FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS

Study Guide 3

GRAPHS

Prepared by Dr. Faleye Sunday

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MODULE 3: GRAPHS

Unit 1 Analytic Geometry 1

Outcomes 1

1.1 Graphs 3

1.2 Cartesian Coordinates and Graphs in the Cartesian Plane 14

1.3 Formules we often use 34

Unit Summary 56

Checklist 57

Unit 2 Relations and Functions 59

Outcomes 59

2.1 Relations and functions in R R 60

2.2 Combining Functions 86

Unit Summary 94

Checklist 96

Unit 3 Straigtht line Graphs 97

Outcomes 97

3.1 Drawing Lines 98

3.2 Finding Equations of Lines 125

3.3 Applications of Lines and Linear Functions 136

Unit Summary 167

Checklist 171
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Unit 4 Parabolas 173

Outcomes 173

4.1 Characteristics of Parabolas defined by y D a.x h/2 Ck 174

4.2 Sketching Parabolas 197

4.3 Finding the Equation of a Parabola 214

4.4 Using Parabolas and Quadratic Functions 222

Unit Summary 231

Checklist 233

Unit 5 Hyperbolas 235

Outcomes 235

5.1 Characteristics of Hyperbolas 235

5.2 Inverse Proportion 253

Unit Summary 257

Checklist 258

Unit 6 Combinations of Graphs 260

Outcomes 260

6.1 Graphs, Graphs and More Graphs 260

Unit Summary 278

Checklist 280

ANSWERS 281

REFERENCES 304
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UNIT 1: The Set of Real Number

OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

1.1: Graphs

I Choose an appropriate scale (if an accurate graph is required) or mark vertical and horizontal lines in
a suitable way (if an illustration of information is required) and plot given data, taking into account
whether the graph consists of separate dots, or whether the dots can be joined in some way.

I Interpret information conveyed by a given graph.

1.2: Cartesian Coordinates and Graphs in the Cartesian Plane

I Represent solutions of equations or inequalities in one variable by means of a one–dimensional graph

(i.e. on a number line).

I Find coordinates of a given point in the Cartesian plane, or, if the coordinates are known, locate the
point.

I Use a table of values to draw a graph.

I Use an equation to set up a table of values and hence draw a graph.

I If a graph represents an equation

B find the x– and y–intercepts of the graph
B determine whether or not a given point lies on the graph, i.e. whether or not the coordinates of the
point satisfy the equation of the graph
B find values of x for which y > 0; y D 0 (i.e. the x–intercept) or y < 0
B recognise from the quadrant in which a point lies whether x > 0 or x < 0 and whether y > 0 or
y < 0.

1.3: Formulas we often use

I Use the Theorem of Pythagoras.

I Use the distance formula.

I Use the midpoint formula.

I Find the standard equation of a circle with radius r and centre at .0; 0/ .
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I Use the equation of a circle to find out whether a point lies on the circle or not.

I Find the standard equation of a circle with radius r and centre at

.h; k/ 6D .0; 0/.

I Given the equation of a circle, find the centre and radius of the circle.

I Given the coordinates of the end points of the diameter of a circle, find the equation of the circle.
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1.1 Graphs
WHAT IS A GRAPH?

Graph is pictorial representation of information.

What do you think of when you hear the word “graph”? Most of us think of some kind of picture that
represents certain information. As an example, look at the graphs shown in Figures 1.1.1(a) and (b). They
illustrate reading patterns of shoppers in a shopping centre (Figure 1.1.1(a), taken from F & T Weekly, 11
September 1998), and education levels in South Africa in 1995 (Figure 1.1.1(b), taken from the South Africa
Survey, 1996 - 1997). In magazines and newspapers graphs are often included because they look attractive,
but the information they convey may not always be immediately clear.

Figure 1.1.1(a)

Note

The type of graph in figure 1.1.1(a) is called a bar graph or bar chart.
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Education levels of people over the age of 20:1995

No education 13% Degrees 3%

Diplomas 7%

Gr 1 Std 5 24 %
Matric 19%

Std 6 Std 9 34%

Figure 1.1.1(b)

Note

The type of graph in figure 1.1.1(b) is called pie graph or pie chart.

Graphs such as these can only be drawn after a substantial amount of data has been collected. Certain
representations of data result in scatter graphs, pie graphs (such as Figure 1.1.1(b)), or bar graphs (for example
Figure 1.1.1(a)).

Graphs can help us absorb at a glance much more information than we could grasp if we were given the same
information in written form. Consider the following hypothetical cricket match.

Suppose Paul is bowling. Michael makes 56 runs before he is caught by the wicket keeper. Figure 1.1.2
shows the different paths of the ball during the first over (six balls bowled). Obviously, the more overs there
are, the more difficult it is to show the different paths on the same sketch.
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Figure 1.1.2

Note
The type of graph in figure 1.1.2 is called scattered graph or scattered chart.
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Suppose we have the following information.

Approximate path Number of times the

followed by the ball ball travels that path
Towards third man 5
Towards fine leg 4
Towards square leg 4
Towards mid–wicket 2
Towards mid–on 10
Towards mid–off 9
Towards cover 12
Towards point 7
Towards gully 2
Towards wicket keeper 1

Table 1.1.1

Table 1.1.1 is called a frequency table because it shows the frequency of a particular event (i.e. the number
of times the event takes place). We can represent the information in the frequency table differently, by means
of a graph, using dots to link corresponding items of information, as in Figure 1.1.3.

12

Number 10
of times
ball 8
travels
a given 6
path
4

third fine square mid- mid- mid- cover point gully wicket
man leg leg wicket on off keeper

Approximate path taken by the ball

Figure 1.1.3
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In the graph we see that

I the graph is a record of only one particular cricket match and we cannot generalise the information to
future matches

I there is no relationship between the different dots

I it would make no sense to join the dots

I the distances between the marks on the horizontal line that represent the different paths of the ball are
arbitrarily chosen, and it makes no difference how we space the marks (it looks better to have the spaces
between the marks the same, but it makes no difference to our understanding if they are different)

I the marks that represent the number of times the ball travels along the different paths are carefully
chosen so that the distances between them are the same (the distance between 5 and 10 should be the
same as the distance between 10 and 15).

SCALE

This leads to the idea of a scale. A scale makes use of small units to denote bigger units. On a graph we
use a system of marks to indicate given intervals. For example, we may consult a map where 1 centimetre
represents 100 kilometres. This means that if the distance between two towns on a map is 2,3 centimetres,
then the actual physical distance between the two towns is (2,3 100) kilometres, i.e. 230 kilometres.

In any scale drawing the lengths of successive line segments must be the same.

Note
We define lines and line segments in Module 4.

For example,
0 km 10 km 20 km 30 km

A B C D

is an acceptable representation of distance, since the length of line segment AB is equal to the lengths of the
segments BC and C D, and they all represent the same distance. However,

0 km 10 km 20 km 30 km

A B C D

is not acceptable, because line segments AB and BC both represent 10 km, but the length of AB 6D the length
of BC.
 8

When we draw graphs to represent certain information we need to decide what type of graph to draw. For
example, should we use a pie graph, bar graph or some other type? If we draw graphs such as in Figure 1.1.3,
we need to

I decide what information should be represented along the horizontal line, and along the vertical line

I decide how accurate the graph needs to be; if we need an accurate graph (possibly for the purpose of
using it to predict a value), we may need to use squared paper (called graph paper)

I choose a suitable scale for each set of data we need to represent.

Let us now consider a graphical representation of two different problems. In Example 1.1.1 we consider
distance and time, with speed constant. In Example 1.1.2 we consider numbers of people performing a task,
and the time they take to complete it, all working at the same constant rate.

EXAMPLE 1.1.1

Suppose Mishak travels by car at an average speed of 80 km/h. Determine the distance he has travelled after
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 hours. Show this information on a graph. Can we predict a pattern?

SOLUTION

Time (in hours) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Distance (in kilometres) 80 160 240 320 400 480

Table 1.1.2

500

400

Distance 300
(in km)
200

100

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (in hours)

Figure 1.1.4
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There are several facts to note about this graph.

I For time we have chosen a scale of 1 cm represents 1 hour, and time is represented along the horizontal
line.

I For distance we have chosen a scale of 1 cm represents 100 km, and distance is represented along the
vertical line.

I There seems to be a straight line relationship between time and distance, and we might predict that if
additional points were to be included they would follow the same pattern.

I It is logical to put a dot at zero, since it represents the fact that “at the beginning (i.e. when no time has
yet passed) Mishak’s car has travelled no distance”.

I We may join the dots by means of a straight line if we assume that Mishak travels at a constant speed
and does not stop.

We have already learnt that

distance D speed time

and we know that if d D st, with s constant, then d and t are in direct proportion to each other. Hence we see
a possible link between straight lines and direct proportion. We will investigate this further in Unit 3. You
may want to revise direct proportion. See Module 1, Unit 3.

EXAMPLE 1.1.2

Suppose Moses has a few hundred notices to fold and seal in envelopes. If he works alone it will take him 8
hours to complete the task. He has several friends who offer to help him. If each of his friends works at the
same rate as he does, the task will be completed by

I him and one friend (i.e. 2 people) in 8

2
hours, i.e. in 4 hours

I him and two friends (i.e. 3 people) in 8

3
hours, i.e. in 2 32 hours

I him and three friends (i.e. 4 people) in 8

4
hours, i.e. in 2 hours.
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We now represent this information on a graph.

9
8
7
Time (in
6
hours) to
5
complete
4
the task
3 X

2
1

1 2 3 4
Number of people carrying out the task

Figure 1.1.5

There are again several facts to note about this graph.

I The number of people is represented along the horizontal line, and time is represented along the vertical
line.

I We have chosen a scale of 1,5 cm represents 1 person on the people line and 1 cm represents 2 hours
on the time line.

I The graph clearly illustrates that the more people who help, the less time the task will take.

I It makes no sense to include a dot a zero. If no people fold notices and seal them in envelopes, the task
will never be undertaken.

I It makes no sense to join the dots, because a dot at the point x, for example, would indicate a time taken
by 2 12 people.

I The shape of the graph suggests that we could include more dots, in positions corresponding to the
natural numbers 5, 6, 7, etc., on the horizontal line. However, we realise that in practice we cannot
carry on indefinitely including more people.

Example 1.1.2 illustrates a situation such as “the more ... the less ...”, and we can represent this by means of
the formula
c
t D I c a constant;
n
where t represents time (in this case measured in hours) and n represents the number of people. This formula
represents indirect proportion.
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In Example 1.1.2 we have c D 8.

The graph of the equation t D nc that describes indirect proportion is not a straight line. The graph of this
equation is an example of a hyperbola, and we study graphs such as these later, in Unit 5. You may revise
indirect proportion (also called inverse proportion) in Unit 3 of Module 1.

The examples in this study unit illustrate that graphs often arise out of the need to have a “picture” to represent
specific data. Much data can be quantified, and graphs then illustrate numerical relationships between the
variables involved. At times there are only two variables involved, such as the relationship between distance
and time (where speed is constant). We may also work with three or more variables, but we do not do so in
this module.

In the graphs we have been discussing we have used rather vague language, such as

– the line representing the number of people

– dots corresponding to items of information

– joining dots

but in order to use graphs properly we need to be more specific. We need to step back from real–life examples
and look at the basic characteristics of graphs in general.

You already know (from the geometrical representations of numbers and intervals that we dealt with in Unit
1 of Module1) that a statement about a single variable can be represented by a point, or an interval, or the
union of intervals, on the real number line. In the next section we extend this idea to the representation of
statements involving two variables by a subset of the Cartesian plane.

EXERCISE 1.1

1. (a) Use the given frequency table, and sketch (not on graph paper) a graph to represent the informa-
tion.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Average
daily 21 C 24 C 19 C 16 C 12 C 10 C 7C 5C 8C 15 C 19 C 23 C
tempera-
ture

(b) Does the information represent a place in the northern or southern hemisphere?
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2. A family travels by car from Polokwane to Pretoria. They leave Polokwane at 09:00. They stop twice,
the first time to change a flat tyre, and the second time just before Pretoria for petrol and cooldrinks.
The journey is illustrated by the graph in Figure 1.1.6.

300

Distance
200
(in km)

100

0 1 2 3 4
Time (in hours)

Polokwane - Pretoria trip

Figure 1.1.6

From the graph, try to answer the following questions.

(a) How far had they travelled by 10:00?

(b) How long did they spend changing the tyre?
(c) How far is Polokwane from Pretoria?
(d) When did they reach the half–way stage between Polokwane and Pretoria?
(e) How long did they take to fill up with petrol and have something to drink?
(f) What time did they reach Pretoria?
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3. The graph in Figure 1.1.7 represents the distance a car travels in 6 seconds, from a stationary position.

90

80

70

60

50

Distance 40
travelled
(in metres) 30

20

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (in seconds)

Figure 1.1.7

Use the graph to answer the following questions.

(a) What does the dot at zero represent?

(b) How far has the car travelled in the first two seconds?
(c) What distance has the car travelled between the 2 second and 4 second marks?
(d) Has the car travelled faster or slower during the phase from 2 to 4 seconds, than during the phase
from 0 to 2 seconds?
(e) After how many seconds does the car begin to travel at a constant speed?
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1.2 Cartesian Coordinates and Graphs in the Cartesian Plane

THE CARTESIAN PLANE

One–dimensional graphs

We introduced the idea of a number line in Module 1. Every real number can be represented by a point on
a number line and every point on a number line represents a real number. We also use a part or parts of a
number line to represent the solution set of an equation or inequality in one variable. We can think of this as
a one–dimensional graph. The graph of an equation or inequality in one variable is thus the set of points on a
number line representing all real numbers which satisfy that equation or inequality.

For example, when we solve an equation in one variable, such as

2x C 3 D 15; x 2 R
the solution is only one number, in this case
x D 6:

This solution can be represented on a number line.

0 6
"
The only point on the real
number line which represents
the solution of the equation.
The graph of the equation 2x C 3 D 15

Figure 1.2.1

If we solve an inequality in one variable, such as

x C3 7; x 2 R
the solution is an interval in R, and in this case we obtain
x 4; x 2 R:
The solution can also be represented graphically, on a number line as in Figure 1.2.2.
All these points represent
solutions of the inequality.

4
The graph of the inequality x C 3 7

Figure 1.2.2
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Two–dimensional graphs

Since we often work with equations or inequalities in two variables we are interested in extending this notion
of a graph to graphs in two dimensions. In order to do this we must first define the Cartesian (or rectangular)
coordinate plane.

What does the word “coordinate” mean? The word is pronounced (and sometimes written) as “co–ordinate”.
From the Concise Oxford Dictionary we have the idea that this is a mathematical word, relating to “a system
of magnitudes used to fix position ...”.

Think of a map of Pretoria. One such map locates the Unisa Pretoria campus by means of the symbols 23D4.
If we do not understand this notation we will not be able to use the map. In 23D4, 23 represents the map
(page) number and D and 4 tell us that we will find the place in the block where column D and row 4 cross
each other. We could say that D and 4 are the coordinates of Unisa on this map. Since the columns are
marked differently from the rows it does not matter whether we use the symbol D4 or 4D to locate the place
we have identified.

What about the word “plane”? The easiest way to describe the meaning of the word is to use its character-
istics: it is an unbounded flat surface. In everyday life we see examples of bounded surfaces; they have
two dimensions only, namely length and breadth. Remember: we also use the word “width” for “breadth”.
Mathematically a plane has no thickness, but the objects we suggest as examples of planes obviously have
some thickness. A table top, a piece of writing paper or the floor have certain common characteristics: they
are bounded flat surfaces, and we can measure their length and breadth. As we have already seen, a straight
line has one dimension only, and a box has three dimensions (height as well as length and breadth).

We often make use of the idea of coordinates when we give directions.

Suppose you live in a city where the roads and blocks form a rectangular grid. Look at Figure 1.2.3. Suppose
you live at A, and you want to explain to a friend living at B how to reach you.

Figure 1.2.3
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The clearest instructions you could give might be the following.

Travel east until you have crossed 4 blocks.

From there travel north until you have crossed 2 blocks.

If you wanted to give your friend a note for future reference, you could possibly write down something like
this.
North

A 2

1
B
East
0 1 2 3 4

Figure 1.2.4

This is a very rough sketch in a two–dimensional plane that represents a given situation. In this sketch the
numbers represent the ends of complete blocks, i.e. 1 indicates that we have crossed 1 whole block, 2 indicates
that we have crossed 2 blocks, and so on. We also need to be sure that we specify the starting and end points.
In Figure 1.2.4 we begin at B, and end at A.

The important numbers are 2 and 4, and you can see that it makes a big difference to your directions whether
you say “4 east, 2 north” or “2 east, 4 north”.

The idea of order is also important when we consider equations or inequalities in two variables, and the
graphical representation of their solutions.

Consider the equation

y D 2x C 3; x 2 Z
and consider some possible values of the independent variable (x) and corresponding values of the dependent
variable (y).

Possible value Corresponding Solution of the equation

of x value of y
3 3 x D 3 and y D 3
2 1 x D 2 and y D 1
1 1 x D 1 and y D1
0 3 x D0 and y D3
1 5 x D1 and y D5

Table 1.2.1
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ORDERED PAIRS

In mathematical notation we make use of ordered pairs to represent the information given in the last column
of Table 1.2.1. Instead of writing “ x D 2 and y D 1”, we can write this solution as follows.

. 2; 1/
" "
possible x value corresponding y value
(independent variable) (dependent variable)

Order is important in this notation, because for example x D 1 and y D 2 is not a solution (when x D 1
we obtain y D 1 and not y D 2). Hence we recognise that there is a difference between ( 2; 1) and
( 1; 2).

CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

In the same way that we represent a single variable such as x on the real number line, we are also able to use
two perpendicularly intersecting number lines to create a plane in which we can represent ordered number
pairs of the form (x; y). These perpendicular lines form a rectangular coordinate system. We call this a
rectangular system because the horizontal and vertical axes intersect each other at right angles.

We call this the Cartesian coordinate system, and say that the plane that consists of points which represent
all possible pairs of ordered real numbers is the Cartesian plane. The system was devised by René Descartes
(1596–1650), who was a French mathematician, philosopher and scientist.

Note
That it is also possible to set up non–rectangular coordinate systems, but we will not consider other systems
in this module.

In the Cartesian system we make use of specific terminology. Have a look at Figures 1.2.5, 1.2.6 and 1.2.7.
 18

y
The vertical real number line is usually called
the y _ axis and labelled y.
Each point in the plane
is identified by an
ordered number pair.
The point P corresponds
to 2 on the x _ axis P ( 2,4) 4 4 is the y _ coordinate of the point P.
and 4 on the y _ axis.
3

2
Lengths of intervals on the The horizontal real number
x _ axis should be the same. 1 line is usually called the
x _ axis and labelled x.
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3
x
0
2 is the x _ coordinate The zero on both lines needs
1
of the point P. to be labelled only once.
2 The point where the x _ axis
and y _ axis intersect represents
3 the ordered number pair (0,0).
Lengths of intervals It is called the origin. We do not
on the y _ axis should 4 always label this point.
be the same.
5

Figure 1.2.5

In Figure 1.2.5 we note the following.

I The word origin is used to convey the sense of a starting point, i.e. a point from which the counting
process originates, or begins. The origin represents .0; 0/.

I The point P can be called the graph of ( 2, 4).

I ( 2, 4) are the coordinates of P.

I 2 is called the x–coordinate of P; 4 is called the y–coordinate of P.

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I We apply the convention that we represent the independent variable (which we usually call x) on the
horizontal axis, and the dependent variable (which we usually call y) on the vertical axis. The horizontal
axis is then called the x–axis, and the vertical axis is called the y–axis. The plural of the word axis is
axes.
For example, in Figure 1.1.4 (in Study Unit 1.1A) we represent time on the horizontal axis, and distance
on the vertical axis. How far you travel depends on how long you travel, i.e. we have used time as
the independent variable and distance as the dependent variable. (Note that we could have done this
differently, with distance as the independent variable, since how long you travel also depends on how
far you go.)

I If the axes are called the x–axis and the y–axis, then the plane is often referred to as the x y–plane.

I We have the same scale on both axes. We often use the same scale on both axes, but there are times
when we need to use different scales. Unless we need accurate graphs we do not need to measure the
spaces between the numbers on the axes so that they are exact, but they should look exact.

I We identify the point P by means of the ordered pair . 2; 4) but we also speak of the point ( 2; 4).

I The axes divide the Cartesian plane into four quadrants. The word quadrant is associated with one
quarter of a circle or sphere. Note that the points on the axes do not belong to any specific quadrant.
See Figure 1.2.6.

y
II I

x < 0, y >0 x > 0, y >0

(a, 0) All points on the x _ axis

x
have a y _ coordinate of
a
zero.
III IV

x < 0 , y <0 x > 0, y <0

All points on the y _ axis (0, b)

have an x _ coordinate of
zero.

Figure 1.2.6

We have used the Roman numerals I, II, III and IV to label the quadrants. The counting of the quadrants
follows an anti–clockwise direction.
 20

Finding the coordinates of a given point

If we are given some point P in the plane, we can determine its coordinates in the following way. When we
use the word “line” we mean a straight line. Through P draw two lines (when we use the word ‘line’ we
mean a straight line), one perpendicular to the x axis and the other perpendicular to the y axis, as in Figure
1.2.7. These lines cut the x–axis where x D a and the y–axis where y D b. We then assign to the point P the
ordered pair (a; b). The first number in the pair is called the x coordinate of P and the second number the
y–coordinate of P. Remember that we call (a; b) an ordered pair since the order of the numbers is important.
We say that P is the point with coordinates (a; b) and we denote the point by P.a; b) or by P D .a; b/.

3 P ( a , b)
b
2

x
3 2 1 1 2a 3 4
1

Figure 1.2.7

Using the coordinates to find a point

We can also reverse this process. If we are given the coordinates (a; b) we can use them to locate the point P
in the plane. We can start with a: find the number a on the x axis and draw a vertical line through it. We
then find the number b on the y axis and draw a horizontal line through it. The point where these two lines
intersect is the point P.

Plotting points

The process of indicating the position of a point in the plane using its coordinates is called plotting the point.
In Figure 1.2.8 a few points have been plotted in the Cartesian plane. As you would expect, the sketch (on
the next page) clearly shows that the point (1; 2) is not the same as the point ( 2; 1).
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3
(2,3)
2
( 2 ,1)
1
(0,0)
x
3 2 1 1 2 3 4
1

2 (1, 2)
( 2, 2 )
3

Figure 1.2.8

ACTIVITY 1.2.1

(a) Write down the coordinates of the points A, B, C and D given in Figure 1.2.9.
y

4 B

D 2

1
C
x
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
1 A

Figure 1.2.9
 22

(b) Draw a system of axes and plot the following points.

A (3, 1); B (1, 3); C. 1; 0/; D(0, 1)

(c) In which quadrants do the following points lie?

A(1, 5); B. 10; 1/

SOLUTION

(a) A D .2; 1)
B D .0; 4/
C D .4; 0/
D D . 1 21 ; 2/

Note that we do not have an accurate sketch on graph paper, so we cannot be certain that the x–
coordinate of D is exactly 1 21 . However, for the purpose of this activity, since it seems that the
x–coordinate of D lies exactly halfway between 1 and 2, we may accept that it is 1 12 .

(b) The points are shown in the figure below.

3 B (1,3)

D (0,1) 1 A (3,1)
C ( 1 ,0)
x
3 2 1 1 2 3 4
1

Figure 1.2.10

(c) A (1, 5) lies in quadrant I.

