drainage water, an outlet
sometimes constructed to Escape out the additional discharge at suitable site. An inlet essentially consists of an
open cut in a canal bank, suitably protected by Pitching to admit the upland drainage water in to the canal. The
beds and the sides of the canal are also pitched for a certain distance Upstream and downstream of the inlet.
Similarly the outlet is another open cut in the canal bank with bed and sides of the Cut properly pitched.

6.3 Selection of Cross-Drainage Works:

Relative levels and discharges: The relative levels and discharges of the canal and of the drainage mainly affect the
type of cross drainage works.
i. If the canal bed level is sufficiently above the HFL of drainage aqueduct is selected.
ii. If the canal bed level is only slightly below the HFL of the drainage and the drainage is small a siphon aqueduct
is provided.
iii. If the FSL of the canal is sufficiently below the bed level of the drainage a supper passage is provided.
iv. If FSL of the canal is slightly above the bed level of the drainage and the canal is of small size canal siphon is
provided.
v. If the canal bed and the drainage bed are almost at the same level crossing is provided.
Performance: As far as possible the structure having an open channel flow should be preferred. Therefore aqueduct
is preferred to a siphon aqueduct.
Provision of road: Aqueduct is better than a supper passage b/c in the former, a road bridge can easily be provided
along with the canal trough at small extra cost.
Size of drainage:
 When the drainage is of small size, a siphon aqueduct is will be preferred
 To an aqueduct as the latter involves high banks and long approaches.
 If the drainage is of large size an aqueduct is preferred.
Cost of earth work: The type of cross drainage work which doesn’t involve large quantity of earth work is
advantageous.
Foundation: The type of cross drainage work should be selected depending on the foundation available at the site.
Cost of construction: The cost of cross drainage work should not be excessive.
Overall cost: The overall cost of the canal banks and the cross drainage works, including maintenance cost should
be minimum.
6.4 Design considerations:
At the site, the drainage should cross the canal alignment at right angle.
The stream at site should be stable.
For economical design the foundation at site should be strong and firm.
The site should be such that long and high approaches are not required.
The length and height of the marginal bank and guide bank for the drainage should be small.
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The water table at the site should not be high as far as possible the site should be selected d/s of the confluence of
two streams.
A cross drainage work should be combined with a bridge, if required.

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DEBRE TABORE UNIVERSITY HWRE