B. 10; 1/ lies in quadrant III.
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GRAPHS IN THE CARTESIAN PLANE

TERMINOLOGY OF GRAPHS

Instead of the instruction “plot the following points ...” we may also be asked to “graph the points”. This use
of the word graph is more common in American textbooks. However, it highlights the fact that in this sense
a graph is a collection of points, i.e. some subset of the Cartesian plane. We can often identify that subset by
means of an equation or inequality.

The figures we have given so far consist of random isolated points in the Cartesian plane. However, many of
the graphs we deal with consist of separate points that follow a given pattern (for example the graph in Figure
1.1.5), or points that can be joined together to form a particular curve or line in the plane. In Unit 3 you will
learn more about lines, and in Units 4 and 5 you will learn about two specific curves, namely parabolas and
hyperbolas.

Table of values

In Example 1.2.1 we give a table consisting of specific numbers in the x–row, and related numbers in the
y–row. When we draw a graph from the information contained in such a table, we refer to the table as a table
of values. We may be given the table of values, or we may be given an equation from which we can set up an
appropriate table of values. In either case, the table is just another way of identifying the ordered pairs (x; y)
that we use when we plot points that form the graph.

EXAMPLE 1.2.1

Use the given table of values to draw a suitable graph.

x 3 2 1 0 1 2
y 5 3 1 1 3 5

SOLUTION

We plot the points . 3; 5/; . 2; 3/; . 1; 1/; .0; 1/; .1; 3/ and .2; 5/ in the Cartesian plane. This gives
us the following graph.
 24

y
5

x
3 2 1 1 2 3
1

Figure 1.2.11

Note

Although the points lie on the same line, we may not join them, or include additional points, because in this
case the only information we have is the information that is contained in the table of values.

Consider the next example. In this case the relationship between the two quantities represented by the vari-
ables x and y has been expressed as an equation.

EXAMPLE 1.2.2

Suppose we have the equation y D x 2 C 1; x 2 R. Set up a table of values and sketch a graph to represent
this equation.

SOLUTION

Since x 2 R, we can choose any values of x (the independent variable) and calculate the corresponding
values of y.

We choose x D 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2 and 3, and have the following table of values.

 25 MAT0511/001

For convenience we break up the expression x 2 C 1 into its component parts. We can thus first calculate x 2 ,
and then x 2 C 1.
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
y D x C1 10 5 2 1 2 5 10

From this table we plot points in the Cartesian plane as follows.

y
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
3 2 1 1 2 3

Figure 1.2.12

In this case we know that x is any real number, and hence we may also choose any other real values of x. If
we choose a few more values of x and calculate the corresponding values of y, we see that all the points we
find fit into the existing pattern, and we conclude that in this case we can join the points and extend the curve
indefinitely to give the graph in Figure 1.2.13.
y

10

x
3 2 1 1 2 3

Figure 1.2.13
 26

We say that the equation y D x 2 C 1; x 2 R, generates the points that give us this graph.

Suppose we have the equation

y D x 2 C 1; x 2 R and 3 x 3:

We may again join the points shown in Figure 1.2.12 (since x 2 R), but we may not extend the curve any
further, since we only have information relating to real values of x between and including 3 and 3. Figure
1.2.14 shows the graph that represents this situation.

10

1
x
3 3

Figure 1.2.14

Let us investigate further the terminology of graphs. Study the comments on the opposite page in relation to
Figure 1.2.15.
y

( p, q) ( c, d )

b
x

Figure 1.2.15
 27 MAT0511/001

The coordinates of a point on a graph satisfy the equation that defines the graph.

I The graph of an equation in two variables is the curve (or line) which contains the points whose coordi-
nates (x; y) satisfy the equation. We say that the ordered pair (x; y) satisfies an equation if substituting
the given value of x into the equation yields the corresponding value of y. For example
(1, 3) satisfies y D x C 2, since if x D 1 then y D 1 C 2 D 3
(1, 3) does not satisfy y D 3x 1, since if x D 1 then y D 3.1/ 1 D 2 6D 3.
Thus, in Figure 1.2.15, if the graph represents an equation, then (c; d) satisfies the equation and ( p; q)
does not satisfy the equation.

Intercepts on the axes and equations of the axes

I The graph cuts the x–axis when x D b. We call this number the x–intercept of the graph.

I The point of intersection of the graph with the x–axis is the point (b; 0), since y D 0 everywhere on
the x–axis. If the graph represents an equation, the coordinates (b; 0) satisfy that equation.

I The equation of the x–axis is y D 0. We deal with equations of lines in Unit 3.

I The graph cuts the y–axis when y D a. We call this number the y–intercept of the graph.

I The point of intersection of the graph with the y–axis is the point (0; a), since x D 0 everywhere on
the y–axis. If the graph represents an equation, the coordinates (0; a) satisfy that equation.

I The equation of the y–axis is x D 0. We deal with equations of lines in Unit 3.

I Since (c; d) lies in quadrant I , we have c > 0 and d > 0.

Since a lies above the x axis, we have a > 0.
Since b lies to the left of the y–axis, we have b < 0.

I The graph lies above the x–axis for all values of x such that x > b. (Another way of understanding
this is to interpret “above the x–axis” in the sense of “associated with positive y–values”.)

I The graph lies below the x–axis for all values of x such that x < b. (We can interpret “below the
x–axis” as “associated with negative y–values”.)
 28

Figure 1.2.16 may be helpful. Study it together with Figure 1.2.6.

Positive numbers on the

y _ axis are above the
horizontal line

Negative numbers on the

x _ axis are on the left
of the vertical line
x
0
Positive numbers on the
x _ axis are on the right
of the vertical line

Negative numbers on the

y _ axis are below the
horizontal line

Figure 1.2.16

The words above and below, horizontal and vertical, are used here in a two–dimensional context, although in
everyday life we usually use them in a three–dimensional context. For example, the first level of a building
is above ground level, and the basement is below ground level. We think of the floor as a horizontal surface
(with the dimensions length and breadth) and the walls as vertical structures (whose height we can measure).

In the Cartesian plane we “borrow” the words vertical, horizontal, above and below from everyday language,
although they do not have exactly the same meaning.
 29 MAT0511/001

ACTIVITY 1.2.2
y

( m , n)
y = ax 2 + bx + c

r s x

t
( p, q)

Figure 1.2.17

This graph is an example of a parabola. We deal with graphs such as these later, in Unit 4. The graph in
Figure 1.2.17 represents the equation y D ax 2 C bx C c, where a, b and c are non–zero real numbers. Use
the graph to answer the following questions.

(a) What are the x–intercepts of the graph?

(b) What are the points of intersection of the graph with the x–axis?

(c) What is the y–intercept of the graph?

(d) What is the point of intersection of the graph with the y–axis?

(e) Consider all points .x; y/ on the graph. For what value(s) of x is y 0?

(f) For what value(s) of x does the graph lie below the x–axis?

(g) Explain what the following statements mean.

( p; q) satisfies the equation y D ax 2 C bx C c.
(m; n) does not satisfy the equation y D ax 2 C bx C c.

(h) How can you deduce from the graph that both statements in (g) are true?

(i) If .x; y/ denotes a point on the graph, for what value of x will y reach its smallest value?

(j) Replace ? with > or <.

p?0 m?0
q?0 n?0
r?0 t?0
s?0
 30

SOLUTION

(a) The x–intercepts of the graph are r and s.

(b) The points of intersection of the graph with the x–axis are (r; 0) and (s; 0).

(c) The y–intercept of the graph is t.

(d) The point of intersection of the graph with the y–axis is (0; t).

(e) We know from (a) that y D 0 when x D r or when x D s. Now the points on the graph for which
y > 0 correspond to the sections of the graph above the x–axis. The graph lies above the x–axis when
x < r , and again when x > s. Putting all this information together we have the answer

y 0 for all x 2 R such that x r or x s:

Make sure you understand why we use “or” and not “and”.

(f) The graph lies below the x axis for r < x < s (i.e. for all values of x between, but not including, r
and s).

(g) ( p; q) satisfies y D ax 2 C bx C c means that when we substitute x D p into the right side of the
equation, we will obtain y D q.
(m; n) does not satisfy y D ax 2 C bx C c means that if we substitute x D m into the right side of the
equation, we will not obtain y D n.

(h) ( p; q/ will satisfy the equation y D ax 2 C bx C c since the point ( p; q) lies on the graph that represents
the equation.
(m; n) cannot satisfy the equation since the point .m; n/ does not lie on the graph.

(i) The lowest point on the graph is the point ( p; q/. Thus if .x; y/ denotes a point on the graph, the
smallest value that y can attain is y D q. It reaches this value when x D p.

(j) p > 0 m<0

q<0 n>0
r <0 t <0
s>0
 31 MAT0511/001

EXERCISE 1.2

k C l;
1. The graph in Figure 1.2.18 is one branch of the graph which represents the equation y D x C m
where x 2 R, and where k; l and m are non–zero real numbers.

P ( p, q)

b x

y = _____
k +l
x +m

Figure 1.2.18

The graph which represents the equation is a hyperbola which has two branches. We study hyperbolas
in Unit 5.
Answer the following questions related to the portion of the graph shown in Figure 1.2.18.

(a) What is the x intercept of the graph?

(b) What is the point of intersection of the graph with the y axis?
(c) If .x; y/ is a point on the graph, for what value(s) of x is y 0?
(d) If .x; y/ is a point on the graph, for what value(s) of x is 0 < y < a?
(e) How can we find out whether or not P D . p; q) lies on the graph?
k > l? (Hint: Remember that if k >
(f) What values of x satisfy the inequality x C l then
m x Cm
k C l > 0.)
x Cm
 32

2. Suppose the following line represents the equation

y D 2x C 1I x 2 R; x 1:
y

1
x

Figure 1.2.19

(a) Does the point (3, 7) lie on the line?

(b) Does the point ( 2; 3) lie on the line?
(c) If .x; y/ lies on the graph, for what values of x is 1<y 1?
(d) What is the y intercept of the graph?

3. The graph in Figure 1.2.20 is a circle with centre O D .0; 0/ and radius 4 units. The circle has the
equation x 2 C y 2 D 16. Each of the points A; B; C; D, and E has coordinates (x; y), where x 2 R
and y 2 R .
y
4
A

4 E
x
4 0

C 4

Figure 1.2.20

We will study graphs of circles in Section 1.3.

 33 MAT0511/001

(a) Match A; B; C; D and E with the following statements.

(i) 0 < x < 4 and 0 < y < 4
(ii) x > 4 and y D 0
(iii) 4 < x < 0 and 0 < y < 4
(iv) 0 < x < 4 and 4<y<0
(v) 4 < x < 0 and 4<y<0
(b) Let E be the point .5; 0/. Show algebraically that E does not lie on the circle.
(c) How can we show algebraically that B lies on the circle?
(d) What is the distance between the origin O and D?
(e) What is the distance between the two points of intersection of the graph with the y axis. What
name do we usually give to the line that passes through the centre and joins two points on the
circle?
(f) What is the distance between the origin and the negative x intercept? What do we usually call
the line that joins the centre and a point on the circle?
 34

1.3 Formulas we often use

THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS, DISTANCE AND MIDPOINT
FORMULAS

If we look at Figure 1.2.17 in the last study unit it is clear that if we know the values of p; q; r; s and t we
will be able to answer questions such as the following.

I How far apart are the x–intercepts?

I How far below the x–axis is the y–intercept?

I How far below the x–axis is the lowest point of the graph?

Let us assume p; q; r; s and t have the values shown in Figure 1.3.1 and let us try to answer these three
questions.
y

1 3
x
-1 3
1
2 _2
3

_ 2 _1
2

(1,-3)

Figure 1.3.1

From the graph we find the following.

I The x–intercepts are 4 units apart (the distance from 1 on the x–axis to the origin is 1 unit; the
distance from the origin to 3 on the x–axis is 3 units, and we thus have a total distance of 4 units).

I The y–intercept is 2 14 units below the origin.

I The lowest point on the graph is 3 units below the x–axis (the y–coordinate of the lowest point is 3,
hence the distance between it and the corresponding point on the x–axis is 3 units).
 35 MAT0511/001

Note
It should be clear that the measurement of distance cannot ever be a negative number.

These distances are easy to find, but suppose now that we wanted to know the length of the line from (1; 3) to
.3; 0/. We need various formulas that will enable us to calculate distances such as these. The algebraic study
of lengths and distances based on the coordinate representation of points is part of coordinate geometry or
analytic geometry.

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

The distance between two points P.x1 ; y1 / and Q.x2 ; y2 / is denoted by d.P; Q/. The distance between P
and Q is defined as the length of the line segment joining P and Q. We denote this line segment by means
of P Q.

Note that some books use P Q to

P represent this line segment.

The distance between P and Q is the length of P Q

Figure 1.3.2

EXAMPLE 1.3.1

Suppose farm A is 6 km west of town B, and town C is 8 km south of farm A. Farm D is 16 km west of town
C, and town E is 12 km south of farm D. How will we find the distance from town B to town E if we travel
via town C?

SOLUTION

Diagrams make problems like these much easier to understand. We assume north, south, west and east mean
due north, south, west and east, i.e. the north–south line and the west–east line are perpendicular to each
other.
 36

Have a look at Figure 1.3.3.

6 km
A B

8 km

D 16 km
C

12 km

Figure 1.3.3

Suppose we draw the diagram to scale, so that 1 cm represents 4 km. If we measure the line segments we
find that
Length of EC D 5 cm
Length of C B D 2 12 cm.
Thus the total length is
1 1
Length of EC C Length of C B D .5 C 2 / cm D 7 cm:
2 2
Now 7 21 cm represents (7 12 4) km. Hence the total distance between E and B is 30 km.

Suppose we have measurements which we cannot easily convert by means of a scale to produce lines that we
can measure accurately and hence determine distance. We can then solve the problem by using the Theorem
of Pythagoras.

THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS

Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician. He was born round about 572 BC, and founded a famous school
where philosophy, mathematics, music and the natural sciences were studied.

Consider Figure 1.3.4.

A

c
b

C B
a

A right triangle

Figure 1.3.4
 37 MAT0511/001

We note the following.

We use the symbol 4 to represent any triangle.

I 4 ABC is a right triangle. (It has a right angle, i.e. an angle that measures 90 , at C. On the sketch
the right angle is marked by means of a small square where the vertical and horizontal lines meet.)

I By convention, we denote the length of the side opposite the angle at A by means of a; we use b for
the length of the side opposite B and c for the length of the side opposite C.

I The side opposite the right angle in any right triangle is called the
hypotenuse. In 4 ABC the hypotenuse is AB.

We have the following theorem.

THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS

The square on the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal in area to

the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides. In terms
of Figure 1.3.4 we thus have

c2 D a2 Cb2 : (1.3.1)

Consider Figure 1.3.5 on the next page.

In (iii) we have a right triangle where a; b and c denote, respectively, the lengths of two sides and the hy-
potenuse. Consider the two big squares indicated by (i) and (ii) in Figure 1.3.5. Each of these squares has
sides of length a C b. Hence the area of each square is the same, i.e. .a C b/2 . Area D length breadth.

b a a b

a
a a c
b
c

c
a
b b
c
b
a c b

b a b a
(i) (iii)
(ii)

Figure 1.3.5
 38

Draw Figure 1.3.5 onto a piece of paper, using any convenient measurements for a and b, making b larger
than a. Cut up the first square (i), along the lines shown so that you have six pieces (four right triangles
congruent to the given right triangle, one small square of side a and one big square of side b). Cut up the
second square (ii), along the lines shown, so that you have five pieces (the square of side c, i.e the square
on the hypotenuse, and four right triangles congruent to the given triangle). Put all the squares and triangles
back together again so that you have the two big squares shown in (i) and (ii) of the sketch.
Note
“Congruent” means “identical in shape and size”. There are several conditions for congruency and we discuss
them in Module 4.

In both the squares in Figure 1.3.5 we can now remove the four triangles. Since the two big squares were
equal in area to begin with, it follows that what is left after removing triangles that are equal in area, must
still be equal in area.

This illustrates that the two remaining squares in the diagram (i) together have the same area as the remaining
square in the diagram (ii). However we emphasise that an illustration that a certain fact is true in one specific
case is not a proof that it is true in general. In other words we have

a 2 C b2 D c2 :

We can state the Theorem of Pythagoras in the following way.

If ABC is a right triangle with c the length of the hypotenuse and a and b the lengths of the other two sides,
then
a 2 C b2 D c2 :

In words we state this as follows.

If 4 ABC is a right triangle then the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares
of the lengths of the other two sides.

We can also formulate the converse of this theorem. “converse” means “reasoning in the opposite direction”.

If 4 ABC is such that the lengths of the sides are a, b and c, and a 2 C b2 D c2 , then 4 ABC is a right
triangle with hypotenuse of length c.
 39 MAT0511/001

ACTIVITY 1.3.1

(a) Calculate the length of the hypotenuse in each of the following right triangles.

(i) (ii)
H
m
12 c

F
P

3 cm 5 cm

Q R
4 cm G

(b) Show that 4 ABC is a right triangle.

2 cm
A B

2 cm
2
cm

SOLUTION

(a) (i) Let the length of the hypotenuse P R be q cm. Then

q 2 D32 C 42

, q 2 D25

, qD 5:

But we know that length cannot be negative, hence q D 5 and thus the length of the hypotenuse
is 5 cm.
 40

(ii) Let the length of the hypotenuse G H be f cm. Then

f 2 D52 C 122

, f 2 D169

p
, f D 169

, f D 13:

Since f > 0 it follows that f D 13. Hence the length of the hypotenuse is 13 cm.
We begin by considering b2 , since it appears that the right angle is at B.
p p
(b) In 4 ABC, if b2 D a 2 C c2 , then 4 ABC is a right triangle. Now b D 2 cm, c D 2 cm and a D 2
cm. Thus

p p
a 2 C c2 D. 2 cm/2 C . 2 cm/2

D2 cm2 C 2 cm2

D4 cm2
and
b2 D.2 cm/2

D4 cm2
i.e. we have
b2 Da 2 C c2

and hence 4 ABC is a right triangle.

Now try to do Example 1.3.1 again, in a different way.

ACTIVITY 1.3.2

Use the Theorem of Pythagoras to calculate the distance between the towns B and E given in Example 1.3.1.
 41 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

We refer to Figure 1.3.3. By the Theorem of Pythagoras we see that in 4 D EC

d 2 D e2 C c2
D 162 C 122
D 256 C 144
D 400:

Since d 0 we have d D 20, i.e. the distance from E to C is 20 km.

In 4 AC B

a 2 D c2 C b2
D 62 C 82
D 36 C 64
D 100:

Since a 0 we have a D 10, i.e. the distance from B to C is 10 km.

Thus the distance from E to B is the sum of these two distances, i.e. 30 km.

Note that we have used the same letter, c, to represent two different lengths in this activity. In the first case
c represents the length of D E in 4 D EC, and in the second case c represents the length of AB in 4 ABC.
Since C occurs in both triangles it is acceptable to use c to represent the lengths of the side opposite C in
each case, although we understand that c in 4 D EC is not equal to c in 4 ABC.

In Activities 1.3.1 and 1.3.2 we have used the Theorem of Pythagoras to calculate the length of the hy-
potenuse, where the lengths of the other sides have been given. We can also use this theorem to calculate the
length of one side of a right triangle, if we know the length of the other side and of the hypotenuse.

EXAMPLE 1.3.2
Suppose 4 P Q R is a right triangle, with the right angle at Q.
R

15 cm

P Q
4 cm

Calculate the length of Q R.

 42

SOLUTION

Let the length of Q R be p cm. By the Theorem of Pythagoras, p 2 C 42 D 152 . Now

p 2 C 42 D152

, p 2 D225 16

, p 2 D209

p
, pD 209:
p
Thus the length of Q R is 209 cm. (209 is not a perfect square, or the product of a perfect square and some
other number, and we thus leave the answer as a square root, i.e. in surd form.) We discussed surds in Unit 4
of Module 1.

DISTANCE FORMULA

Not all lengths can be calculated by considering line segments as sides of right triangles. We thus need
another way of calculating distances. We have the distance formula. Consider Figure 1.3.6.

Q( x 2 , y 2 )
y2

y2 y1

y1
P ( x 1, y 1 ) R ( x2 , y1 )

x
x1 x2
x2 x1

Figure 1.3.6

We want to determine the distance between two points P and Q in the Cartesian plane. We derive a formula
 43 MAT0511/001

based on the Theorem of Pythagoras, but once we have the formula we do not need to create right triangles
each time we need to calculate a length, although this might help.

For convenience we use the notation (x1 ; y1 ) to represent the coordinates of the point P, and .x2 ; y2 / to
represent the coordinates of the point Q. We locate a third point in the plane, namely R, by completing a right
triangle with P Q as the hypotenuse. Since R is as far above the x axis as P is, it has the same y coordinate
as P, namely y1 . Since R is as far to the right of the y axis as Q is, it has the same x coordinate as Q,
namely x2 .

The length of P R is x2 x1 since the distance between P and R is the distance between x1 and x2 on the
x axis, and x2 > x1 .

The length of Q R is y2 y1 since the distance between Q and R is the distance between y1 and y2 on the
y axis and y2 > y1 . Now, in the right triangle P Q R, let the length of the hypotenuse be r . Then, by the
Theorem of Pythagoras we have
r 2 D .x2 x1 /2 C .y2 y1 /2 :
p
Hence d.P; Q/ D r D .x2 x1 /2 C .y2 y1 /2 . (Since distance is non–negative we only consider the
positive square root.) Hence we have the following formula.

Note that this discussion refers to points P and Q in the first quadrant. We will obtain the same formula
always, regardless of the quadrants in which P and Q lie.

DISTANCE FORMULA

The distance d.P; Q/ between the points P.x1 ; y1 / and Q.x2 ; y2 / is

given by

q
2
d.P; Q/ D .x2 x1 /2 C y2 y1 : (1.3.1)

Note that if Q lies directly above P then

x1 D x2 and y2 > y1 :

Hence
y2 y1 > 0

and thus
p
d.P; Q/ D .y2 y1 /2
D y2 y1 :
 44

In each of the following calculate the distance between the given points. Leave answers in surd form where
necessary.

(a) A(3, 1); B( 4; 5)

(b) O(0, 0); P( 4; 3)

(c) P( 1; 5); Q( 2; 3)

SOLUTION

(a)
p
d.A; B/ D .x2 x1 /2 C .y2 y1 /2
p
D . 4 3/2 C . 5 1/2
p
D . 7/2 C . 6/2
p
D 49 C 36
p
D 85
p
Thus the distance between A and B is 85 units.

(b)
p
d.O; P/ D .x2 x1 /2 C .y2 y1 /2
p
D . 4 0/2 C . 3 0/2
p
D . 4/2 C . 3/2
p
D 16 C 9
p
D 25
D 5

Thus the distance between O and P is 5 units.

(c)
p
d.P; Q/ D .x2 x1 /2 C .y2 y1 /2
p
D . 2 . 1//2 C .3 . 5//2
p
D . 1/2 C .8/2
p
D 1 C 64
p
D 65
p
Thus the distance between P and Q is 65 units.
 45 MAT0511/001

MIDPOINT FORMULA

We now consider how to find the midpoint M.x; y/ of the line segment that joins P.x1 ; y1 / and Q.x2 ; y2 /.
Consider Figure 1.3.7.

y
Q ( x2, y2 )
y2

M ( x, y)
y S
x2 x

P ( x 1 , y 1)
y1 R
x x1
x
x1 x x2

Figure 1.3.7

In 4 M Q S and 4 P M R we have the length of M Q equal to the length of P M (since M is the midpoint of
P Q). We also have Q MO S D M PO R (since P RkM S, the corresponding angles are equal) and M QO S D P MO R
(since Q SkM R we have another pair of equal corresponding angles). Thus the triangles P M R and M Q S
are congruent. Hence P R and M S have the same length. Now

length of P R D length of M S

, x x1 Dx2 x

, 2x Dx2 C x1

x1 C x2
, xD :
2

y1 C y2 x1 C x2 ; y1 C y2 .
In a similar way we obtain y D 2 : Thus M.x; y/ D 2 2

We have the following formula.

 46

MIDPOINT FORMULA

The midpoint M.x; y/ of the line segment from a point P.x1 ; y1 ) to

another point Q.x2 ; y2 / is
2 y1 Cy2
M.x; y/D x1 Cx
2
; 2 (1.3.3)

One of the conditions that determines that two triang–les are congruent is that a side and two angles of the
one should be equal to the corresponding side and two angles of the other. You may wish to come back to
this again once you have studied Module 4.

ACTIVITY 1.3.4

y1 C y2
Show how we obtain the y–coordinate of M, i.e. y D 2 .

SOLUTION

As given in the derivation of x D x1 C x2

2 , we have that 4 M Q S and 4 P M R are congruent. It follows that
the length of Q S is equal to the length of M R. Now

length of QS Dlength of MR

, y2 y Dy y1

, 2y Dy2 C y1

y1 C y2
, yD :
2

EXAMPLE 1.3.4

Suppose P. 1; 2/ and Q.2; 5/ are two points in the plane.

(a) Determine the distance d.P; Q/ between P and Q.

(b) Determine the midpoint M.x; y/ of the line segment joining P and Q.

(c) Check that M.x; y/ is the midpoint by calculating the distance between M and P, and between M and
Q.
 47 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

(a)
p
d.P; Q/ D .x2 x1 /2 C .y2 y1 /2 By (1.3.2).
Thus
p
d.P; Q/ D .2 . 1//2 C . 5 2/2
p
D 32 C . 7/2
p
D 9 C 49
p
D 58:

(b)

x1 C x2 y1 C y2
M.x; y/ D ; By equation (1.3.3):
2 2
Thus
1C2 2 5
M.x; y/ D ;
2 2
1 3
D ; :
2 2

(c)
s
2 2
1 3
d.M; P/ D 1 C 2
2 2
r
9 49
D C
4 4
r
58
D
4
p
58
D
2
s
2 2
1 3
d.M; Q/ D 2 C 5
2 2
r
9 49
D C
4 4
r
58
D
4
p
58
D
2

Thus d.M; P/ D d.M; Q/, and hence M is the midpoint of the line segment joining P and Q.
 48

THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE

We can also use the distance formula obtained in Study Unit 1.3A to find the equation of a circle. We know
that a circle is a set of points which lie at a fixed distance r (called the radius) from a fixed point (called
the centre). In any circle the diameter is the line segment that passes through the centre, and joins any two
points on the circle. Consider the circle with centre (0,0) and radius 2 units shown in Figure 1.3.8.

( x, y)

2
x
(0,0)

Figure 1.3.8

Note that we use the word “radius” in two different ways. It describes the line segment from the centre to
any point on the circle; it also describes the distance from the centre to the point on the circle, i.e. the length
of the line segment joining the centre and a point on the circle. Similarly the word “diameter” denotes both
the line segment and its length.

CIRCLES WITH CENTRE AT THE ORIGIN

Let .x; y/ be any point on the circle. Then, by the distance formula, the distance from the origin to (x; y),
p p
i.e. the radius, is given by .x 0/2 C .y 0/2 . Thus x 2 C y 2 D 2, i.e. the equation of this circle is
x 2 C y 2 D 22 , or x 2 C y 2 D 4.

In general, if the radius is given by r we have the following formula.

STANDARD FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE

WITH CENTRE AT .0; 0/ AND RADIUS r

The equation of a circle with centre .0; 0/ and radius r is

x2 C y 2 D r 2 (1.3.4)

Consider Example 1.3.5.

 49 MAT0511/001

EXAMPLE 1.3.5

Find the equation of the circle sketched below. The origin is the centre.
y

(- 2 ,1)

Figure 1.3.9

SOLUTION

When the centre of a circle is the origin and its radius is r it has the equation x 2 C y 2 D r 2 . In Figure 1.3.9
the point ( 2; 1) lies on the circle, and hence the coordinates of the point satisfy the equation of the circle.
Thus

. 2/2 C 12 Dr 2 :
We thus have
4 C 1 Dr 2
and hence
r 2 D5:

Thus the equation of the circle is x 2 C y 2 D 5.

Now try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 1.3.5

Show that the point P. 2; 3) does not lie on the circle with centre at the origin and radius 4 units.

SOLUTION

The equation of the circle with centre .0; 0/ and radius 4 units is

x 2 C y 2 D 16:
 50

If P lies on this circle then the coordinates of the point P must satisfy the equation x 2 C y 2 D 16. Now, if
we substitute x D 2 and y D 3 into the left side of the equation, then

x 2 C y 2 D . 2/2 C 32
D 4C9
D 13
6D 16:

Thus the coordinates . 2; 3) do not satisfy the equation and hence P does not lie on the circle.

Before we move on, try one more activity.

ACTIVITY 1.3.6

Consider the sketch below which shows the circle with centre at the origin and radius 4 units, and the circle
with centre at the origin and radius 5 units. The point P lies between the two circles.

P ( x, y)

4 5 x

Figure 1.3.10

Describe algebraically the numerical boundaries of the distance between P and the origin.

SOLUTION

The distance from P to the origin is

p p
d.P; O/ D .0 x/2 C .0 y/2 D x 2 C y2:

P lies outside the smaller circle and inside the bigger circle. Thus the distance between P and the origin is
greater than 4 units and less than 5 units. We can thus describe the distance between P and the origin by
 51 MAT0511/001

means of the inequalities

p
4 < x 2 C y2 < 5
i.e.
42 < x 2 C y 2 < 52
i.e.
16 < x 2 C y 2 < 25:

CIRCLES WHERE THE CENTRE IS NOT THE ORIGIN

We now consider a circle with centre (h; k) and radius r , as shown in Figure 1.3.11.

r
( h, k)
( x , y)

Figure 1.3.11

Such a circle consists of all points P.x; y/ whose distance to .h; k/ is r . Again, by using the distance formula,
we obtain q
.x h/2 C.y k/2 D r

i.e. we have the following formula.

THE STANDARD FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A

CIRCLE WITH CENTRE AT .h; k/ AND RADIUS r

The standard form of the equation of a circle with centre .h; k/ and radius r

.x h/2 C .y k/2 D r2 (1.3.5)

 52

EXAMPLE 1.3.6

(a) Consider a circle with centre .1; 2/ and radius 4 units. We substitute h D 1 and k D 2 into equation
(1.3.5) and we obtain
.x 1/2 C .y . 2//2 D 16:

This equation can be simplified, and we have

.x 1/2 C .y C 2/2 D 16:

(b) Consider also a circle with centre . 3; 0/ and radius 6 units. We substitute h D 3 and k D 0 into
equation (1.3.5) and we obtain
.x . 3//2 C .y 0/2 D 62

which we simplify and write as

.x C 3/2 C y 2 D 36:

ACTIVITY 1.3.7

(a) Give the standard equation of the circle with radius 3 units and centre .3; 2/.

(b) What are the centre and radius of the circle with equation

x 2 C .y C 2/2 D 16?

SOLUTION

(a) The standard equation is

.x h/2 C .y k/2 D r 2 :

We have h D 3, k D 2 and r D 3.

Thus we have
.x 3/2 C .y . 2//2 D 32

and hence
.x 3/2 C .y C 2/2 D 9:

(b) We rewrite the equation in the form .x h/2 C .y k/2 D r 2 .

We have
.x 0/2 C .y . 2//2 D 42 :

Hence the centre is (0, 2) and the radius is 4 units.

 53 MAT0511/001

In the next activity you will use the fact that if we denote the diameter of a circle by d and the radius by r ,
then d D 2r .

ACTIVITY 1.3.8

In Figure 1.3.12, P Q is a diameter of the circle. Find the equation of the circle.

( 1 ,3)
P

x
Q
(4, 1)

Figure 1.3.12

Hint: Use the distance formula to find the diameter, and the midpoint formula to find the centre.

SOLUTION

Diameter D length of line segment joining . 1; 3/ and .4; 1/

p
D . 1 4/2 C .3 . 1//2 By (1.3.2).
p
D . 5/2 C 42
p
D 25 C 16
p
D 41
1p
Hence radius D 41
2
r
41
D :
4

q
1 1
Note that we write 2
as 4
.
 54

Midpoint of diameter D centre of circle

1C4 3 C . 1/
Midpoint of diameter D ; By .1:3:3/:
2 2
3
D ; 1 :
2
3
Hence centre D ; 1 :
2

The equation of the circle is

.x h/2 C .y k/2 D r2 By .1:3:5/:

q
where h D 32 ; k D 1 and r D 41
4
.

Hence
3 2 41
.x / C .y 1/2 D
2 4
and we write this as
3 2
/ C 4.y
4.x 1/2 D 41:
2
If we continue simplifying this equation we obtain

4x 2 12x C 9 C 4y 2 8y C 4 D 41

i.e. we have
4x 2 12x C 4y 2 8y D 28

i.e.
x2 3x C y 2 2y D 7:

Note that when we simplify the equation it is not immediately obvious that this represents a circle. But when
completing the square method is use on x 2 C 3x and y 2 2y; we obtain the obvious equation of the circle.
2
That is x 23 C .y 1/2 D 19 2
:

EXERCISE 1.3

1. 4 ABC is a right triangle. The length of the hypotenuse is 10 units, and the length of one other side is
4 units. Calculate the length of the third side.

2. Consider the points A.1; 1/; B.4; 3/ and C.4; 1/. Show

(a) graphically
(b) algebraically

that 4 ABC is a right triangle.

 55 MAT0511/001

3. Show that 4 ABC is not a right triangle, when A D .1; 1/; B D .5; 3/ and C D .4; 2/.

4. For each pair of points P and Q determine the distance d.P; Q/ between them and the midpoint
M.x; y/ of the line segment joining P and Q.

(a) P D .1; 7/ Q D .3; 4/

(b) P D . 1; 1/ Q D . 2; 3/
(c) P D .1; 2/ Q D . 3; 4/

5. Write down the standard equation of the circle with centre C and radius r .
p
(a) C D .0; 0/ rD 2
(b) C D .1; 2/ r D3
p
(c) C D . 2; 3/ r D2 3
(d) C D .0; 1/ r D1

6. Determine the centre C and radius r of each circle defined below.

(a) x 2 C y 2 D 3
(b) .x 1/2 C .y C 2/2 D 36

7. Suppose AB is the line segment joining A and B, where A D .5; 4/ and B D . 1; 2/.

(a) Find the midpoint C of AB.

(b) Find the distance d.C; A/ between C and A.
(c) Write down the equation of the circle that has AB as diameter.

8. Suppose AB is the diameter of a circle where A D . 1; 1/ and

B D .2; 3/. Determine the equation of the circle.
 56

UNIT SUMMARY

The Cartesian coordinate plane R R

B Consists of points P, each represented by an ordered number pair (x; y/ called the coordinates
of P.
B The plane (also referred to as the x y plane) is divided into four quadrants by a horizontal line
(x axis or independent variable axis) and a vertical line (y axis or dependent variable axis),
such that
in quadrant I, x > 0 and y > 0
in quadrant II, x < 0 and y > 0
in quadrant III, x < 0 and y < 0
in quadrant IV, x > 0 and y < 0.
B The axes are perpendicular to each other and intersect at the origin O, where O D .0; 0/.

Plotting points (given in a table of values or generated by some equation) in R R to create graphs

B Choose an appropriate scale.

B If the graph represents an equation then the coordinates of the points satisfy the equation.
B If the coordinates of a point satisfy the equation of the graph then the point lies on the graph.

Important information for any graph

B the x– and y–intercepts of the graph

B the equation of the y–axis is always x D 0
B the equation of the x–axis is always y D 0
B values of x for which y > 0 (i.e. for which the graph lies above the x–axis)
B values of x for which y < 0 (i.e. for which the graph lies below the x–axis)
B values of x for which y 0 (i.e. for which the graph lies above or on the x–axis)
B values of x for which y 0 (i.e. for which the graph lies below or on the x–axis)
We assume the point .x; y/ lies on the graph.

The Theorem of Pythagoras

In any right triangle ABC where CO D 90 we have

c2 D a 2 C b2 :

Converse
If 4 ABC is such that
c2 D a 2 C b2

then 4 ABC is a right triangle with hypotenuse of length c units.

 57 MAT0511/001

Distance formula
The length of the line segment joining P.x1 ; y1 ) and Q.x2 ; y2 / is given by
p
d.P; Q/ D .x2 x1 /2 C .y2 y1 /2 :

Midpoint formula
The midpoint M.x; y/ of the line segment joining P.x1 ; y1 / and Q.x2 ; y2 / is given by
x1 C x2 y1 C y2
M.x; y/ D ; :
2 2

Standard equation of a circle with centre at (0, 0) and radius r is

x 2 C y2 D r 2:

Standard equation of a circle with centre at (h; k) and radius r is

.x h/2 C .y k/2 D r 2 :

CHECKLIST

Now check that you can do the following.

1.1: Graphs

1. Choose an appropriate scale (if an accurate graph is required) or mark vertical and horizontal lines in
a suitable way (if an illustration of information is required) and plot given data, taking into account
whether the graph consists of separate dots, or whether the dots can be joined in some way.
Examples 1.1.1, 1.1.2; Exercise 1.1 (1), (2)

2. Interpret information conveyed by a given graph.

Exercise 1.1 (3), (4)

1.2: Cartesian Coordinates and Graphs in the Cartesian Plane

1. Represent solutions of equations or inequalities in one variable by means of a one–dimensional graph

(i.e. on a number line).
Module 1, Unit 1: see Figure 1.1.1 and Table 1.2.1

2. Find coordinates of a given point in the Cartesian plane, or, if the coordinates are known, locate the
point.
Activity 1.2.1

3. Use a table of values to draw a graph.

Example 1.2.1
 58

4. Use an equation to set up a table of values and hence draw a graph.

Example 1.2.2

5. If a graph represents an equation

B find the x– and y–intercepts of the graph
B determine whether or not a given point lies on the graph, i.e. whether or not the coordinates of the
point satisfy the equation of the graph
B find values of x for which y > 0; y D 0 (i.e. the x–intercept) or y < 0
B recognise from the quadrant in which a point lies whether x > 0 or x < 0 and whether y > 0 or
y < 0.
Activity 1.2.2

1.3: Formulas we often use

1. Use the Theorem of Pythagoras.

Equation (1.3.1); Activities 1.3.1, 1.3.2; Example 1.3.2

2. Use the distance formula.

Equation (1.3.2); Activities 1.3.3, 1.3.8; Example 1.3.4

3. Use the midpoint formula.

Equation (1.3.3); Activities 1.3.4, 1.3.8; Example 1.3.4

4. Find the standard equation of a circle with radius r and centre at .0; 0/ .
Equation (1.3.4); Example 1.3.5

5. Use the equation of a circle to find out whether a point lies on the circle or not.
Activities 1.3.5, 1.3.6

6. Find the standard equation of a circle with radius r and centre at

.h; k/ 6D .0; 0/.
Equation (1.3.5); Example 1.3.6; Activity 1.3.7

7. Given the equation of a circle, find the centre and radius of the circle.
Activity 1.3.7

8. Given the coordinates of the end points of the diameter of a circle, find the equation of the circle.
Activity 1.3.8
 59 MAT0511/001

UNIT 2: Relations and Functions

OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

2.1: Relations and Functions in R R

I Identify the type of correspondence in any relation.

I Identify the domain and range in a given relation.

I Recognise when a relation is a function.

I Determine function values by substituting given domain values into the formula (equation) that defines
the function.

I Identify the natural domain of a function.

I Identify dependent and independent variables in a specific example, and use functional notation cor-
rectly to express the relationship between the variables.

I Recognise when two functions are equal.

2.2: Combining Functions

I Obtain new functions from existing functions by addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

I Calculate the function value when the function is obtained from the sum, difference, product or quotient
of two other functions.

I Determine the natural domain of sum, difference, product or quotient functions.

 60

2.1 Relations and Functions in R R

TERMINOLOGY AND NOTATION

In the previous unit we looked at some specific subsets of the Cartesian plane, consisting of points which all
followed a particular pattern. In some cases the points were plotted from a table of values which was either
given, or set up from a specific equation.

In mathematics, certain subsets of the Cartesian plane interest us more than others. In order to deal with these
ideas in more detail, we need appropriate terminology and notation.

We have already introduced unfamiliar notation in the section heading, where we refer to R R. We use
this to denote the Cartesian plane. It indicates that the Cartesian plane consists of all points which represent
ordered number pairs .x; y/, where x is any real number, and y is any real number. We thus have the following
definition of the Cartesian plane.

Definition 2.1.1
The Cartesian plane represents R R, which
is the set f.x; y/ : x 2 R and y 2 R}.

RELATIONS

We have already considered various subsets of R R. We give these subsets a special name.

Definition 2.1.2
A subset of R R is called a relation.

This just means that a relation in R R is any set of ordered number pairs. These ordered pairs can sometimes
be described by means of a simple rule.

Have a look at the next example.

 61 MAT0511/001

EXAMPLE 2.1.1

Write down a simple rule to specify the relations that are illustrated

(a) in Figure 2.1.1

(b) in Figure 2.1.2.

x
3 -1 1
-1

Figure 2.1.1 Figure 2.1.2

SOLUTION

(a) It is clear that the rule is “draw a circle with centre at the origin and radius 3 units”. From our knowledge
of circles (discussed in Unit 1, Section 1.3) we can express this rule in terms of the equation x 2 Cy 2 D 9.

(b) The relation in this case consists only of eight points, arranged in the form of a square. We could state
the rule as “arrange dots in a square around the origin corresponding only to each of the numbers 1; 0
and 1 on the x– and y–axes”. A rule stated in this way could be ambiguous, and hence we prefer to
state the rule mathematically, as follows.

yD 1 for x 2 f 1; 0; 1g
yD0 for x 2 f 1; 1g
yD1 for x 2 f 1; 0; 1g

In (a) of Example 2.1.1 we can state the rule as an equation which links the value of the dependent variable
with a specific value of the independent variable.

If
x 2 C y2 D 9
then
y2 D 9 x2
 62

i.e. we have the equation

p
y D 9 x 2 I x 2 R, 3 x 3.

In (b) it is more difficult to give a suitable equation. In this case it is simpler to give the relation as a set of
ordered pairs:

{ ( 1, 1), ( 1, 0), ( 1, 1), (0, 1), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1) }.

DOMAIN AND RANGE

When we discuss the rule we use to establish a relation, we need to be very clear about the values we choose
for the independent variable, i.e. the values we choose for the first coordinate of each ordered pair of the
relation. We use a specific word for the set of first coordinates, and also for the set of second coordinates.
These are given in the following definition.

Definition 2.1.3
The set of all first coordinates of the ordered
pairs of a relation is called the domain of the
relation. The set of all second coordinates is
called the range.

The range is sometimes referred to as the image set.

In Example 2.1.1 (a) we have

DomainD fx 2 R : 3 x 3g
RangeD fy 2 R : 3 y 3g:

In (b) we have

DomainD f 1; 0; 1g
RangeD f 1; 0; 1g:

ACTICITY 2.1.1

Can you identify the rule that determines the relation shown in the following table?

x 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 6 9 12 15 18 21
 63 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

From your study of sequences (Unit 3 of Module 2) you will recognise that the domain and range are both
arithmetic sequences, where the general term has the form a C .n 1/d. We consider two possible ways of
identifying the rule that determines the given relation.

Note
The sequence of terms in the domain has a D 1 and d D 1. The sequence of terms in the range has a D 6
and d D 3.

First possibility

+5 +3+2
1 ! 6 i.e. 1 ! 6

+7 +3+2+2
2 ! 9 i.e. 2 ! 9

+9 +3+2+2+2
3 ! 12 i.e. 3 ! 12

From the pattern we can conclude that

y D x C3C2 x D 3x C 3I x 2 N; x 6:

Second possibility

Since d D 3 in the range, we could consider the following pattern.

(3 1)+3
1 ! 6

(3 2)+3
2 ! 9

(3 3)+3
3 ! 12

This yields the same equation as before, i.e.

y D 3x C 3I x 2 N; x 6:
 64

CORRESPONDENCE

The table in Activity 2.1.1 shows a correspondence that exists between two sets of numbers. In each column
in the table, a number in the x row is paired with, or associated with, another number in the y row. For
example, 1 is paired with 6 to form the ordered pair (1, 6).

The ordered pairs in this activity are given in a table. There are many real–life cases in which variables are
linked, such as the relationship between distance and time when speed is constant, discussed in Example
1.1.1 (Unit 1). In the example, Mishak was travelling at a constant speed of 80 km/h, and we make use of the
formula
d D 80 t

to calculate the distance he had covered after he had travelled for a certain time.

One–One correspondence

This example shows a one–to–one correspondence between two sets of data: a set of numbers representing
time, and a set of numbers representing distance.

Consider the data shown in Table 1.1.2 of Study Unit 1.1A. We represent this data differently, as in Figure
2.1.3.
1 80

2 160

3 240

4 320

5 400

6 480
Time (in hours) Distance (in kilometres)
(Domain) (Range)

One–to–one correspondence

Figure 2.1.3

There is exactly one measurement of distance paired with each measurement of time, i.e. there is exactly
one element of the range paired with each value in the domain. A correspondence of this type is called a
one–to–one correspondence.

Not all correspondences are of this type. For example, consider the graph of the relation sketched in Figure
 65 MAT0511/001

2.1.4 below..

y
6 p
r
p .2; 5/
3

2 -x
3
p
3 r
p
.2; 5/

Figure 2.1.4

We represent the domain and range of this relation in Figure 2.1.5. Since there are infinitely many real
numbers bigger than or equal to 3, the diagram only shows selected domain and corresponding range
elements.

2 5
3 5
0
0 3
3

Domain Range

One–to–many correspondence

Figure 2.1.5

From the graph it is clear that all domain elements (except 3) are paired with two different elements in the
range. Figure 2.1.5 thus represents a one–to–many correspondence.

We now consider a third type of correspondence. Suppose a shop has a “ten–minute special”, where selected
items are sold for R5,00 each, regardless of the actual price marked on the item. We then have, for example,
the following pairs (10,98; 5,00), (6,44; 5,00), (11,23; 5,00) representing the original price and special price
of various items. In this case we have many different domain values associated with only one range value, and
we call this type of correspondence a many–to–one correspondence. Note that when decimals are involved
we use a semi-colon (;) to separate the numbers in the ordered pairs.
 66

Figure 2.1.6 illustrates this type of correspondence.

10,98
6,44 5,00
11,23

Domain Range

Many–to–one correspondence

Figure 2.1.6

See whether you have understood the different types of correspondence by trying to do the next activity.

ACTIVITY 2.1.2

Identify the correspondence represented in each of the following cases.

(a)
1
2 2
3
4
5

(b) Suppose x is any whole number that is a perfect square.

- x
Domain Range

(c)
a p

b q
r
c

(d) The distance–time information given in Table 1.1.2 of Unit 1.

 67 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

(a) All five domain elements are paired with the same element in the range, to give the ordered pairs
(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2), (5, 2).
The idea “five to one” tells us that the correspondence is many–to–one. Note that each ordered pair has
a different first coordinate.

(b) The domain is the infinite set of all whole numbers that are perfect squares. Consider for example the
first three perfect squares: 0, 1, 4. Now
p
0 D 0
p
1 D 1 or 1
p
4 D 2 or 2:

We thus have
0 0
1 1
-1
4 2
-2

i.e. we have the ordered pairs .0; 0/; .1; 1/; .1; 1/; .4; 2/; .4; 2/ and the correspondence is one–to–
many. Note that there are now different ordered pairs that have the same first coordinate.

(c) The ordered pairs are

(a, p), (a, q), (b, r ), (c, p).

One of the domain elements (i.e. a) is paired with two different range elements, namely p and q,
and the correspondence appears to be one–to–many. However, two of the domain elements (a and
c) are mapped onto one range element, namely p, which suggests a many–to–one correspondence.
This example, in which a one–to–many correspondence and a many–to–one correspondence occur,
illustrates a many–to–many correspondence.

(d) Each time measurement is paired with a unique distance measurement and each distance measurement
is paired with a unique time measurement. The correspondence is thus one–to–one. All the ordered
pairs have a different first coordinate and a different second coordinate.

In mathematics we are particularly interested in relations in which the correspondence is one–to–one (see
Figure 2.1.3) and many–to–one (see Figure 2.1.6). The important fact about these two types of correspon-
dence is that each value of x in the domain is associated with a unique value of y in the range.
 68

FUNCTIONS

Definition 2.1.4
A function f between two sets of real numbers A and B is a
relation in which each element of A is paired with a unique
element of B.

What does this definition tell us?

I The function f is a set of ordered pairs.

I The set A is the domain of f . For each x 2 A there is a corresponding value of y in B (sometimes
called the image of x). The set of all images is the range of f .

I The elements in f can be determined by some rule, or represented by a table showing the correspon-
dence between x and y, or represented by a set of ordered pairs.

I The correspondence between the domain and the range is either one–to–one or many–to–one, but
never one–to–many.

I Each ordered pair in f has a different first coordinate.

I If there is even just one domain value that is paired with more than one range value, the relation is not
a function.

Figure 2.1.7 represents some function f .

A B
f
x y C

A D Domain of f C D Range of f (C B)

Figure 2.1.7

Do you remember the meaning of the notation and ? If not, see Module 1, Section 1.2.

In order to work with functions, we need suitable notation. We generally denote functions by lower case
letters such as f , g, h, etc., although we occasionally use capital letters F, G, etc.
 69 MAT0511/001

Domain and range

Suppose we denote a function by means of f , and the ordered pairs by .x; y/.

I D f denotes the domain of f .

I R f denotes the range of f .

I f .x/ denotes the value of the function for a particular value of the independent variable x (i.e. f .x/ D
y).

I The equation y D f .x/ defines a function in x.

The functional notation f .x/ was first introduced by the Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler (1707–1783).
We read
y D f .x/

as “y is equal to f of x” or “y is a function of x” and we understand this to mean that y is the answer we

obtain when we take the independent variable x, and apply to it the rule which determines how the ordered
pairs are formed.

For a function f , if we give the ordered pairs in terms of variables other than x and y, for example if we have
.a; b/ 2 f , then we write
b D f .a/:

We read this as “b is equal to f of a”.

In this case we say that the equation b D f .a/ defines a function in a, i.e. a is the independent variable and
b is the dependent variable.

HINT:

I f .x/ does not mean f x. The notation f .x/ refers to the value in the range associated with the
domain element x. If the ordered pairs .x; y/ are elements of f then we write

y D f .x/ D ::::: some rule .such as an equation/ which tells us

what to do with x in order to obtain y:

Hence f .x/ is the value of y for some x 2 D f . If x is an element of the domain of f , then f .x/ is an
element of the range of f .

I f .x/ is not the function f . The function f is the set of all ordered pairs .x; y/ or .x; f .x// in R R,
whereas f .x/ is a single number in R.
 70

Remember

f .x/ 2 R
f R R
i.e. f .x/ 6D f:

or example, suppose f is the function defined by

y D f .x/ D x 2 I x 2 N; 1 x 6:

Then
f D f.1; 1/; .2; 4/; .3; 9/; .4; 16/; .5; 25/; .6; 36/g

whereas
f .1/ D 1; f .2/ D 4; f .3/ D 9; f .4/ D 16; f .5/ D 25; f .6/ D 36:

Functions

Different words are sometimes used for functions. Functions are also called mappings. If we have a function
f such that
y D f .x/ D x 3

i.e. if the function f is defined by y D x 3, then some authors may write

f : x!x 3:

They may refer to f as a “mapping”, and read this statement as:

“The function f maps each x 2 D f onto y 2 R f , where y is determined by the rule y D x 3.”

Read Definition 2.1.4 again. From the discussion immediately after Definition 2.1.4, we know that the word
“each” in the definition is important. Consider the two graphs in Figure 2.1.8.

y y

x x

Figure 2.1.8
 71 MAT0511/001

Suppose we draw a vertical line through each graph. We then have the following figures.
y
y
4 2

x x
2 -1

-2

Figure 2.1.9 Figure 2.1.10

In Figure 2.1.9

I the definition of a function is satisfied, since the correspondence between the domain and range is one–
to–one (for example 2 in the domain is paired only with 4 in the range), i.e. each element of the domain
is paired with a unique element of the range.

I every vertical line through the graph cuts it in only one place.

In Figure 2.1.10

I the definition of a function is not satisfied, since the correspondence between the domain and range is
one–to–many (for example 1 in the domain is paired with both 2 and 2 in the range), i.e. there are
many elements in the domain that are associated with two different elements in the range

I there is a vertical line (through the graph) which cuts the graph in more than one place.

We can thus apply the following useful test when a relation is represented graphically.

THE VERTICAL LINE TEST

Suppose a relation consists of some subset of R R, so that the elements of the relation are pairs
represented by .x; y/, where x 2 R and y 2 R.

I If at all x in the domain of the relation a vertical line cuts the graph of the relation only
once, then the relation is a function.

I If there is at least one x in the domain of the relation where a vertical line cuts the graph of
the relation more than once, then the relation is not a function.
 72

ACTIVITY 2.1.3

Identify which of the following relations (represented by sets of ordered pairs, a rule, or a graph) are func-
tions? Explain why they are functions if they are, and why they are not, in the cases where they are not.

(a) f D f.1; 3/; .3; 1/; .2; 4/; .4; 2/g

(b) y D g.x/ D 3x 2

(c) The relation f shown in the following figure.

y = f (x)

(d) k D f.x; y/ 2 R R: y D 1g

(e) m D f.x; y/ 2 R R: .x 1/2 C .y C 2/2 D 4g

(f) The relation g shown in the figure below.

y = g (x)

x
1
 73 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

(a)
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
The correspondence is one–to–one, hence f is a function.

(b) For any real value we assign to x, we will obtain a unique value for y, and hence g is a function.

(c) A vertical line through the graph at any point on the x axis will only cut the graph once. Hence f is
a function.

(d) Domain Range

- 10

1
- _2

1
0

100

Whatever real value we select for x, it is always mapped to the number 1. The correspondence is thus
many–to–one and hence k represents a function.

(e) We recognise that the equation represents a circle with centre (1, 2) and radius 2. In other words the
domain of the relation is [ 1; 3]. A vertical line drawn through any x in the interval . 1; 3/ will cut
the graph twice, and hence m does not represent a function. Note that we cannot say that because a
vertical line through x D 1 or x D 3 cuts the graph only once, the relation is a function. This has to
be true for all values in the domain. We discussed circles in Unit 1.

(f) Dg D fx 2 R : x 1g
Any vertical line drawn through the graph of g for x > 1 will cut the graph twice. Hence g is not a
function.

SUBSTITUTION

Read the Useful Hint in Study Unit 2.1A again. We have

y D f .x/ D ::::

where the dots indicate a rule which tells us what to do with x in order to obtain y. This suggests that we
may also think of a function as a process.
 74

Function considered as a process

We use the idea of a function as a machine which processes or transforms some input element to produce an
output element. If f is a function then the set of input elements is the domain of f ; the set of output elements
is the range of f .

Function machine

Processes x
x according to a rule f ( x)
for f
output element
input element

Domain of f Range of f

Figure 2.1.11

Compare this with the following example.

Figure 2.1.12

Here tomatoes are the input elements, the machine is a liquidiser, the process is “liquidising food” and the
output is tomato juice.

Suppose a function is defined by a rule, for example, f .x/ D x 2 3x. We want to find the output when the
function has operated on (or processed) a specific input element. We represent

f .x/ D x 2 3x
 75 MAT0511/001

in terms of “boxes” and we have

2
f. /D 3 :

If the input element is |, we find the output element by putting | into each of the boxes. We have

| | |
# # #
2
f. / D 3 .

Then we carry out the operations indicated (i.e. squaring, multiplying by 3) and we have

f .|/ D |2 3|:

Now we will do the same thing where the input element is a specific number. Using the same rule

f .x/ D x 2 3x

and the input element 2, we find the output by putting 2 into each box.

2 2 2
# # #
2
f. / D 3 .

We end up with
2
f .2/ D 2 32:

Written in the usual mathematical way we have

f .2/ D 22 3 2
D 4 6
D 2:

Substitution

This process of replacing the variable x in the rule of a function with a number, or with some other variable
or expression, is called substitution.

Before moving on, check that you have understood the concepts of input, process and output by studying
Table 2.1.1. We use the example above, where

f .x/ D x 2 3x:

The process or rule that defines the function can be expressed in words, as follows.
 76

– square the number

x ! – from the square, subtract the product of the number ! f .x/
and 3

The function machine

Input Apply the function machine Output

(the number we square subtract the product (the answer
choose) the number of the number and 3 we find)
–3 9 9 – 3( 3) 18
0 0 0 – 3(0) 0
1 1 1 – 3(1) 2
5 25 25 – 3(5) 10

Table 2.1.1

We note that

I all possible input values form the domain of the function

I the rule is expressed as y D x 2 3x

I the set of all the possible output values is the range of the function

I some of the points that are generated by applying this process are
. 3; 18/; .0; 0/; .1; 2/ and .5; 10/.

In Table 2.1.1 the input elements are all integers. The table shows the various operations that are carried out
on these input elements to yield the output elements. Now consider the next example. In this case the input
elements are no longer only integers.

EXAMPLE 2.1.2

Suppose we have the function f defined by

y D f .x/ D x 2 3x:

Consider the input elements 1, a and x C 1. Find the corresponding function values (i.e. output elements).
 77 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

By substitution we know that if

f .x/ D x 2 3x
then
f . 1/ D . 1/2 3. 1/
D 1C3
D 4.
Also,
f .a/ D a 2 3a

which cannot be simplified further. Remember, if the input is a, we replace every x with a, and then simplify
if possible.

To determine the output when the input is x C 1, we need to calculate f .x C 1/, i.e. we replace each x with
x C 1. We have

f .x C 1/ D .x C 1/2 3.x C 1/
D x 2 C 2x C 1 3x 3
D x2 x 2:

This example shows that the output element (function value) may be a number, or an expression in the same
variable as the variable that appears in the given rule, or an expression in some other variable.

Now apply these ideas in the next activity.

ACTIVITY 2.1.4

(a) If f .x/ D x 2 C x C 4, calculate the following.

(i) f .1/; f .2/; f .3/; 3 f .1/; f . 2/

(ii) f . x/; f .x/
(iii) f .x C c/; f .x/ C c
(iv) f .x 2 1/
2
(b) If f .x/ D 2xx C21 , determine the following.

(i) f . 1/; f .0/; 2 f .3/; f .2/

(ii) f . x/
(iii) f .x 2)
(iv) f .x/ .x 2/
(v) f .x 2 C 1/
 78

SOLUTION

(a) If f .x/ D x 2 C x C 4, then we have the following answers.

(i)

f .1/ D .1/2 C 1 C 4 D 1C1C4D4

f .2/ D .2/2 C 2 C 4 D 4C2C4D2
2
f .3/ D .3/ C 3 C 4 D 9C3C4D 2
3 f .1/ D 3.4/ D 12
f . 2/ D . 2/2 C . 2/ C 4 D 4 2C4D 2

(ii)

f . x/ D . x/2 C . x/ C 4 D x2 x C4
f .x/ D . x 2 C x C 4/ D x 2 x 4

(iii)

f .x C c/ D .x C c/2 C .x C c/ C 4
D .x 2 C 2cx C c2 / C .x C c/ C 4
D x2 2cx c2 C x C c C 4
D x 2 C .1 2c/x c2 C c C 4
f .x/ C c D x2 C x C 4 C c

(iv)

f .x 2 1/ D .x 2 1/2 C .x 2 1/ C 4
D .x 4 2x 2 C 1/ C x 2 1C4
4 2 2
D x C 2x 1Cx 1C4
4 2
D x C 3x C 2
2
(b) If f .x/ D 2xx C21 , then we have the following.

(i)

2. 1/2 C 1 3
f . 1/ D D D 1
1 2 3
2.0/ C 1 1
f .0/ D D
0 2 2
2.3/2 C 1
2 f .3/ D 2 D 2.19/ D 38
3 2
2.2/2 C 1 9
f .2/ D D which is undefined:
2 2 0
 79 MAT0511/001

(ii)
2. x/2 C 1 2x 2 C 1
f . x/ D D
. x/ 2 x 2
(iii)
2.x 2/2 C 1 2.x 2 4x C 4/ C 1
f .x 2/ D D
.x 2/ 2 x 4
2
2x 8x C 9
D
x 4
(iv)
2x 2 C 1
f .x/ .x 2/ D .x 2/
x 2
2x 2 C 1 .x 2/2
D
x 2
2
2x C 1 x 2 C 4x 4
D
x 2
x 2 C 4x 3
D
x 2
(v)
2.x 2 C 1/2 C 1
f .x 2 C 1/ D
.x 2 C 1/ 2
2.x 4 C 2x 2 C 1/ C 1
D
x2 1
2x C 4x 2 C 3
4
D
x2 1

In (b)(i) of Activity 2.1.4 you were asked to calculate f .2/, but when 2 is substituted for x into the expression
that represents f , we are unable to find an answer. Substituting x D 2 gives zero in the denominator of the
expression, and it is thus undefined.

In many cases we are told what the domain of a particular function is, for example we may have the function
g defined by
y D g.x/ D 3x C 1; x 2 R:
In this case we are given the information that the domain is R.

In other cases we may not be told what the domain is, but, as in (b)(i) of Activity 2.1.4, certain values of the
independent variable lead to an undefined expression. For example, if the function k is defined by
1
y D k.x/ D
x 1
then, when x D 1 the denominator is zero, and k.x/ will thus be undefined.

How do we choose a suitable domain when the domain is not specified? For example, if k and l are functions
defined respectively by
1
k.x/ D and l.x/ D x C 1;
x 1
what are Dk and Dl ?
 80

NATURAL DOMAIN

It is clear that x D 1 will be the only possible value of x for which k.x/ is undefined; no values of x will give
an undefined expression for l.x/. We thus work according to the convention that the domain is the largest
set for which the function is defined. This domain is called the natural domain of the function. Hence
Dk D R f1g and Dl D R. With reference to (b)(i) of Activity 2.1.4, x D 2 is not in the natural domain of
f , i.e. D f D R f2g. In set notation, A B is the set of all elements in A, excluding elements that are in B.
Hence R f2g is the set of all real numbers except 2.

EXAMPLE 2.1.3

(a) What is the natural domain of the function k defined below?

p
k.x/ D x 1

(b) State the natural domain of the function g, where

p
g.x/ D x2 1:

Note that in this module we are only considering functions in R R.

SOLUTION

We know that the square root of a negative number is not a real number.

(a) The function k is defined for all x 2 R such that

x 1 0
i.e. such that
x 1:

Hence Dk D fx 2 R: x 1g:

(b) The function g is defined for all x 2 R such that x 2 1 0. Now

x2 1 0

, x2 1

, x 1 or x 1:

Thus Dg D fx 2 R : x 1 or x 1g:
You may want to revise the solution of inequalities. See Unit 2 of Module 2.
 81 MAT0511/001

Try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 2.1.5

Find D f in each case.

(a) f .x/ D 1
x2 C 1
p
(b) f .a/ D 1 3a
p 1
(c) f . p/ D 5 p C 1

Do not become confused because the variable given in (b) and (c) is no longer x. Remember that we can use
any symbol for the variable.

SOLUTION

(a) Because x 2 C 1 1 we know x 2 C 1 6D 0, and hence f .x/ exists for all x 2 R ; i.e. we have D f D R .

(b) f .a/ exists for all a 2 R such that

1 3a 0

i.e. such that

3a 1
i.e. such that
1
:a
3
Dividing an inequality by a negative number changes the diretion of the inequality sign.
1
Hence D f D fa 2 R : a 3
g.

(c) f . p/ exists for all p 2 R such that

5 p C 1 6D 0
i.e. such that
5 p 6D 1
i.e. such that
1
p 6D .
5
1
Hence D f D f p 2 R : p 6D 5
g:

Before we move on to the following study unit try the next activity which deals with some concepts you learnt
about in Unit 1 as well as some of the concepts discussed in this study unit.
 82

ACTIVITY 2.1.6

The Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales are related by the formula
9
TF D 32 C TC
5
where TF denotes temperature measured in degrees Fahrenheit and TC denotes temperature measured in
degrees Celsius.

(a) When the formula is expressed in this way, which is the independent variable and which is the depen-
dent variable?

(b) Explain why this equation defines a function.

(c) Rewrite this equation in the form

TF D f .TC / D :::::: :

(d) What is the value of the function f when TC D 0 (i.e. when the temperature is zero degrees Celsius,
which is the freezing point of water)?

(e) Can you describe D f ?

(f) Set up a table of values by choosing six possible values of the independent variable and then using the
given formula to calculate the corresponding values of the dependent variable.

(g) Plot the points obtained in (f), using a suitable scale on each axis.

(h) Can these points be joined and can the line or curve formed be extended in some way?

SOLUTION

(a) The independent variable is TC .

The dependent variable is TF .

(b) For every possible value of TC , only one possible value of TF can be paired with it. Hence the set of
ordered pairs (TC , TF ) is a relation in which each element of the domain is paired with a unique element
of the range.
9
(c) TF D f .TC / D 32 C 5
TC

(d) f .0/ D 32 C 95 .0/ D 32, i.e. the temperature 0 C is equivalent to 32 F.

(e) We know that TC will always be some real number. If you have studied physics you may know that
temperatures range from a theoretical minimum of approximately 273 C to over 200 million C (at
the centres of certain stars known as massive blue stars). Mathematically we could describe D f as R,
because the equation
9
TF D 32 C TC
5
 83 MAT0511/001

is defined for all real numbers . However, in practice all the measurements of temperature will be
rational numbers, never less than the theoretical minimum of approximately 273 C.

(f) See the table below.

TC 10 0 10 20 30 40
TF 14 32 50 68 86 104
(g) The independent variable (TC ) is represented on the horizontal axis. Values extend from 10 to 40.
We mark off equal segments (the length we choose is not important) representing 10 units along the
horizontal axis.
The dependent variable (TF ) is represented on the vertical axis. The values extend from 14 to 104. We
mark off equal segments representing 10 units along the vertical axis.

TF
100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

TC
10 10 20 30 40

Figure 2.1.13

The dashed line in Figure 2.1.13 indicates that in practice many real numbers are excluded from the
domain.

(h) Since it is possible to have an infinite number of variations in the measure-

ments of TC we know that there will be infinitely many possible values of TF , and hence it makes sense
to join the dots, as shown in the hashed line in Figure 2.1.13. From (e) we know that we can continue
the line in both directions, up to the point that corresponds to TC D 273 on one side, and up to some
unknown point on the other side.
 84

EQUAL FUNCTIONS

A function may be defined by means of a particular rule or equation. Sometimes the two equations may look
different but may in fact define the same function. For example,

y D 8x 3 C 1

and
y D .2x C 1/.4x 2 2x C 1/

generate the same ordered pairs, and thus define the same function. While this seems to make sense, we need
to know what we mean by “the same” function. We have the following definition.

Definition 2.1.5
Two functions f and g are equal if D f D Dg and f .x/ D g.x/
for all x 2 D f .

EXERCISE 2.1

1. The rule for a function h states that “h assigns to each natural number a value that is three times as big
as that number”. Write down in functional notation the equation that defines h.

2. Consider the equation

2x C 3y D 2:

(a) Explain why this equation defines a function in x. Write the rule in functional notation where

y D f .x/ D ::: :

(b) Explain why this equation also defines a function in y. Write the rule in functional notation where

x D f .y/ D ::: :

3. Consider the function f defined by

y D f .x/ D x 2 C 3; x 2 N0 :

(a) What is the domain of this function?

(b) Use six domain values and set up a table of values for this function.
(c) If you plot dots to represent the six ordered pairs you have found from the table of values, can
you then complete the graph by joining the dots?

4. Write down D f for each of the functions f defined below.

(a) f .x/ D 3x C 2
 85 MAT0511/001

(b) f .x/ D x x 1
p
(c) f .x/ D x C 2
p
(d) f .x/ D x 2 C 2
p
(e) f .x/ D 2x 1
(f) f .x/ D p 1
2x 1
p
(g) f .x/ D x 2 C 3 C 1
p
(h) f .x/ D x 2 3 C 1
p
3
(i) f .x/ D x

5. If a function f is defined by y D f .x/ D 3x C 1, find the following.

(a) f . 1/
(b) f .0/
(c) f .x 2 /
(d) f . x/
p
2
6. If f .x/ D xx C 1 3 , determine the following.

(a) f .2/
f . 4/
(b)
f .4/
(c) f .x 1/
p
(d) f . x/
f .a/
(e)
f . a/

7. The function g is defined by

1
g.x/ D p :
2x C 1

(a) Calculate
1
(i) g. 4
) correct to two decimal places
(ii) g.4/.
(b) Determine Dg .

8. Determine whether f D g, where the functions f and g are defined as follows.

x4 1
(a) f .x/ D I g.x/ D x 2 1
x2 C 1
x2 1
(b) f .x/ D I g.x/ D x 1
x C1
 86

2.2 Combining Functions

ADDITION, SUBTRACTION, MULTIPLICATION AND
DIVISION

We know that a function f in R R, defined by y D f .x/

I consists of ordered pairs .x; y/

I has domain (input) and range (output) which are subsets of R

I the elements of the domain are the values assigned to the independent variable x

I the elements of the range are the values f .x/ obtained for the dependent variable y, i.e. y D f .x/.

Just as machines can work together to perform more complicated tasks, so functions can be combined to form
more complicated functions. The most obvious way to produce new functions from existing ones is to use
the four arithmetic operations (i.e. addition, subtraction, muliplication and division). For example, it would
make sense to define the sum f C g of two functions f and g so that we have

. f C g/.x/ D f .x/ C g.x/;

i.e. we obtain the output element . f C g/.x/ by adding the two output elements f .x/ and g.x/. Since the
outputs f .x/ and g.x/ are real numbers they obey all the rules that apply to operations on real numbers.

See Unit 2 in Module 1.

 87 MAT0511/001

Have a look at Figure 2.2.1.

x x

f ( x) g ( x)

f ( x) + g ( x)
= ( f + g) ( x)

Figure 2.2.1

Consider two functions f and g, and the four arithmetic operations, namely addition, subtraction, multipli-
cation and division. We now define the sum, difference, product, and quotient functions.

Definition 2.2.1
The sum f C g of two functions f and g is defined by

. f C g/.x/ D f .x/ C g.x/

for all x 2 D f \ Dg .

Definition 2.2.2
The difference f g of two functions f and g is defined by

.f g/.x/ D f .x/ g.x/

for all x 2 D f \ Dg .
 88

Definition 2.2.3
The product f g (which we sometimes write as f g or f g)
of two functions f and g is defined by

. f g/.x/ D f .x/ g.x/

for all x 2 D f \ Dg .

We usually write the product as f .x/g.x/, without using the multiplication signs or .

Definition 2.2.4
f
The quotient f g (which we also write as g ) of two functions
f and g is defined by

f f .x/
.x/ D
g g.x/

for all x 2 D f \ Dg such that g.x/ 6D 0.

In these definitions note the following.

f
I f C g, f g, f g and g are also functions.

I We must think carefully about the domain of the new function. For example Definition 2.2.1 makes
sense only if x is a number for which both f and g are defined, i.e. the domain of f C g is the set of
all elements which are common to the domain of f and to the domain of g. Thus the domain of f C g
is the intersection of the domains of f and g. We write

D f Cg D D f \ Dg :

I
f C g D g C f and f g D g f

but
f g
f g 6D g f and 6D
g f

This is consistent with what we already know: addition and multiplication in R are commutative oper-
ations, but subtraction and division are not.
Commutativity is discussed in Unit 2 of Module 1.

I In the case of the quotient of two functions we have to apply the additional condition that the denomi-
nator may not be zero.
 89 MAT0511/001

Table 2.2.1 summarises the definitions of the sum, difference, product and quotient functions generated by f
and g, as well as the respective domains.

Name Definition/rule Domain

Sum of f and g . f C g/.x/ D f .x/ C g.x/ D f Cg D D f \ Dg
Difference f g . f g/.x/ D f .x/ g.x/ D f g D D f \ Dg
between f and g
Product of f and g . f g/.x/ D f .x/g.x/ Df g D D f \ Dg
f f .x/
Quotient of f and g .x/ D D f =g D D f \ Dg
g g.x/
fx 2 Dg : g.x/ D 0g

Table 2.2.1

f
It is important to memorise and understand this Table 2.2.1 Note that we sometimes write g
as f =g.

The following definitions arise from the definitions summarised in Table 2.2.1.

I The reciprocal of g, denoted by g1 , is defined as

1 1
.x/ D :
g g.x/
Note that this arises from the definition of the quotient function, where we have f equal to the constant
function defined by f .x/ D 1. We thus have

D1=g D R \ Dg fx 2 Dg : g.x/ D 0g D Dg fx 2 Dg : g.x/ D 0g:

I The square of f , denoted by f 2 , is defined as

f 2 .x/ D f .x/ f .x/:

This applies to all powers of functions.

This arises from the definition of the product function. It is clear that D f 2 D D f .

EXAMPLE 2.2.1

Consider the functions f and g defined by f .x/ D 2x 1 and g.x/ D x 2 C 3. Calculate ( f C g/. 6/.

SOLUTION

. f C g/. 6/ D f . 6/ C g. 6/
D 2. 6/ 1 C . 6/2 C 3
D 13 C 39
D 26
 90

Now try the next activity.

ACTIVITY 2.2.1

Suppose f and g are functions defined by

1 p
f .x/ D and g.x/ D x:
x 3

(a) Write down D f and Dg .

(b) In each of the following cases determine the equation of the function and write down the corresponding
domain.
f
(i) f C g (ii) f g (iii) f g (iv)
g

SOLUTION

(a) D f D fx 2 R : x D
6 3g Division by zero is undefined.
Dg D fx 2 R : x 0g The square root of a negative number
is undefined.

(b) (i)
1 p
. f C g/.x/ D f .x/ C g.x/ D C x
x 3
D f Cg D D f \ Dg D fx 2 R : x 0 and x 6D 3g

(ii)
1 p
.f g/.x/ D f .x/ g.x/ D x
x 3
Df g D D f \ Dg D fx 2 R : x 0 and x 6D 3g

(iii)
p
1 p x
. f g/.x/ D f .x/g.x/ D x D
x 3 x 3
Df g D D f \ Dg D fx 2 R : x 0 and x D
6 3g

(iv)
f f .x/ 1=.x 3/ 1
.x/ D D p D p
g g.x/ x x.x 3/

D f =g D D f \ Dg fx 2 Dg : g.x/ D 0g
D fx 2 R : x > 0 and x 6D 3g

Note that x D 0 is excluded since g.0/ D 0:

 91 MAT0511/001

Now that you have studied the solution for the activity, it may be a good idea to consolidate your understand-
ing by trying the next activity. Note that the domain in each answer in Activity 2.2.1 is a set, so it must be
expressed in suitable notation. For example, in (b)(ii) it is incorrect to write

Df g Dx 0 and x 6D 3:

Df g is a set in R, whereas x is a number in R.

ACTIVITY 2.2.2

Suppose f; g and h are functions defined by

p 1 x 2
f .x/ D x 2; g.x/ D and h.x/ D 2 :
x C1 x x 2

(a) Write down D f , Dg and Dh .

(b) In each of the following cases determine the equation of the function and the corresponding domain.
(i) 1= f (ii) h=g (iii) f =g (iv) g h

SOLUTION

(a) D f D fx 2 R : x 2g The square root of a negative number

is undefined.
Dg D fx 2 R : x 6D 1g Division by zero is undefined.

Dh D fx 2 R : x 6D 1 and x 6D 2g h.x/ D x 2 ,
.x 2/.x C 1/
and division by zero is undefined.

(b) (i)
1 1
.1= f /.x/ D Dp
f .x/ x 2
D1= f D fx 2 R : x > 2g

(ii)
x 2
h h.x/ .x 2/.x C 1/
.x/ D D
g g.x/ 1
x C1
1 x C1
D
x C1 1
D 1

Dh=g D Dh \ Dg fx 2 Dg : g.x/ D 0g
 92

Consider the two diagrams below.

-1 2

Dh
-1

Dg

Thus Dh \ Dg D fx 2 R : x 6D 1 and x 6D 2g. Now we consider fx 2 Dg : g.x/ D 0g.

Since g.x/ D x C1 we see that g.x/ 6D 0 for all x 2 R f 1g, i.e. for all x 2 D , and hence
1 g
fx 2 Dg : g.x/ D 0g D ;.
Thus Dh=g D R f 1; 2g.

Note
When we determine (h=g) and find that .h=g/.x/ D 1, we may be tempted to say that Dh=g D R ,
but we have to keep in mind the way in which Dh=g is defined.
(iii)
p
f f .x/ x 2
.x/ D D
g g.x/ 1
x C1
p
D .x C 1/ x 2

D f =g D D f \ Dg fx 2 Dg : g.x/ D 0g
D fx 2 R : x 2g \ fx 2 R : x 6D 1g ;
D fx 2 R : x 2g

(iv)

.g h/.x/ D g.x/ h.x/

1 x 2
D
x C1 .x 2/.x C 1/
1 1
D
x C1 x C1
D 0

Dg h D D g \ Dh
D fx 2 R : x 6D 1g \ fx 2 R : x 6D 1 and x 6D 2g
D fx 2 R : x 6D 1 and x 6D 2g
D R f 1; 2g
 93 MAT0511/001

EXERCISE 2.2

p
1. If f .x/ D x 2 1 and g.x/ D x 2, find each of the following (leave your answers in surd form
where necessary).

(a) . f C g/.2/
(b) . f g/.3/
(c) . f g/.4/
(d) . f =g/.6/

2. If p.t/ D 1t and q.t/ D 3t C 1, find each of the following.

(a) ( p C q/.1/
(b) . p q/. 3/
(c) . p q/.2/
(d) . p=q/. 4/

In Questions 3–6, for the given functions f and g, find an equation for each of the
following.

(a) . f C g/.x/
(b) . f g/.x/
(c) . f g/.x/
(d) . f =g/.x/
(e) . f 2 g 2 /.x/
(f) . f 2 C g 2 /.x/
(g) D f Cg
(h) D f =g

3. f .x/ D x 2 C 3x 10 g.x/ D x C 5
p
4. f .x/ D x g.x/ D 3x 2
p
5. f .x/ D x g.x/ D 3x 2
1
6. f .x/ D x 2 1 g.x/ D
x2 1
 94

UNIT SUMMARY

The Cartesian plane is represented by R R.

R R D f.x; y/ : x 2 R and y 2 Rg

A subset of R R is called a relation.

Consider any relation

r D f.x; y/ : x 2 A and y 2 Bg:

A is the domain of the relation.

The range of the relation is the set fy : .x; y/ 2 r and x 2 Ag.

Types of correspondence

Type Example

one–to–one

1 4
3 2
5 0

one–to–many
2

-2

many–to–one
10 5

5
0 0

many–to–many
2 1
4 2

6 3

4
8
 95 MAT0511/001

A function f is a set of ordered pairs in R R in which different ordered pairs have different
x coordinates, i.e. each element of D f is paired with a unique element of Rf .

B The equation y D f .x/ D ::: (i.e. some rule which tells us what to do with x in order to obtain y)
defines a function in x. We call f a function in x.

Substitution
Example
If
p
y D f .x/ D x 3x

we may substitute x D 1 and we obtain

p
f . 1/ D 1 3. 1/
p
D 1C3
p
D 2:

Natural domains of functions

When no domain is specified we work according to the convention that we use the biggest set of real
numbers for which the equation that defines the function makes sense.

Equality of functions
The functions f and g are equal if
D f D Dg

and
f .x/ D g.x/ for all x 2 D f .or x 2 Dg /:

The sum of functions

. f C g/.x/ D f .x/ C g.x/ for all x 2 D f \ Dg :

The difference of functions

.f g/.x/ D f .x/ g.x/ for all x 2 D f \ Dg :

The product of functions

. f g/.x/ D . f g/.x/ D . f g/.x/ D f .x/g.x/ for all x 2 D f \ Dg :

The quotient of functions

f f .x/
.f g/.x/ D .x/ D
g g.x/
for all x 2 D f \ Dg such that g.x/ 6D 0.
 96

CHECKLIST

Now check that you can do the following.

2.1: Relations and Functions in R R

1. Identify the type of correspondence in any relation.

Activity 2.1.2

2. Identify the domain and range in a given relation.

Definition 2.1.3

3. Recognise when a relation is a function.

Definition 2.1.4, Activity 2.1.3

4. Determine function values by substituting given domain values into the formula (equation) that defines
the function.
Example 2.1.2, Activity 2.1.4

5. Identify the natural domain of a function.

Example 2.1.3, Activity 2.1.5

6. Identify dependent and independent variables in a specific example, and use functional notation cor-
rectly to express the relationship between the variables.
Activity 2.1.6

7. Recognise when two functions are equal.

Definition 2.1.5

2.2: Combining Functions

1. Obtain new functions from existing functions by addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Definitions 2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.3 and 2.2.4; Activities 2.2.1, 2.2.2

2. Calculate the function value when the function is obtained from the sum, difference, product or quotient
of two other functions.
Example 2.2.1

3. Determine the natural domain of sum, difference, product or quotient functions.

Activity 2.2.2
 97 MAT0511/001

UNIT 3: Straigth lines

OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

3.1: Drawing Lines

I Draw a line using a table of values.

I Find the slope of a line using the coordinates of two points on the line.

I Draw a line using two points (we usually use the x– and y–intercepts).

I Draw a line using one point on the line and the slope of the line.

I Draw a line which is parallel or perpendicular to a given line.

I Draw vertical and horizontal lines.

I Draw graphs of linear functions with restricted domains.

3.2: Finding Equations of Lines

I Find the slope–intercept form of the equation of a line.

I Find the point–slope form of the equation of a line.

I Find the two–point form of the equation of a line.

I Find the general equation of a line.

3.3: Application of Lines and Linear Functions

I Find the point of intersection of two lines.

I Find the vertical distance between corresponding points on two lines, or between a point on a line and
the corresponding point on the horizontal axis.

I Apply your knowledge of linear functions and straight lines to simple problems involving linear cost
and income functions, break–even points, profit and loss.

I Sketch the graphs of linear inequalities.

I Sketch the graph of the solution set of a system of linear inequalities.

I Recognise equations which show direct or joint proportion and apply these concepts to various real–life
situations.
 98

3.1 Drawing Lines

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF A LINEAR
EQUATION USING A TABLE OF VALUES

We consider the following linear equation in two variables

y D 2x 1I x 2 R: .3:1:1/

From Definition 2.5.1 in Section 2.5 of Module 2 it follows that equation (3.1.1) is linear since it can be
written as 2x y 1 D 0.

How can we represent this equation graphically? In order to answer this question we

I set up a table of values

I plot the corresponding points on a system of axes

I join the points in a meaningful way.

For convenience we use integer values of x from 3 to 3.

x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y D 2x 1 7 5 3 1 1 3 5

Table 3.1.1
 99 MAT0511/001

y
5

x
_4 _3 _2 _1 0
1 2 3 4
_1

_2

_3

_4

_5

_6

_7

Figure 3.1.1

In Figure 3.1.1 we plot the points ( 3; 7), ( 2; 5), ( 1; 3/, (0; 1), (1; 1), (2; 3) and (3; 5) which we
obtain from Table 3.1.1. It is obvious from Figure 3.1.1 that we can join all the points by means of one straight
line that passes through all of them (see Figure 3.1.2). If you are not sure that this is so, you can choose any
non–integer value of x between 3 and 3, calculate the corresponding value of y and plot the point you find.
Repeat this process until you are convinced that the points whose coordinates satisfy the equation all lie on
the straight line.
 100

4 y = 2x _ 1

x
_ _ _ _ _ 0
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
_1

_2

_3

_4

_5

_6

_7

Figure 3.1.2

In Figure 3.1.2 we note the following.

I The graph is a straight line and hence the equation y D 2x 1,

i.e. 2x y 1 D 0, is called a linear equation.

I The y–intercept is 1, and this is the constant in the equation y D 2x 1.

I As the value of x increases so the value of y increases, i.e. the line slants upwards from left to right.

I Since x 2 R the dots can be joined and the line can be extended indefinitely in both directions.

We have already discussed constants. See the discussion regarding polynomials in one variable after Activity
1.1.1 in Unit 1 of Module 2.
 101 MAT0511/001

LINEAR FUNCTIONS

We also note that the equation y D 2x 1 expresses a relationship between x and y in which y is given in
terms of x. From the graph in Figure 3.1.2 it is obvious that for each x–value there is a unique y–value and
thus the equation defines a function in x. Hence we can write

y D f .x/ D 2x 1

and f is called a linear function. Figure 3.1.2 represents the graph of f . We sometimes refer to a graph such
as this as the line l defined by y D 2x 1, and write

l : y D 2x 1;

where the colon means “defined by” or “represented by”. The definition of a linear function is given in the
next study unit. It is incorrect to write l D y D 2x 1, since l is not equal to the equation.

Now try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 3.1.1

Consider the equation y D 2x C 3.

(a) Set up a table of values, using integer values of x from 3 to 3, and draw the line l, where

l : yD 2x C 3:

(b) From the graph give the y–intercept of the line.

(c) Does the line slant upwards or downwards?

SOLUTION

(a) Table of values

x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
yD 2x C 3 9 7 5 3 1 1 3

The line l is sketched in Figure 3.1.3. on the next page.

 102

y = _ 2x + 3 7

x
_ _ _ _
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
_1

_2

_3

Figure 3.1.3

(b) The y–intercept is 3 (the same as the constant in y D 2x C 3/.

(c) The line slopes downwards from left to right, i.e. as the value of x increases so the value of y decreases.

In the next few study units we shall consider various techniques that will help us to draw lines without having
to set up tables of values.

LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND LINES

Equation (3.1.1) and the equation in Activity 3.1.1 are two examples of linear equations of the form

y D mx C c;

where m and c are constants. Both equations represent functions. In general we have the following definition.
 103 MAT0511/001

Definition 3.1.1
Suppose m and c are fixed real numbers (i.e. constants). A function f
defined by

y D f .x/ D mx C c

is called a linear function.

There are two special linear functions which have specific names.

I If m D 0 then f .x/ D c, and f is called a constant function. Note that f maps every real number onto
the real number c.

I If m D 1 and c D 0 then f .x/ D x, and f is called the identity function. This function is called the
identity function because it maps each real number onto itself. It is sometimes denoted by i, i.e.

i.x/ D x for all x 2 R:

Once you have worked through this section you will be able to draw the graphs of the functions defined by
f .x/ D c and f .x/ D x. We shall leave this as an exercise. See Exercise 3.1, question 13.

In Definition 3.1.1, the term “linear” is used because the graphs of all linear functions are straight lines.
However, not all straight lines are the graphs of linear functions. Think, for example, of a line that is parallel
to the y–axis. It has only one x–value in its domain, but this x–value is associated with infinitely many
y–values. It therefore does not represent a function. Note that when we speak about a “line” we mean a
“straight line”.

In the next study unit we consider lines defined by the equation y D mx C c and consider how we interpret c
and m.

THE y–INTERCEPT AND SLOPE OF A LINE

From Figures 3.1.2 and 3.1.3 in Study Unit 3.1A we see that the y–intercepts of the lines defined by y D 2x 1
and y D 2x C 3 are respectively 1 and 3. We can check this algebraically by substituting x D 0 into each
of the equations since x D 0 for every point on the y–axis. By substituting x D 0 into y D 2x 1 and then
into y D 2x C 3 we obtain
y D 2.0/ 1; i:e: y D 1

and
yD 2.0/ C 3; i:e: y D 3

which confirms what we see on the graphs.

 104

Note:

The y–intercept of a graph is the y–coordinate of the point where the graph cuts the y–axis.

In general, if we substitute x D 0 into y D mx C c we obtain

y D m.0/ C c; i:e: y D c:

Thus c is the y–intercept of the line defined by y D mx C c.

SLOPE or GRADIENT

The three lines l1 : y D x C 1; l2 : y D 2x C 1 and l3 : y D 21 x C 1 are drawn on the same system of

axes in Figure 3.1.4. What do the lines have in common and how do they differ?

3 l2
l1
2

1
l3
x
_3 _2 _1 1 2 3
_1

Figure 3.1.4

From Figure 3.1.4 we see that all the lines have the same y–intercept. However, the directions of the lines are
different, i.e. two lines slant upwards and one slants downwards; also each line has a different “steepness”.
Mathematically we use the term slope or gradient to describe the differences in steepness and direction.

In everyday language we speak about a gradient of 1 in 100 which means that for every 100 units (e.g. 100
metres) travelled horizontally we

I rise 1 unit (e.g. 1 metre) if we travel uphill, and

I drop 1 unit (e.g. 1 metre) if we travel downhill.

It is clear then that a hill with a gradient of 1 in 30 is steeper than a hill with a gradient of 1 in 100.
 105 MAT0511/001

ACTIVITY 3.1.2

Consider the line l, defined by y D 2x C 1, drawn in Figure 3.1.5. Points P.x1 ; y1 / and Q.x2 ; y2 / lie on the
line and R is the point .x2 ; y1 /.

y
Q ( x 2 , y2 )

P ( x 1 , y1 )
R ( x 2 , y1 )
1

_ _1 x
2
y = 2x +1

Figure 3.1.5

(a) Calculate the lengths of Q R and P R if x1 D 1 and x2 D 3.

y y1
(b) Calculate x2 x1 using the values determined in (a).
2

(c) Compare your answer to (b) with the coefficient of x in y D 2x C 1.

SOLUTION

(a) The length of Q R D y2 y1 , and the length of P R D x2 x1 .

If x1 D 1 then y1 D 2 1 C 1 D 3.
If x2 D 3 then y2 D 2 3 C 1 D 7.
Hence Q R D 7 3 D 4 and P R D 3 1 D 2.

(b)
y2 y1 4
D D 2
x2 x1 2

y y1
(c) The value of x2 x1 is the same as the coefficient of x in the equation
2
y D 2x C 1.

If we assume that the points P and Q on the line l in Figure 3.1.5 are P.1; 3/ and Q.3; 7/, we see that as we
move from P to Q there is a vertical change of 4 units and a horizontal change of 2 units. The ratio of the
vertical change to the horizontal change is 42 , i.e. 2.
 106

We say that the line has a slope of 2. This gives us the steepness and direction of the line. No matter which
points P and Q we take on the line,we will always find that
the difference between the y–coordinates of P and Q
the difference between the x–coordinates of P and Q
is equal to 2 as long as we subtract the coordinates in the same order in both the numerator and denominator.

Note that if P.x1 ; y1 ) and Q.x2 ; y2 / are two different points on the line then
y2 y1 .y1 y2 / y1 y2
D D :
x2 x1 .x1 x2 / x1 x2
In other words, the answer is the same regardless of which point we use as the starting point, provided we
subtract in the same order in the numerator and denominator.

Now we consider the line with general equation y D mx C c. Suppose two different points P.x1 ; y1 / and
Q.x2 ; y2 / lie on this line. Since P and Q lie on the line the coordinates of P and Q must satisfy the equation
y D mx C c. Thus we have
y1 D mx1 C c

and
y2 D mx2 C c:

If we subtract the first equation from the second we obtain

y2 y1 D mx2 mx1

i.e. we have
y2 y1 D m.x2 x1 /

and hence
y2 y1
m D since x2 6D x1 :
x2 x1
From this expression it is clear that the value of m is the same no matter which two points we choose on a
specific line. We call m the slope of the line. It is determined by considering vertical change in relation to
horizontal change. We have the following definition.

Definition 3.1.2
If two different points P.x1 ; y1 / and Q.x2 ; y2 / are on a line l, then
the slope (or gradient) of l is defined by

y2 y1
mD ; x2 6D x1 :
x2 x1
 107 MAT0511/001

Note

I We have already shown that

y2 y1 y1 y2
D :
x2 x1 x1 x2
Thus the formula for the slope of a line can be given by

y2 y1 y1 y2
mD or m D :
x2 x1 x1 x2

I Different authors use different words to describe the way we determine the slope m of a line. The
following all describe m.

y2 y1 change in y vertical change rise

m D D D D
x2 x1 change in x horizontal change run

Now try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 3.1.3

Find the slope of each of the lines given in the following three figures. For easier referencing use m 1 for the
slope of l1 ; m 2 for the slope of l2 , etc.

y
l3

l2

(2,2)
l1
(4,1)
x
(0,0)

( _ 1 , _ 3)

Figure 3.1.6
 108

l6

l5
(0,1)

x
( _ 1 , 0)

l4
(1 , _ 2 )

(5 , _3 )

Figure 3.1.7

l8
l7
( _ 2 , 2) (4 , 2 )

( _ 2 , _ 4)

Figure 3.1.8
 109 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION
1 0 1
l1 : m1 D D
4 0 4
2 0 2
l2 : m2 D D D 1
2 0 2
3 0 3
l3 : m3 D D D 3
1 0 1
2 . 3/ 2C3 1
l4 : m4 D D D
1 5 4 4
0 . 2/ 2
l5 : m5 D D D 1
1 1 2
1 . 2/ 3
l6 : m6 D D D 3
0 1 1
2 2 0
l7 : m7 D D D 0
4 . 2/ 6
2 . 4/ 6
l8 : m8 D D which is undefined:
2 . 2/ 0

l8 is not defined by an equation of the form y D mx C c. See Study Unit 3.1E

What deductions can we make about different lines and their slopes from the graphs in Activity 3.1.3?

I A line with positive slope slants upwards from left to right. See Figure 3.1.6.

I A line with negative slope slants downwards from left to right. See Figure 3.1.7.

I A horizontal line (i.e. a line parallel to the x–axis) has a slope of zero. See Figure 3.1.8.

I The slope of a vertical line (i.e. a line parallel to the y–axis) is undefined.

I For positive slopes, the bigger the slope, the steeper the line. In Figure 3.1.6 compare l1 , l2 and l3 . We
see that l3 is steeper than l2 , and l2 is steeper than l1 . We have

1
m 3 > m 2 > m 1 ; since 3 > 1 > 4
;

i.e. magnitude of m 3 > magnitude of m 2 > magnitude of m 1 .

I For negative slopes, the smaller the slope (i.e. the bigger the magnitude of the slope) the steeper the
line. In Figure 3.1.7, l6 is steeper than l5 and l5 is steeper than l4 . We have

1
m 6 < m 5 < m 4 ; since 3< 1< 4
:

Note however that

magnitude of m 6 > magnitude of m 5 > magnitude of m 4 since 3 > 1 > 41 .

When we compare the magnitudes of the different slopes we are actually considering the numbers without
their signs.
 110

We summarise the conclusions of this study unit as follows.

slope of l y–intercept of l
# #
l : y D mx C c
|{z} | {z }
line equation

l horizontal mD0
l vertical m is undefined
(i.e. a vertical line cannot be described by the
equation y D mx C c)
l slants upwards m>0
l slants downwards m<0
l1 steeper than l2 magnitude of m 1 > magnitude of m 2

USING TWO POINTS, OR ONE POINT AND THE SLOPE, TO DRAW A LINE

In Study Unit 3.1A we consider how to draw lines using tables of values. This is not the most efficient way
of drawing lines. We now look at the following two methods.

I If we know that two different points lie on the line (i.e. that their coordinates satisfy the equation of the
line), we can plot these points and join them by means of a straight line. We call this the two–point
method. Note that to draw an accurate line it is best to plot three well–spaced points instead of just
two points.

I If we know that one point lies on the line (i.e that its coordinates satisfy the equation of the line) and
we know the slope of the line, we can plot the point and through the point draw a line with the given
slope. We call this the point–slope method.

EXAMPLE 3.1.1 THE TWO–POINT SLOPE METHOD

Draw the line l : y D 3x C 2 using two points on the line.

SOLUTION

Although we can use any two points on l, the most convenient points to use are those with one of the coordi-
nates equal to zero. Thus we first determine the x– and y–intercepts of the line l.

To obtain the x–intercept, let y = 0.

Then 0 D 3x C 2, i.e. x D 32 .

To find the y–intercept, let x D 0.

 111 MAT0511/001

Then y D 3.0/ C 2 D 2.

Now we have two points, namely ( 23 ; 0/ and .0; 2/, which lie on l. We plot these points and draw a line
through them to give the line l. See Figure 3.1.9 on the next page.

l : y = _ 3x + 2
1

x
_2 _1 0 2
_
3 1 2

_1

_2

Figure 3.1.9

EXAMPLE 3.1.2 THE POINT–SLOPE METHOD

Draw the lines l1 and l2 , where

2
(a) the line l1 has slope 3
and passes through the point ( 1; 2/

2
(b) l2 is the line with slope 3
and (1; 1) is a point on this line.

SOLUTION

2
(a) We can think of a slope of 3
as
change in y of C 2
change in x of C 3
or as
vertical change of C 2 units
:
horizontal change of C 3 units
 112

We begin at the point ( 1; 2/ and move two units up (positive direction) and three units to the right
(positive direction) and arrive at the point (2; 4). We plot these two points and draw a line through
them.

3
(2,4)
2

( _ 1 , 2) 2

x
_ _ 0
4 2 2 4

_2

Figure 3.1.10

2 2 2 2 2
(b) We can write 3
as 3
or as 3
. Suppose we use 3
. We interpret 3
as

vertical change of 2 units

:
horizontal change of C 3 units

Thus we can start at the point (1; 1) and move two units down (i.e. in a negative direction) and three
units to the right (in a positive direction) to arrive at (4; 1). We plot the two points and draw a line
through them.

2
Alternatively we can use 3
and interpret this as

vertical change of C 2 units

:
horizontal change of 3 units

We start at (1; 1) and move two units up and then three units to the left and arrive at ( 2; 3). Now we
 113 MAT0511/001

plot and join the points (1; 1) and ( 2; 3/. See Figure 3.1.11 on the next page.

4
3
( _ 2 , 3)

2 2

(1,1)

x
_4 _ 0
2 2 2 4
( 4 , _ 1)
3
_2

Figure 3.1.11

Now try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 3.1.4

The equation of the line l is given by 2y C 4x 3 D 0:

(a) Use the x– and y–intercepts of l to draw the line l.

(b) Rewrite the equation in the form y D mx C c and then draw the line l by using the slope of the line and
a point through which the line passes.

Note
b
An equation of the form ay C bx C d D 0 where a 6D 0 can be written as y D mx C c, where m D a
and
c D da :

SOLUTION

(a) To obtain the x–intercept, let y D 0. Then

3
2.0/ C 4x 3 D 0; i:e: x D :
4
To obtain the y–intercept, let x D 0. Then
3
2y C 4.0/ 3 D 0; i:e: y D :
2
 114

We plot the points . 34 ; 0/ and .0; 23 /, and draw a line through them.

_3
2

3_ x
0 4

Figure 3.1.12

(b)

2y C 4x 3D0

, 2y D 4x C 3

3
, yD 2x C
2

The slope of l is thus 2. We know from (a) that l passes through the point ( 43 ; 0). We use ( 43 ; 0) and
the slope of 2 to sketch the line. We interpret the slope of 2 as 12 , i.e. as

vertical change of 2 units

:
horizontal change of C 1 unit
 115 MAT0511/001

The line is sketched in Figure 3.1.13 on the next page.

( _34 ,0)
x
0

( _47 , _ 2 )
1

Figure 3.1.13

RELATED PAIRS OF LINES

We now look at pairs of lines which have special slope properties.

PARALLEL LINES

Two (or more) non–vertical lines are parallel if they have the same slope.
Conversely, if two (or more) lines have the same slope they are parallel.

Remember: Vertical lines do not have a slope, and thus must be treated separately. It is clear that vertical
lines are also parallel.

EXAMPLE 3.1.3

Suppose l1 and l2 are the two lines

l1 : y D 21 x C 1 and l2 : y D 12 x C 3:

The two lines are parallel since they have the same slope. We draw the lines using the y–intercept of each
 116

line and the point–slope technique described in Example 3.1.2. See Figure 3.1.14 below.

y 1
y = _2 x + 3

y = _21x +1

2
3

x
0

l2
l1

Figure 3.1.14

From Figure 3.1.14 we notice that there is a vertical distance of 2 units between the two lines. Since the lines
are parallel we can also obtain l2 by shifting l1 two units upwards, or l1 by shifting l2 two units downwards.

This means that if we have any two non–vertical lines which are parallel, then we can obtain the one from the
other by a suitable vertical shift, either upwards or downwards.

PERPENDICULAR LINES

Consider two lines which are not parallel to either the x–axis or y–axis and which have slopes m 1 and
m 2 . If m 1 m 2 D 1 then the lines are perpendicular. Conversely, if the lines are perpendicular then
m1 m2 D 1: We say that when two lines are perpendicular their slopes are negative reciprocals of each
1
other, i.e. m2 D :
m1

Remember: Horizontal lines have slope 0 and vertical lines have no slope, and we deal with them separately.
Horizontal and vertical lines are perpendicular to each other.

The slope property of perpendicular lines is not as obvious as that of parallel lines. You need not be able to
prove this property; you just need to apply it.

EXAMPLE 3.1.4

The line l1 is defined by the equation 2x 3y D 6.

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The line l2 passes through the point (1; 2) and is perpendicular to l1 .

Draw the two lines on the same system of axes.

SOLUTION

The equation 2x 3y D 6 can be written as y D 32 x 2.

Hence the slope of l1 is 23 and the y–intercept is 2.
Since l2 is perpendicular to l1 , the slope of l2 is 23 .

If m 1 m 2 D 1 then 23 m 2 D 1, i.e. m 2 D 2
1
, i.e. m 2 D 3
2
.
3

We again use the point–slope technique described in Example 3.1.2 and we obtain the following graphs.

2 (1,2)
l1
1

x
_ _ _ _ _ 0
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
_
1 ( 3 , _ 1)

_2
l2
_3

_4

_5

Figure 3.1.15

The following activity gives you practice in drawing lines such as the ones we have been describing.
 118

ACTIVITY 3.1.5

The lines l1 , l2 and l3 are such that

I l1 is defined by y D 2x 1

I l2 is parallel to l1 and passes through the point . 1; 1/

I l3 is perpenduclar to l1 and passes through the point (2; 3).

Draw the three lines on the same system of axes.

SOLUTION

I The equation of l1 is y D 2x 1. Hence the slope of l1 is 2 (i.e. 12 ) and the y–intercept is 1. We thus
begin at 1 on the y–axis, and move 2 units upwards and 1 unit to the right since the slope is positive.
This gives us the point (1; 1) and we draw the line through (0; 1) and (1; 1). We can also move 2
units downwards and 1 unit to the left.

I l2 is parallel to l1 and thus has slope 2. It passes through ( 1; 1). We thus draw the line through ( 1; 1)
that is parallel to l1 .

I l3 is perpendicular to l1 and thus has slope 21 . It passes through (2; 3). We thus begin at the point
(2; 3), and move 1 unit upwards and 2 units to the left since the slope is negative. This gives us the
point (0; 2) and we draw the line through (0; 2) and (2; 3). We can also move 1 unit downwards
and 2 units to the right.

The graphs are shown in Figure 3.1.16 on the next page.

 119 MAT0511/001

l2
4
l1
(0,3) 3

( _1 , 1 ) 1 (1,1)

x
_5 _4 _3 _2 _1 0 1 2 3 4 5
_
( 0 , 1)

( 0 , _ 2)

_ ( 2 , _ 3)
3

_ l3
4

_5

Figure 3.1.16

In the last example in this study unit we consider how to draw vertical and horizontal lines.

EXAMPLE 3.1.5

On the same system of axes draw the lines l1 and l2 , where

I l1 : y D 3

I l2 : x D 2.

SOLUTION

The equation for l1 has the form y D mx C c, where m D 0 and c D 3. Thus l1 is horizontal (see the
summary at the end of Study Unit 3.1C), i.e. parallel to the x–axis, and has y–intercept 3. Thus we obtain
l1 by drawing a line parallel to the x–axis passing through the point (0; 3). (The equation y D 3 means
that for each value of x; y D 3.)
 120

We have not yet come across an equation for a straight line of the form x D c. The equation x D 2 means that
x D 2 for all values of y. If we plot any two points with x–coordinate 2, for example (2; 1) and (2; 1), and
join them with a straight line, we have a straight line parallel to the y–axis which has x–intercept 2. Note:
x D 2 cannot be written as y D mx C c.

The two lines l1 and l2 are drawn in Figure 3.1.17.

y

3
l2
2

1 (2,1)

x
_3 _2 _1 0
1 2 3
_1 ( 2 , _ 1)

_2

_ l1
3

_4

Figure 3.1.17

Note that l1 represents a linear function, but l2 does not. Can you explain why?

GRAPHS OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS WITH RESTRICTED DOMAINS

We stated in Study Unit 3.1B that graphs of linear functions are straight lines.

Throughout this section we have assumed that the equations defining lines were valid for all real numbers.

Suppose we have a linear function f which is defined on a domain that does not include all possible values of
x for which the equation makes sense. We then say that the domain is restricted. How do we draw the graph
of f in a case such as this? Look at the following example.

EXAMPLE 3.1.6

Suppose f is the linear function defined by

y D f .x/ D 3x C 2;
where D f D fx 2 R : 1<x 2g.
 121 MAT0511/001

(We have already drawn the line l defined by y D 3x C 2 in Example 3.1.1 in Study Unit 3.1D.) Note that
= D f and 2 2 D f .
D f is a half–open, half–closed interval, with endpoints x D 1 and x D 2; 1 2

We consider the endpoints 1 and 2.

Now f . 1/ D 3. 1/ C 2 D 5 and f .2/ D 3.2/ C 2 D 4.

Hence R f D fy 2 R : 4 y < 5g: We know that 4 2 R f because 4 D f .2/ and 2 2 D f . However,

even though f . 1/ D 5, 1 2
= D f and hence 5 2
= Rf.

The graph of f is shown in Figure 3.1.18.

( _ 1, 5 ) 5

2
y = f (x)
1

_2
x
_ _ _ 3
3 2 1 1 2 3
_1

_2

_3

_ ( 2 , _ 4)
4

Figure 3.1.18

We use a solid dot to indicate that the point (2; 4) is included whereas the open dot indicates that the point
( 1; 5) is excluded.

Now try the following activity.

STOP!
By now you have read this comment many times. Have you actually been doing the activities yourself before
reading the solutions? Only you know the answer to this question, but we emphasise again that the more you
try to do on your own the more you will understand!
 122

ACTIVITY 3.1.6

Draw the graph of the function f , where

y D f .x/ D 3x 3

and
D f D fx 2 R : x < 2g:

SOLUTION

The y–intercept is 3 and the gradient is 3.

We note that f is defined on the open interval ( 1; 2/ with only one endpoint, namely 2. Now f .2/ D
3.2/ 3 D 6 3 D 3.

The graph of f is shown in Figure 3.1.19. It extends indefinitely downwards since R f D . 1; 3/.

3 (2,3)

2
y = f (x)
1

x
_ _ _
3 2 1 1 2 3
_
1
_
2

_
3
_
4

Figure 3.1.19

EXERCISE 3.1

In each of questions 1 4 find the x– and y–intercepts and use them to draw the line defined by the
given equation.

1. y D 3x 1
 123 MAT0511/001

2. 2x C y D 2

3. x C 2y D 4

4. 2x 4y D 6

In each of questions 5 8 calculate the slope, if it exists, of the line which passes through the given pair
of points.

5. .3; 4/I . 1; 2/

6. .2; 7/I .2; 4/

7. . 1; 2/I .1; 2/

8. . 3; 4/I .6; 4/

In each of questions 9 12 draw the line which passes through the given point and has slope m.

9. .0; 1/ mD4

10. .2; 3/ mD0

1
11. .1; 2/ mD 4

2
12. .2; 0/ mD 3

13. Suppose f is the constant function defined by y D f .x/ D 1 and i is the identity function defined by
i.x/ D x for all x 2 R. Draw the graphs of f and i on separate systems of axes.

14. On the same system of axes draw the lines l1 , l2 , l3 , l4 and l5 where
l1 : y D 2x C 1
l2 : y D x C1
l3 : y D1
l4 : y D x C1
l5 : y D 2x C 1:
What is the slope of l3 ?

15. The line l1 passes through the points . 3; 8/ and . 1; 3/.

The line l2 passes through ( 1; 8/ and .3; 2).
The line l3 passes through . 1; 1/ and .4; 1/.

(a) Without drawing the lines, how do you know that l2 is parallel to l1 ?
(b) Without drawing the lines, how do you know that l3 is perpendicular to l2 ?
 124

16. Find p if the line l1 , through (1; 2) and (2; 5), is parallel to the line l2 which passes through .0; 2/ and
(2; p/.

17. Find q if the line l1 , through ( 1; 1) and (2; 3), is perpendicular to the line l2 , through (2; 4) and
.q; 1/.

18. Suppose line l1 is defined by 2y C x D 1. Line l2 is parallel to l1 and passes through the point .1; 2/.
Line l3 is perpendicular to l2 and passes through the point . 1; 2/.
Draw all three lines on the same system of axes.

19. Suppose l1 and l2 are the two lines

l1 : y D 2x C 3 and l2 : 2y C 4x C 1 D 0:

Explain, without drawing the lines, how you could draw l2 if you had already drawn l1 .

20. See the comment immediately below Figure 3.1.17. Can you explain why l1 represents a function, and
why l2 does not?

In each of questions 21 24 the function f is defined by y D f .x/ D 2x 1. Draw the graph of f for
the given domain.

21. D f D f 2; 1; 0; 1; 2g

22. D f D fx 2 R : x > 1g

23. D f D fx 2 R : 2<x 1g

24. D f D R (i.e. the natural domain of f )

 125 MAT0511/001

3.2 Finding Equations of Lines

SLOPE–INTERCEPT METHOD, POINT–SLOPE METHOD AND THE TWO–POINT METHOD

In Section 3.1 we concentrated on drawing lines according to information given about the gradients and points
lying on the lines. We now consider how we can work backwards, and determine from any given line the
equation that defines it.

We can obtain the equation of any line if we know

I the slope and the y–intercept of the line (we use the slope–intercept method and obtain the slope–
intercept form of the equation)

I the slope of and a point on the line (we use the point–slope method and obtain the point–slope form of
the equation)

I any two points on the line (we use the two–point method and obtain the two–point form of the equation).

Slope–intercept method

Look at Figure 3.2.1 below. It shows a line l with slope m and y–intercept c. Suppose P.x; y/ is any point
on the line l.

P (x , y )

y _c

(0, c)
x_0
x
0
l

Figure 3.2.1
 126

y c
Since (0; c) and .x; y/ are two points on l and the slope is m we have m D .
x 0

Now
y c
mD
x 0

, mx D y c

, y D mx C c:

This is just one of the possible forms of the equation of a line. We call this the slope–intercept form, and
this was the first form given in Study Unit 3.1B.

SLOPE–INTERCEPT FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A LINE

The equation of a line that has slope m and y–intercept c is

y D mx C c: (3.2.1)

Point–slope method

If we know the slope of a line l and one point (other than the y–intercept) that lies on the line, how do we
obtain an equation that defines the line?

Figure 3.2.2 is the sketch of a line l with slope m. The line goes through the point Q.x1 ; y1 /. Let P.x; y/ be
any other point on the line.
 127 MAT0511/001

P ( x, y )

y _ y1

Q (x 1 ,y1 )
x _ x1

x
0

Figure 3.2.2

Since P.x; y/ and Q.x1 ; y1 ) are points on the line l and the slope is m we have
y y1
mD
x x1
i.e. we have the equation
y y1 D m.x x1 /

and this is another form of the equation of a line. We call this the point–slope form.

POINT–SLOPE FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A LINE

The equation of a line that passes through the point Q .x1 ; y1 / and has slope m is
y y1 D m.x x1 /: (3.2.2)

Two–point method

If we have two points A.x1 ; y1 / and B.x2 ; y2 / on a line l then we can also find the equation of l.

According to Definition 3.1.2, the slope m of l is

y2 y1
mD :
x2 x1
 128

By using equation (3.2.2) we obtain

y2 y1
y y1 D .x x1 /:
x2 x1
This form is known as the two–point form.

TWO–POINT FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A LINE

The equation of a line that passes through the points P.x1 ; y1 ) and Q.x2 ; y2 / is
y2 y1
y y1 D .x x1 /. (3.2.2)
x2 x1

Equation (3.2.3) can easily be simplified, and the equation of a line would not usually be left in this form.

The terms in the point–slope form of the equation of a line can be rearranged to obtain the slope–intercept
form. You can see this in the following activity.

ACTIVITY 3.2.1

4
The line l has slope 5
and passes through the point . 1; 2/.

Give the equation for l in

(a) point–slope form

(b) slope–intercept form.

SOLUTION

4
(a) Substituting m D 5
and .x1 ; y1 / D . 1; 2/ into equation (3.2.2) we get
4
y 2D .x C 1/: Point–slope form.
5
(b) We rearrange the terms in the point–slope form of the equation.
Thus
4
y 2D .x C 1/
5

4 4
, yD x C2
5 5

4 6
, yD xC : Slope–intercept form.
5 5
 129 MAT0511/001

Activity 3.2.1 shows that once we have the equation in point–slope form we can rewrite it in slope–intercept
form. We can also rewrite the two–point form in point–slope form and in slope–intercept form.

ACTIVITY 3.2.2

Suppose the line l passes through the points (5; 2) and . 3; 4). Write the equation for l in two–point form,
and then simplify it so that we have the equation in

(a) point–slope form

(b) slope–intercept form.

SOLUTION

Suppose we have P.x1 ; y1 / D .5; 2/ and Q.x2 ; y2 / D . 3; 4/. From (3.2.3) we have
4 . 2/
y . 2/ D .x 5/ : (1)
3 5

(a) Now the slope m of l is

4 . 2/ 6 3
mD D D :
3 5 8 4
If we simplify (1) we obtain the point–slope form of the equation, i.e. we have
3
y . 2/ D .x 5/
4
and the equation becomes
3
yC2D .x 5/: .2/
4

Note that if we interchange P and Q, and use the point ( 3; 4), the point–slope form of the equation
becomes
3
y 4D .x . 3//
4
i.e.
3
y 4D .x C 3/: .3/
4

Note that (2) and (3) are equivalent, i.e. they have the same solutions.

(b) If we use equation (2) we obtain

3 15
yD xC 2
4 4
i.e.
3 7
yD xC :
4 4
 130

If we use equation (3) we obtain

3 9
yD x C 4
4 4
i.e.
3 7
yD xC :
4 4
Obviously in practice we do not need to obtain the answer in more than one way.

SOME SPECIAL LINES

We now return to the slope–intercept form of the equation of a line, namely

y D mx C c:

We recall that the slope of a horizontal line is m D 0. Hence if l is a horizontal line (i.e. l is a line parallel to
the x–axis) that passes through the point ( p; q), then its equation is y D q, which has the form y D 0x C q
(see Figure 3.2.3). The special line with equation y D q is the graph of the constant function referred to in
Study Unit 3.1B.

A vertical line does not have a slope and thus it does not have an equation of the form (3.2.1) or (3.2.2).
However, it follows from Figure 3.2.3 that if l is a vertical line (i.e. l is a line parallel to the y–axis) that passes
through the point ( p; q/, then its equation is x D p.

y=q
q ( p,q)

x=p

x
0 p

Figure 3.2.3
 131 MAT0511/001

It has already been stated that any function f defined by

y D f .x/ D mx C c

is called a linear function, and the graph of every linear function is a straight line.

Figure 3.2.3 shows that not all lines represent linear functions. The vertical line defined by x D p has the
same x–value for every y–value, and hence does not represent a function.

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL LINES

The equation of the horizontal line through the point ( p; q) is

y D q: (Slope m D 0.)

The equation of the vertical line through the point ( p; q/ is

x D p: (It has no slope.)

THE GENERAL EQUATION OF A LINE

It would be useful if we could find some general equation which would describe any line, including vertical
lines.

The following equations

I y D 2x C 1 Slope–intercept form

I y 4 D 3.x C 1/ Point–slope form

I yD2 Horizontal line

I xD 1 Vertical line

can be rewritten as

I 2x yC1D0

I 3x yC7D0

I 0x C y 2D0

I x C 0y C 1 D 0
 132

respectively, and each equation has the form

px C qy C r D 0

where p; q and r are constants, and where p and q are not both zero.

GENERAL EQUATION OF A LINE

Every line has an equation of the form

px C qy C r D 0; .3:2:4/

where p; q and r are constants and p and q are not both zero. Also,
every equation of the form of (3.2.4) where p and q are not both zero,
is the equation of a line.

If q 6D 0 then (3.2.4) can be written as

px r
yD
q q
p
which is in slope–intercept form and represents a line with slope q and
y–intercept qr .

The special case where p D 0 gives y D r

q which is the equation of a horizontal line with y–intercept
r
q :

If q D 0 but p 6D 0 then (3.2.4) can be written as x D r , which represents a vertical line with x–intercept
p
r .
p

ACTIVITY 3.2.3

Refer to Example 3.1.4 in Study Unit 3.1E. The line l1 is defined by the equation 2x 3y D 6. The line l2
passes through the point (1; 2) and is perpendicular to l1 .

Find the equation of l2 in the form px C qy C r D 0.

SOLUTION

Since 2x 3y D 6 can be written as y D 32 x 2 it follows that the slope of l1 is 23 . Thus the slope of l2 is
3
2
.

Let the equation of l2 be y D mx C c.

Since the slope is 32 we have
3
yD x C c: .1/
2
 133 MAT0511/001

The line passes through the point (1; 2). We thus substitute x D 1 and y D 2 into (1) and obtain
3
2D .1/ C c:
2
We thus have
3
c D2C
2
and thus
7
cD :
2
Hence the equation for l2 is
3 7
yD xC
2 2
which we can write in the form
2y C 3x 7 D 0:

We have said that practice is essential, but you do not need to do all the questions in the following exercise
now. You may want to do the even–numbered questions now and the odd–numbered questions later.

EXERCISE 3.2

In each of questions 1 22 find a general equation of the form px C qy C r D 0 for the line l with the
stated properties.

1
1. The slope of l is 4 and the y–intercept is 4
.
3 2
2. The y–intercept of l is 2
and the slope is 7
.
2
3. The slope of l is 3
and l passes through .2; 5/.

4. The point . 1; 3/ lies on l and the slope of l is 7.

5. l passes through (2; 1) and (1; 2).

6. Two points on l are ( 4; 3/ and (5; 7).

7. l is parallel to the x–axis and passes through (2; 3).

8. l is perpendicular to the x–axis and passes through (2; 3).

9. l is parallel to the y–axis and passes through (7; 10/.

10. l is perpendicular to the y–axis and passes through .7; 10/.

11. l is the x–axis.

12. l is the y–axis.

13. l passes through (0; 1) and is parallel to the line with equation y D 3x C 1.
 134

14. l passes through . 1; 1/ and is parallel to the line with equation

2x C 3y 4 D 0.

15. l is parallel to the line with equation x D 1 and passes through ( 1; 0).

16. l is parallel to the line with equation y D 2 and passes through . 1; 0).

17. l passes through (0; 1) and is perpendicular to the line with equation
y D 3x C 1.

18. l passes through . 1; 1/ and is perpendicular to the line with equation 2x C 3y 4 D 0.

19. l is perpendicular to the line with equation x D 1 and passes through (2; 3).

20. l is perpendicular to the line with equation y D 2 and passes through (2; 3).

21. l passes through . 7; 1/ and is parallel to the line that passes through (5; 2) and ( 3; 3/.

22. l passes through (2; 5) and is perpendicular to the line that passes through (5; 2) and ( 3; 3/.

In each of questions 23 26 rewrite the equation in slope–intercept form and then give the slope and
y–intercept of the line defined by the equation.

23. 2x 3y C 4 D 0

24. 2x C 5y 2D0

25. y C 7 D 3.x C 2/

26. y 3 D 2.x 1/

27. Two lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular to each other and intersect at . 1; 3/. The slope of l1 is 43 .

(a) What is the slope of l2 ?

(b) Determine the y–intercept of l1 .

(c) Determine the x–intercept of l2 .

In each of questions 28 31 the graph of a linear function f is drawn. Give a formula for f and write
down D f and R f .
 135 MAT0511/001

28. 29.
y y

(0,1) 2
_
3
x x
0 (1,0) 0
_2

30. 31.
y

(_ 1 , 1)

x
x 0
0

( _ 3, _2 ) ( 8, _ 2 ) ( 2 , _ 2)

32. Equations (3.2.1), (3.2.2) and (3.2.3) respectively give the slope–intercept, point–slope and two–point
forms of the equation of a line. The slope–intercept form involves the y–intercept. Suppose you have
both the x– and the y–intercepts of a line and both are non–zero (see the sketch below). Show that
x y
C D 1:
a b
This is called the two–intercept form of the equation of a line.

b
l
x
a
 136

3.3 Applications of Lines and Linear Functions

THE INTERSECTION OF LINES AND THE VERTICAL DISTANCE BETWEEN LINES

POINT OF INTERSECTION

In Unit 2 of Module 2 we solved systems of two equations in two unknowns algebraically. In this unit we
have learnt how to represent linear equations graphically. Can we now interpret the solution of a system of
linear equations graphically? We answer this question in the following example.

EXAMPLE 3.3.1

Consider the following system of equations

)
3x C 4y D 12
:
x y D 1
We represent the two equations graphically in Figure 3.3.1 by drawing the lines l1 : 3x C 4y D 12 and
l2 : x y D 1. (Note that the x–intercept of l1 is 4 and the y–intercept is 3. The x–intercept of l2 is 1
and the y–intercept is 1.)

l2 : x _ y = _ 1

3
P

l1 : 3x+ 4y = 12
1

x
_1 0 4

Figure 3.3.1

The lines intersect at the point P. All the points on line l1 satisfy the equation 3x C 4y D 12 and those on
line l2 satisfy the equation x y D 1. Since P is the point of intersection of the lines it lies on both lines
and hence the coordinates of P satisfy both equations. Thus the coordinates of P give the solution of
)
3x C 4y D 12
:
x y D 1
 137 MAT0511/001

We find the coordinates of P in Example 3.3.2.

Although in theory we can solve a system of linear equations graphically we do not usually do so, since
regardless of how accurate the sketch is we are not necessarily able to read off the exact coordinates of the
point of intersection. To determine the exact coordinates of the point of intersection we need to use algebraic
methods.

Although we do not usually solve systems of linear equations graphically, graphs enable us to visualise cases
in which systems of linear equations can have

I only one solution (as in Example 3.3.1)

I no solution

I infinitely many solutions.

The next activity illustrates the last two situations.

ACTIVITY 3.3.1

(a) Suppose

l1 : y D x 1
and l2 : 2x 2y C 4 D 0:

Draw these two lines on the same system of axes. What can you deduce about the number of solutions
of the following system? )
y D x 1
2x 2y C 4 D 0

(b) Suppose

l3 : y D 2x C 1
and l4 : 4x 2y C 2 D 0:

Draw these two lines on the same system of axes. What can you deduce about the number of solutions
of the following system? )
y D 2x C 1
4x 2y C 2 D 0
 138

SOLUTION

(a)
y

l2

_2
l1

x
_

_
_2 0 1
_ _1

Figure 3.3.2

We note that the two lines have the same slope. We can deduce this algebraically, since the equation
for l2 can be rewritten as 2y D 2x C 4, i.e. as y D x C 2, and thus the slope of both l1 and l2 is 1. Since
the lines are parallel and have different y–intercepts, they never intersect. Since there are no points of
intersection, the system )
y D x 1
2x 2y C 4 D 0
has no solution.
 139 MAT0511/001

(b)
y

1
l4
x
_ 1_ 0
2

l3

Figure 3.3.3

Note that the two lines are the same, i.e. the one line lies on top of the other and hence all points on the
lines are points of intersection of the two lines. When we rewrite the equation of l4 , namely
4x 2y C 2 D 0
in slope–intercept form, we obtain
y D 2x C 1
which is the equation of l3 .
Note
Lines l3 and l4 are said to coincide, and are called coincident lines.
Since there are infinitely many points of intersection, the system
)
y D 2x C 1
4x 2y C 2 D 0
has infinitely many solutions.

We now consider lines that are not parallel and not coincident, where there is only one point of intersection.
We usually find the coordinates of the point of intersection algebraically.

EXAMPLE 3.3.2

Consider Figure 3.3.1. We now find the coordinates of P. Since P.x; y/ lies on both l1 and l2 , the coordinates
of P must satisfy the equations
3x C 4y D 12
and x yD 1:
 140

Thus we solve the system

)
3x C 4y D 12
:
x y D 1

By multiplying the second equation by 3 we obtain the equivalent system

)
3x C 4y D 12
:
3x 3y D 3

Subtracting the first equation from the second produces the equivalent system

)
3x C 4y D 12
:
7y D 15

15 15
Thus y D 7
. By substituting y D 7
into 3x C 4y D 12 we obtain

60
3x C D 12:
7
Now
60
3x C D 12
7

60
, 3x D 12
7

84 60
, 3x D
7

24
, xD
3 7

8
, xD :
7

Thus
8 15
PD ; :
7 7

VERTICAL DISTANCE BETWEEN CORRESPONDING POINTS ON TWO LINES

We now see how we can obtain the vertical distance between corresponding points on two lines. Figure 3.3.4
shows two lines l1 and l2 , defined by y D f .x/ and y D g.x/ respectively. The lines intersect at P.a; b/.
 141 MAT0511/001

l1 : y = f (x)
( x , g( x )) ( x , f( x ))

In this case corresponding

b P (a,b )
points are points that have
the same first coordinates.
( x , g( x))
x
0 a
l2 : y = g(x)

( x , f (x ))

Figure 3.3.4

Note that if x > a then line l1 lies above line l2 and if x < a then l2 lies above l1 .

So for x > a, the point .x; f .x// lies directly above .x; g.x//. Since f .x/ is bigger than g.x/, the vertical
distance between the two points is given by

f .x/ g.x/:

Note that distance is non–negative and thus we must subtract the smaller number from the larger number and
we emphasise that the reason for identifying which point lies above the other is to make sure we can identify
the bigger of the two y–coordinates so that we can subtract in the correct order.

For x < a, the point .x; g.x// lies directly above the point .x; f .x// and thus the vertical distance between
the two points is given by
g.x/ f .x/:

From 2.2 of Unit 2 we know that combining two functions by the operation of subtraction creates another
function. Since we know that x 2 D f \ Dg we can define a new function, the difference function d, by

d.x/ D f .x/ g.x/ if f .x/ g.x/

or
d.x/ D g.x/ f .x/ if g.x/ f .x/:

The function value d.x/ is the vertical distance between corresponding points on the lines defined by
y D f .x/ and y D g.x/ for any given x such that x 2 D f \ Dg .

Since the x–axis is the line defined by y D 0, we can also find the vertical distance between a point on the
x–axis and the corresponding point on any other non–vertical line. In Figure 3.3.5 the line l is defined by
 142

y D f .x/ and its x–intercept is a.

( x, f ( x))

( x,0)
x
( x , 0) 0 a

( x , f ( x ))
l : y = f (x )

Figure 3.3.5

For x > a, l lies below the x–axis. For any x 2 D f the vertical distance between a point on l and the
corresponding point on the x–axis is thus given by

d.x/ D 0 f .x/
D f .x/:

Note that f .x/ < 0 when x > a since the y–coordinate of each point on the line l is negative for these values
of x.

For x < a, l lies above the x–axis. For any x 2 D f the vertical distance between a point on l and the
corresponding point on the x–axis is thus given by

d.x/ D f .x/ 0
D f .x/:

Note that f .x/ > 0 when x < a since the y–coordinate of each point on the line l is positive for these values
of x.

The function d can also be considered in terms of the distance formula. Suppose P and Q are respectively
points on the graphs of g and f , so that P D .x; g.x// and Q D .x; f .x//. If Q lies above P, then
f .x/ > g.x/, i.e. f .x/ g.x/ > 0. If Q lies directly above P, then they have the same x–coordinate, and
p
d.P; Q/ D . f .x/ g.x//2
D f .x/ g.x/:
Thus if P and Q are any two corresponding points on the two graphs then the distance between the points
depends on their x–coordinate, and hence we use the notation d.x/ to denote the distance, instead of d.P; Q/.
 143 MAT0511/001

ACTIVITY 3.3.2

Figure 3.3.6 shows the two lines

l1 : y D f .x/ and l2 : y D g.x/

representing functions f and g.

x
0 1 4

P (x , y)
_2
l2 : y = g( x)

l1 : y = f(x)

Figure 3.3.6

(a) Find the equation for each of the functions f and g.

(b) Determine algebraically P.x; y/, the point of intersection of the two lines.

(c) What is the vertical distance between the two lines when x D 3?

(d) If x < 85 find the value of x for which the vertical distance between corresponding points on the two
lines is 9 units.

(e) When x D 1 find the vertical distance between l1 and the x–axis.

(f) Find the values of x for which

(i) f .x/ > 0

(ii) g.x/ 0
(iii) f .x/ g.x/ < 0.
 144

SOLUTION

(a) The slope of l1 is 42 , i.e. 12 , and the y–intercept is 2. Thus

1
f .x/ D x 2:
2
2
The slope of l2 is 1
, i.e. 2, and the y–intercept is 2. Hence

g.x/ D 2x C 2:

(b) We solve the system )

y D 1
2x 2 :
y D 2x C 2
We have
1
x 2D 2x C 2:
2
Hence
5
x D4
2
and thus
8
xD :
5
8
If we substitute x D 5
into y D 2x C 2 we get

16 6
yD C2D :
5 5
Hence
8 6
PD ; :
5 5
(c) At x D 3, l1 lies above l2 . Thus the vertical distance between corresponding points on the lines is given
by
d.x/ D f .x/ g.x/:

Hence

d.3/ D f .3/ g.3/

1
D .3/ 2 . 2.3/ C 2/
2
3
D 2 . 6 C 2/
2
3
D 2C4
2
1
D 3 :
2

Thus, when x D 3 the vertical distance between the lines is 3 12 units.

 145 MAT0511/001

(d) If x < 85 then l2 lies above l1 and the vertical distance between corresponding points on the lines is
given by

d.x/ D g.x/ f .x/

1
D 2x C 2 . x 2/
2
5
D x C 4:
2
We must find the value of x such that d.x/ D 9.

Now
d.x/ D 9

5
, x C4D9
2

5
, x D5
2

, xD 2:

Thus, when x D 2 the vertical distance between the lines is 9 units.

(e) When x D 1 then l1 lies below the x–axis. Thus the vertical distance between a point on l1 and the
corresponding point on the x–axis is given by

d.x/ D f .x/:

So

d. 1/ D f . 1/
1
D . . 1/ 2/
2
5
D . /
2
5
D :
2
5
Thus, when x D 1 the vertical distance between l1 and the x–axis is 2
units.

(f) (i) The values of x for which f .x/ > 0 are the values of x for which the line l1 lies above the x–axis.
It is clear from Figure 3.3.6 that

f .x/ > 0 when x > 4:

Note that x D 4 is excluded since f .4/ D 0 and we are only considering f .x/ > 0.
(ii) The values of x for which g.x/ 0 are the values of x for which the line l2 lies above or on the
x–axis. From Figure 3.3.6 we have

g.x/ 0 when x 1:

Here x D 1 is included since g.1/ D 0 and now we are considering g.x/ D 0 or g.x/ > 0.
 146

(iii)

f .x/ g.x/ < 0

, f .x/ < g.x/:

Thus we must find the x–values for which f .x/ < g.x/, i.e. the x–values for which the graph of
f lies below the graph of g. In other words, we must find the values of x for which l1 lies below
l2 . Thus f .x/ < g.x/ when x < 58 .

A REAL–LIFE APPLICATION

We end this study unit with a discussion and an activity that relates to the manufacturing or retail business.
A manufacturer is interested in the break–even point. This is the point at which manufacturing costs equal
income. For example, if the cost of producing certain items is given by the linear function f , and the income
derived from selling the items is given by the linear function g, then the point of intersection of the graphs of
f and g is the break–even point. See Figure 3.3.7 on the next page.

When the graph of f lies below the graph of g, there will be a profit; when the graph of f lies above the
graph of g there will be a loss.

income
function
g
Profit

Cost in
rands cost function
f
P (a, b)
Break-even point
Loss

x
c a d
Number of items

Figure 3.3.7

P.a; b/, the point of intersection of the graphs of f and g, is the break–even point, i.e. the point at which
production cost is equal to income.

We clarify the meaning of the words profit and loss by means of this example.
 147 MAT0511/001

Suppose the costs involved in a belt–making business are:

leather costs
rental for a warehouse
salaries for the people who are employed
costs of other items purchased
packaging
advertising
transport
administrative costs.

All these items make up the expenses.

Some of these items stay the same, regardless of how many belts are produced, for example rental and
administrative costs. These costs are called fixed costs.

When the belts are sold, a certain amount is earned per belt. The total amount earned is the income.

Profit = income – expenses.

If income exceeds expenses, then there will be a profit.

Loss = expenses – income.

If income is less than expenses, then there will be a loss.

In Figure 3.3.7 you can see that for x > a the graph of the income function g lies above that of the cost
function f , i.e. income is greater than cost and hence a profit is made. For x < a the graph of the cost
function f lies above that of the income function g, i.e. production costs are greater than income and hence a
loss is made.

Since d > a a profit is made when x D d. This profit is g.d/ f .d/ (i.e. the difference between the income
obtained from selling d items and the cost of producing d items). If x D c then a loss is made, and the loss
is equal to f .c/ g.c/ (the difference between the cost of producing c items and the income obtained from
selling c items).

ACTIVITY 3.3.3

A company manufactures soccer balls. The company’s daily fixed costs (i.e. rental, phones, stationery, etc.)
are R1 800.

One soccer ball costs R50 to manufacture and it is sold for R80.

(a) Give an equation for the function f which describes the cost of producing x soccer balls per day.

(b) Give an equation for the function g which gives the income obtained if x balls are sold per day.
 148

(c) Draw the graphs of f and g on the same system of axes.

(d) Find the break–even point P.

(e) Does the company make a profit or incur a loss if 100 balls are produced and sold per day? What is the
profit or loss?

SOLUTION

(a) Total daily cost D .cost per item/ .number of items/ C fixed costs:
Hence y D f .x/ D 50x C 1 800.

(b) Total daily income D .selling price per item/ .number of items/:
Thus y D g.x/ D 80x.

(c)
y

g
Cost 5 400
in f
rands 3 600 P ( x, y )

1 800

x
20 40 60 80 100 120
Number of soccer balls

Figure 3.3.8

(d) In order to find P.x; y/ we solve the system

)
y D 50x C 1 800
:
y D 80x

We obtain
50x C 1 800 D 80x
i.e. we have
30x D 1 800
and hence
x D 60:
Thus
y D 80 60 D 4 800:

The break–even point is (60, 4 800).

 149 MAT0511/001

(e) Since 100 > 60, a profit is made when 100 balls are sold. This profit is
.g.100/ f .100// rands.
Now

g.100/ f .100/ D 80.100/ .50.100/ C 1 800/

D 8 000 5 000 1 800
D 1 200:

Thus the profit is R1 200.

GRAPHS OF LINEAR INEQUALITIES IN TWO

UNKNOWNS

So far in this unit we have considered the graphical representation of linear equations as well as of the solution
of a system of linear equations. We now consider graphs of linear inequalities. We also show graphically the
solution of a simple system of linear inequalities.

EXAMPLE 3.3.3

When we look at the sketch of any straight line in the Cartesian plane we see that the line divides the plane
into two half planes. Consider Figure 3.3.9(a) below and Figure 3.3.9(b) on the next page. The line l defined
by y D 3x 2, which is represented by a dashed line, divides the plane into two halves. You will see later
why we sketch l as a dashed line in the two figures.

6
Q( x,y) l
4

(_ 1 , y ) 2
The shading in the sketch P ( x, 3x _ 2)
denotes that all points above x
_ _1
the dashed line are included, 2 1 2
_2
not only those that can be
seen here. _4
( _1 , _5 )
_6

Figure 3.3.9(a)
 150

6 l

4 (2,4)

2 (2 , y)
The shading in the sketch
denotes that all points below x
_2 _1 1 2
the dashed line are included,
_2
not only those that can be
seen here P (x, 3x _ 2) _4

_
6
R ( x,y )

Figure 3.3.9(b)

Since l is the graph of the function defined by y D 3x 2 all points P on l have coordinates of the form
(x; 3x 2).

We now note the following with respect to Figure 3.3.9(a).

I The point ( 1; 5/ lies on l since the coordinates satisfy y D 3x 2. Now any point which has the
same x–coordinate as . 1; 5/ and lies in the shaded region has the form . 1; y/, where y > 5 (i.e.
the y–coordinate of . 1; y/ is bigger than 5 since the point lies above . 1; 5/).

I A point Q.x; y/ which has the same x–coordinate as P lies in the shaded region, i.e. lies above P, if
y > 3x 2.

I The shaded region consists of all points Q.x; y/ such that y > 3x 2. Thus the shaded region is the
graph of y > 3x 2.

I We have indicated l by a dashed line. This means that the graph of the inequality y > 3x 2 excludes
points on this line. If we want the graph of y 3x 2 then l must be represented by a solid line which
denotes that points on this line are also included. This is how we indicate the difference between the
graphs of y > 3x 2 and y 3x 2.

We note the following with respect to Figure 3.3.9(b).

I The point .2; 4/ lies on l. Any point which has the same x–coordinate as .2; 4/ and lies in the shaded
region has the form .2; y/ where y < 4 (i.e. the y–coordinate of .2; y/ is smaller than 4, since the point
lies below .2; 4/).
 151 MAT0511/001

I A point R.x; y/ which has the same x–coordinate as P lies in the shaded region, i.e. lies below P, if
y < 3x 2.

I The shaded region consists of all points R.x; y/ such that y < 3x 2. Thus the shaded region is the
graph of y < 3x 2.

I The line l is represented by a dashed line which indicates that the points on the line are excluded. If we
want to show the graph of y 3x 2 then l must be represented by a solid line.
In general we state the following.

I The graph of y > mx C c is the region that lies above the line defined by y D mx C c.

I The graph of y mx C c is the region that lies above or on the line defined by y D mx C c.

I The graph of y < mx C c is the region that lies below the line defined by y D mx C c.

I The graph of y mx C c is the region that lies below or on the line defined by y D mx C c.

I The graph of x > c is the region that lies to the right of the vertical line defined by x D c.

I The graph of x c is the region that lies to the right of or on the vertical line defined by x D c.

I The graph of x < c is the region that lies to the left of the vertical line defined by x D c.

I The graph of x c is the region that lies to the left of or on the vertical line defined by x D c.

ACTIVITY 3.3.4

Sketch the graph of 2x C 3y 1 0.

(Hint: First rewrite the inequality in the form y mx C c or y mx C c.)

SOLUTION

We have

2x C 3y 1 0:
Hence
3y 2x C 1
and thus
2 1
y xC :
3 3
2
Thus the graph of the inequality is the region lying below or on the line defined by y D 3
x C 13 . The graph
 152

is sketched in Figure 3.3.10.

y

_1
3

x
_1
2
2x + 3y _ 1 = 0

Figure 3.3.10

If you are unsure which region to shade when drawing the graph of an inequality you can use test points. For
example, consider Activity 3.3.4. You may have drawn the line defined by 2x C 3y 1 D 0 without changing
the equation into the form y D 23 x C 13 . Now choose a point that is not on the line. For example, choose
a point below the line, such as .0; 1/. If you substitute the coordinates of this point into the left side of the
inequality 2x C 3y 1 0, you will obtain 2.0/ C 3. 1/ 1 D 4, and 4 0. The coordinates satisfy
the inequality and hence you know that you must shade the region below the line.

If you choose, for example, the point (0; 2) which lies above the line, and substitute the coordinates into
the left side of the inequality, you will then obtain 2.0/ C 3.2/ 1 D 5, but 5 0. The coordinates do not
satisfy the inequality and thus you cannot shade the region above the line.

So far we have considered graphs which represent only one linear inequality. In the next example we sketch
the graph of a system of linear inequalities.

EXAMPLE 3.3.4

Sketch the graph of the following system of linear inequalities.

9
x y 4 >
>
>
>
2x C y 8 =
.3:3:1/
x 0 >>
>
>
y 2 ;
SOLUTION

We first rewrite the inequalities in the form y ::: or y ::: . We then have the following equivalent system.
9
y x C4 >
>
>
>
y 2x C 8 =
.3:3:2/
x 0 >
>
>
>
y 2 ;
 153 MAT0511/001

We now draw the lines defined by:

y D x C4
y D 2x C 8
x D 0
y D 2:

We then shade the region that is simultaneously

below or on the line defined by y D x C 4

below or on the line defined by y D 2x C 8

to the right of or on the y–axis (the line defined by x D 0)

above or on the line defined by y D 2.

The shaded region in Figure 3.3.11 is the set of all points that satisfy system (3.3.2) and hence system (3.3.1).
Thus the shaded region is the graphical representation of the solution set of (3.3.1), and hence is the graph of
the system. Note that all the lines are represented as solid lines in this case.

y
x =0
8 x_y = _ 4
or y = x + 4

y =2

x
_4 0
4
2x + y = 8
or y = _ 2 x + 8

Figure 3.3.11

The profit P in rands for x tables and y chairs is given by

P D 140x C 80y:

Various methods are available to determine the point Q.x; y/ in the shaded region of Figure 3.3.12 that gives
the maximum profit. We apply an appropriate method to find the coordinates of Q. We then substitute these
coordinates into the profit equation. This will give us the answer to the question.
 154

We do not expect you to solve such problems at this stage. We include this example as an illustration of one
of the many real–life applications of graphs of linear inequalities.

DIRECT PROPORTION AND THE USE OF LINES IN THE ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMEN-

TAL DATA

DIRECT PROPORTION

You do not need to have studied the concepts that we use from physics, chemistry, etc. We use them to show
you further applications of straight lines.

In the natural sciences we often come across direct proportion. For example, in physics we have Hooke’s
Law which states that

“the force F needed to keep a spring stretched x units beyond its natural length is directly proportional to x”.

Figure 3.3.12

We first read about direct proportion in Unit 3 of Module 1 and there is a speed–time problem dealing with
direct proportion at the beginning of this book, in Study Unit 1.1A. We remind you of the definition of direct
proportion.

Definition 3.3.1
If the variables x and y are related by an equation

y D cxI where c 2 R ; c 6D 0 .3:3:5/

then y is directly proportional to x. The constant c is called the

constant of proportionality.
 155 MAT0511/001

Note

I In some textbooks the phrase “y varies directly as x" is used instead of “y is directly proportional to
x". The constant c may also be called the “constant of variation".

I The equation y D cx defines a linear function in x, and thus we can write y D f .x/ D cx. The graph
of this function f is a straight line with slope c and y–intercept 0, i.e. it passes through the origin.

EXAMPLE 3.3.5

Suppose y is directly proportional to x, and that y D 20 when x D 8.

(a) Find the constant of proportionality and write down the equation that describes this relationship.

(b) Find y when x D 3.

SOLUTION

(a) Since y is directly proportional to x we have

y D cx: .3:3:6/

If we substitute x D 8 and y D 20 into (3.3.6) we have

20 D c 8
i:e:
20 5
cD D :
8 2
5
Thus the constant of proportionality is 2
and the equation is
5
yD x:
2

(b) When x D 3 we have y D 25 3 D 15

2.

The next activity relates to Hooke’s Law, which we stated earlier. We use Definition 3.3.1 to write Hooke’s
Law as
F D cx
where F is the force (measured in Newtons), x is the length of the spring beyond its natural length (measured
in centimetres) and the constant of proportionality, c, is the spring constant.

ACTIVITY 3.3.5

Suppose a spring has a natural length of 20 cm. Suppose a force of 30 N (Newtons) is required to hold the
spring stretched 2 cm beyond its natural length.
 156

(a) Use Hooke’s Law to find the constant of proportionality c. Write down an equation to describe this
relationship.

(b) What force is required to keep the spring stretched to a length of 25 cm?

Hint: Apply the method of Example 3.3.5.

SOLUTION

(a) According to Hooke’s Law,

F D cx: .3:3:7/

When we substitute x D 2 and F D 30 into (3.3.7) we obtain

30 D c 2
i.e. we have
c D 15:
Thus
F D 15x: .3:3:8/

Here the derived unit for c is N.cm 1 . In physics we usually use metres for length, in which case the
derived unit for the spring constant would be N.m 1 .

(b) If the spring is stretched to 25 cm then it is stretched (25 20) cm, i.e. 5 cm, beyond its natural length.
Thus we substitute x D 5 into (3.3.8) and obtain

F D 15 5 D 75:

Hence a force of 75 N is required to keep the spring stretched to a length of 25 cm.

It often happens that one quantity does not depend on just one other quantity. For example, suppose the
quantities x; y and z are related by the equation

z D cx yI where c 2 R ; c 6D 0:

Now z depends on two quantities x and y, and we say that z is jointly proportional to x and y, or z varies
jointly as x and y.

EXAMPLE 3.3.6

A number of examples of direct and joint proportion can be found in geometry. We consider the following.
You will encounter these formulas in Module 4.
 157 MAT0511/001

(a) The circumference C of a circle of radius r is given by C D 2 r .

C is directly proportional to r .
2 is the constant of proportionality.

(b) The area A of a square of side x is given by A D x 2 .

A is directly proportional to the square of x, or to x 2 .
1 is the constant of proportionality.

(c) The area A of a triangle with length l and base b is given by A D 12 lb.
A is jointly proportional to l and b.
1
2
is the constant of proportionality.

Now see whether you have understood Example 3.3.6 by trying to do the next activity.

ACTIVITY 3.3.6

Fill in the missing words, numbers or symbols in the following.

(a) The perimeter P of a square of side x is given by P D 4x.

P is ................ to ................ .
....... is the constant of proportionality.

(b) The area A of a circle of radius r is given by A D r 2 .

A is ................ to ................ .
....... is the constant of proportionality.

(c) The volume V of a rectangular box of length l, breadth b and height h is given by V D lbh.
V is ................ to ............... .
....... is the constant of proportionality.

SOLUTION

(a) P is directly proportional to x.

4 is the constant of proportionality.

(b) A is directly proportional to the square of r , or to r 2 .

is the constant of proportionality.

(c) V is jointly proportional to l, b and h.

1 is the constant of proportionality.

We consider the statement given in Example 3.3.6(b), namely “the area A of a square of side x is given by
A D x 2 , i.e. A is directly proportional to x 2 ". In this formula, although A depends only on the variable x, it
is not directly proportional to x. A is directly proportional to x 2 . We show this by means of two graphs.
 158

Suppose we consider several different squares, whose sides are x cm long and whose areas are A cm2 .

Sides x cm 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2
Square of sides (x cm ) 0 1 4 9 16 25 36
2
Area (A cm ) 0 1 4 9 16 25 36

Table 3.3.1

Figure 3.3.13(a) shows the graph we obtain when we plot the ordered pairs .x; A) and Figure 3.3.13(b) shows
the graph we obtain when we plot the ordered pairs .x 2 ; A).

y
y

40 40

Area A 30 Area A 30
in cm 2 in cm 2
20 20

10 10

x x
2 4 6 8 10 20 30 40
2
x in cm x in cm
2

Figure 3.3.13(a) Figure 3.3.13(b)

From Figures 3.3.13(a) and 3.3.13(b) we see that the graph in Figure 3.3.13(b) is a straight line, which shows
direct proportion. Thus A is directly proportional to x 2 . The fact that the graph in Figure 3.3.13(a) is not a
straight line indicates that A is not directly proportional to x.

In all the cases discussed so far we have worked with explicit formulas. Now if we have, for example, the
implicit formula in v, g and h
v 2 D 2gh

then we say:

The square of v is jointly proportional to g and h and 2 is the constant of proportionality.

Use this comment, and the method used in Example 3.3.5, to attempt the next activity.

Explicit and implicit formulas are defined in Module 2.

 159 MAT0511/001

ACTIVITY 3.3.7

The period T of a planet is defined to be the time it takes the planet to complete one revolution around the
sun, i.e. to travel around the sun once. Kepler’s Third Law of Planetary Motion states that the square of the
period T is directly proportional to the cube of the planet’s average distance d from the sun.

(a) Suppose that the period of the planet earth is approximately 365 days and that the earth’s average
distance from the sun is approximately 150 million kilometres. Find the constant of proportionality
and write down the equation that describes the relationship.

(b) The planet Jupiter is approximately 750 million kilometres from the sun. Find the period of Jupiter.

SOLUTION

(a) Kepler’s Third Law states that

T 2 D cd 3 : .3:3:9/

If we substitute T 365 and d 150 106 into (3.3.9) we obtain

.365/2 c.150 106 /3

i:e:
133 225 c.3 375 000 1018 /
i:e:
1; 33225 105 c.3; 375 106 1018 /
i:e:
1; 33225 105 c.3; 375 1024 /
i:e:
1; 33225 105
c
3; 375 1024

20
3; 947 10 :

20
The constant of proportionality is approximately 3; 947 10 and thus

T2 .3; 947 10 20
/d 3 : .3:3:10/

Note the way we use scientific notation to simplify the numbers in the calculation.
 160

(b) We substitute d 750 106 into (3.3.10). We obtain

T2 .3; 947 10 20
/ .750 106 /3
20
D .3; 947 10 / .7; 5 108 /3
20
D 3; 947 10 .7; 5/3 1024
D 3; 947 .7; 5/3 104
1665; 14 104 :

p
Now since T > 0, we have T D T 2.

Hence
p
T 1665; 14 104 D 40; 81 102 D 4 081:

Thus the period of Jupiter is approximately 4 081 days.

We have looked at various problems involving direct proportion. Can we use straight lines to help us establish
direct proportionality between two sets of data? Suppose we have two sets of data A and B and suppose each
value (y) in A depends on a value (x) in B. Suppose we plot the points (x; y) on a graph. If we can draw a
straight line through these points, which also passes through the origin, then we can write

y D cx

and hence say that y is directly proportional to x.

We use this method to establish or prove certain natural science laws. The following example illustrates this.

EXAMPLE 3.3.7

Consider an experiment to prove Hooke’s Law for a certain spring. Suppose we determine the force (in
Newtons) required to hold this spring stretched at 1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm beyond its natural length.
Suppose we obtain the following results. Hooke’s Law is stated at the beginning of this study unit.

Length x of spring beyond

its natural length (cm) 1 2 3 4 5

Force F in Newtons (N) 8 17 24 31 40

 161 MAT0511/001

We now plot the ordered pairs (x; F) and we obtain the graph in Figure 3.3.15.

50

40 X

Force F
in
30 X
Newtons
X

20
X

10 X

1 2 3 4 5
Length x in cm

Figure 3.3.14

Because we can never measure completely accurately there is always a degree of error in experimental data.
The points will thus not all lie on the line.

From Figure 3.3.14 we see that the experimental points lie approximately on the straight line through the
origin with equation of the form F D cx. Thus we have verified Hooke’s Law.

Example 3.3.7 shows that we can use a straight line which goes through the origin to establish a relationship
of direct proportion between two variables. This is one of the easiest relationships to establish.

In experimental work it is very difficult to fit equations to curves that are not straight lines. When we plot
data and obtain a graph that is not a straight line, we try to make an intelligent guess regarding the equation
that represents the relationship between the variables. We do not expect from you to be able to carry out
procedures such as these in this module.

Now try some questions from the following exercise.

EXERCISE 3.3

In each of questions 1–4 find the point of intersection of the lines l1 and l2 which are defined by the
given equations.

1. l1 : 3x C y D 1
l2 : x D 2

2. l1 : y D 43 x 2
l2 : 2x C y D 1
 162

3. l1 : x C 4y D 3
l2 : 2x y D 4

4. l1 : x 1 D 0
l2 : 2y C 3 D 0

5. The line l3 passes through the point of intersection of l1 and l2 , and is parallel to l1 . Find the equation
of l3 if

l1 : y D 2x 3
l2 : y D 3x C 4:

6. The line l3 passes through (2; 3) and the point of intersection of l1 and l2 , where

l1 : y D 3
l2 : 2x C y 3 D 0:

Find the equation of l3 .

7. The line l3 passes through the point of intersection of lines l1 and l2 , and is perpendicular to l2 , where

l1 : y C 2x D 3
l2 : x 1 D 0:

Find the equation of l3 .

8. On the same system of axes sketch the lines l1 , l2 and l3 , where

l1 : y D x
l2 : y D x C 2
1
l3 : y D 3
x C 1:

(a) Find algebraically P.x; y/, the point of intersection of l1 and l3 , and Q.x; y/, the point of inter-
section of l2 and l3 .
(b) How do we know that l1 and l2 will never intersect?
(c) For any given x, determine the vertical distance between corresponding points on l1 and l2 .
(d) When x D 2 determine the vertical distance between l1 and l3 .
(e) If x > 0 find the value of x for which the vertical distance between corresponding points on l2
and l3 is 4 units.
Remember that in this case corresponding points are points with the same first coordinate.

9. The lines l1 and l2 , where l1 : y D f .x/ and l2 : y D g.x/, are sketched in Figure 3.3.15.

(a) Find an equation for f and for g.

(b) Determine P.x; y/, the point of intersection of l1 and l2 .
(c) What is the vertical distance between l1 and l2 when x D 5?
 163 MAT0511/001

(d) Determine the two points on the x–axis at which the vertical distance between them and the
respective corresponding points on l2 is 6 units.
(e) Find the values of x for which
(i) f .x/ 0
(ii) g.x/ < 0
(iii) f .x/ g.x/.
y

l2
l1

1
P ( x , y)
x
0 1 3
_1

Figure 3.3.15

10. The lines l1 and l2 , where l1 : y D h.x/ and l2 : y D k.x/, are sketched in Figure 3.3.16. The point
of intersection of the two lines is P.2; 2/.

l1

l2
P (2,2)

x
0 1

Figure 3.3.16
 164

(a) Find an equation for h and for k.

(b) Determine the y–intercept of l1 .
(c) What is the vertical distance between the two lines when x D 5?
(d) If x < 2 find the value of x for which the vertical distance between corresponding points on the
two lines is 10 units.
(e) Find the values of x for which

(i) h.x/ > 0

(ii) h.x/ 2 0.

11. A woman decides to earn some extra money by baking banana cakes at home and selling them. Her
daily fixed costs are R24. It costs her R6 to bake one banana cake and she sells it for R12.

(a) Give a formula for the function f which describes the daily cost of producing x banana cakes per
day.
(b) Give a formula for the function g which represents her income if she sells x cakes per day.
(c) Draw the graphs of f and g on the same system of axes.
(d) How many cakes must she bake and sell in order to break even?
(e) If her profit was R30 on a certain day, how many cakes did she bake and sell that day?

12. A small factory produces and sells T–shirts. The daily fixed costs are R800 and the cost of producing
one T–shirt is R10. The T–shirts are sold for R18 each.

(a) Draw the graphs representing cost and income on the same system of axes, and determine the
break–even point.
(b) If 80 T–shirts are produced and sold, is there a profit or loss, and what is the profit or loss?
(c) If a profit of R1 200 was made on a certain day, how many T–shirts were produced and sold that
day?

13. In each of the following, give the inequality represented by the graph.

(a) (b)
y
y

2x _ y = _ 2

x
x
y =_x
 165 MAT0511/001

(c) (d)
y y

x x
(1,0) ( 0, _ 2 )

14. Sketch the graph of each of the following linear inequalities.

(a) x C 2 0
(b) y 2x
(c) x C 2y > 3
(d) x 2y 3

15. Sketch the graph of the following system of linear inequalities.

9
y x 1 > >
>
3 =
>
y x 2
y 4 >
>
>
>
2x 3 ;

16. Fill in the missing words, numbers or symbols in the following.

(a) The volume V of a cube with side x is given by V D x 3 :

V is ................ to ............... .
........ is the constant of proportionality.
(b) The area A of an equilateral triangle (i.e. a triangle in which all sides are equal) of side x is given
p
by A D 43 x 2 .
A is ................ to ............... .
......... is the constant of proportionality.
(c) The volume of a box with length x, breadth x and height h is given by V D hx 2 .
V is ................ to ................ .
......... is the constant of proportionality.

17. Write an equation for each of the following statements, using k as the constant of variation.

(a) p is directly proportional to q.

(b) r is directly proportional to the square root of s.
(c) p is jointly proportional to the cube of q and the square of r .
(d) The square of p is jointly proportional to s and the cube root of r .
 166

18. Suppose z is directly proportional to x, and z D 30 when x D 6.

(a) Find the constant of proportionality and write down the equation that describes this relationship.
(b) Find z when x D 11.

19. Suppose p is jointly proportional to q and the square of r , and p D 36 when q D 3 and r D 2. Find
the constant of proportionality and write down an equation that represents this relationship.

20. This question is adapted from Stewart, Redlin and Watson (see the References).
The cost of printing a magazine is jointly proportional to the number of pages in the magazine and the
number of magazines produced.

(a) Write an equation for this joint proportion if it costs R240 000 to print 4 000 copies of a 120–page
magazine.
(b) How much would it cost to print 5 000 copies of a 92–page magazine?
 167 MAT0511/001

UNIT SUMMARY

A linear function f is defined by

y D f .x/ D mx C c;

where m and c are constants.

B If m D 0 then f .x/ D c, and f is called a constant function.

B If m D 1 and c D 0 then f .x/ D x and f is called the identity function.
B The graph of f is a straight line l with slope m and y–intercept c.

slope of l y–intercept of l
# #
l : y D mx C c
|{z} | {z }
line equation

l horizontal mD0
l vertical m is undefined
(i.e. a vertical line cannot be described by
the equation y D mx C c)
l slants upwards m>0
l slants downwards m<0
l1 is steeper than l2 magnitude of m 1 > magnitude of m 2

The graphs of all linear functions are straight lines, but not all straight lines are the graphs of linear
functions, e.g. a line parallel to the y–axis is not the graph of a function.

Suppose the lines l1 and l2 are

l1 : y D m 1 x C c 1
l2 : y D m 2 x C c 2 :

B If l1 and l2 are parallel then m 1 D m 2 ; and conversely, if m 1 D m 2 then l1 and l2 are parallel.
B If l1 and l2 are perpendicular then m 1 m 2 D 1; and conversely, if m 1 m 2 D 1 then l1 and l2 are
perpendicular.
B All vertical lines are parallel. All horizontal lines are parallel.
B A vertical line and a horizontal line are perpendicular.

Different forms of the equation of a straight line

B Slope–intercept form
The equation of a line that has slope m and y–intercept c is

y D mx C c:
 168

B Point–slope form
The equation of a line that passes through the point Q.x1 ; y1 ) and has slope m is given by

y y1 D m.x x1 /:

B Two–point form
The equation of a line that passes through the points P.x1 ; y1 ) and Q.x2 ; y2 ) is given by
y2 y1
y y1 D .x x1 /:
x2 x1

B General form
The general form of the equation of a line is

px C qy C r D 0

where p; q and r are constants and p and q are not both zero.
B The equation of the horizontal line through the point ( p; q) is given by

y D q:

B The equation of the vertical line through the point . p; q/ is given by

x D p:

Coordinates of the point of intersection of two lines

If two lines represented by the equations y D f .x/ and y D g.x/ intersect at a point P, then the
coordinates of P are found by solving the system
9
y D f .x/ >=
y D g.x/ :
>
;

Distance between .x; f .x// and .x; g.x//

l1 : y = f (x)
( x , g( x )) ( x , f( x ))

b P (a,b )

( x , g( x))
x
0 a
l2 : y = g(x)

( x , f (x ))
 169 MAT0511/001

The vertical distance d.x/ between corresponding points on lines l1 and l2 is given by

d.x/ D f .x/ g.x/ when x > a

and
d.x/ D g.x/ f .x/ when x < a:

Distance between .x; f .x// and .x; 0/

( x, f ( x))

( x,0)
x
( x , 0) 0 a

( x , f ( x ))
l : y = f (x )

The vertical distance d.x/ between corresponding points on the line l and the x–axis is given by

d.x/ D 0 f .x/ D f .x/ when x > a

and
d.x/ D f .x/ 0 D f .x/ when x < a:

Break–even point, profit and loss

income
function
g
Profit

Cost in
rands cost function
f
P (a, b)
Break-even point
Loss

x
c a d
Number of items
 170

B The break–even point is the point of intersection of the graphs of the cost function f and the
income function g, i.e. the point at which
cost D income.
B When g.x/ > f .x/ a profit is made and profit D g.x/ f .x/.
B When g.x/ < f .x/ a loss is made and loss D f .x/ g.x/.

Graphs of linear inequalities

Inequality Graph
y > mx C c region above the line defined by y D mx C c
y mx C c region above or on the line defined by y D mx C c
y < mx C c region below the line defined by y D mx C c
y mx C c region below or on the line defined by y D mx C c
x >c region to the right of the line defined by x D c
x c region to the right of or on the line defined by x D c
x <c region to the left of the line defined by x D c
x c region to the left of or on the line defined by x D c

Direct and Joint Proportion

Term Examples
directly proportional y D cx
y is directly proportional to x
c is the constant of proportionality

T 2 D 4 10 20 d 3
T 2 is directly proportional to d 3
4 10 20 is the constant of proportionality

jointly proportional z D cx y
z is jointly proportional to x and y
c is the constant of proportionality

v 2 D 2gh
v 2 is jointly proportional to g and h
2 is the constant of proportionality
 171 MAT0511/001

CHECKLIST
Now check that you can do the following.

3.1: Drawing Lines

1. Draw a line using a table of values.

Activity 3.1.1

2. Find the slope of a line using the coordinates of two points on the line.
Activity 3.1.3

3. Draw a line using two points (we usually use the x– and y–intercepts).
Example 3.1.1; Activity 3.1.4(a)

4. Draw a line using one point on the line and the slope of the line.
Example 3.1.2; Activity 3.1.4(b)

5. Draw a line which is parallel or perpendicular to a given line.

Examples 3.1.3, 3.1.4; Activity 3.1.5

6. Draw vertical and horizontal lines.

Example 3.1.5

7. Draw graphs of linear functions with restricted domains.

Activity 3.1.6

3.2: Finding Equations of Lines

1. Find the 8
>
> slope intercept form of the equation of a line
>
>
< point slope form of the equation of a line
>
> two point form of the equation of a line
>
>
: general equation of a line:

Activities 3.2.1, 3.2.2, 3.2.3; Exercise 3.2

3.3: Application of Lines and Linear Functions

1. Find the point of intersection of two lines.

Example 3.3.2 (and discussion directly after it); Activity 3.3.2

2. Find the vertical distance between corresponding points on two lines, or between a point on a line and
the corresponding point on the horizontal axis.
Activity 3.3.2
 172

3. Apply your knowledge of linear functions and straight lines to simple problems involving linear cost
and income functions, break–even points, profit and loss.
Activity 3.3.3

4. Sketch the graphs of linear inequalities.

Example 3.3.3; Activity 3.3.4

5. Sketch the graph of the solution set of a system of linear inequalities.

Example 3.3.4

6. Recognise equations which show direct or joint proportion and apply these concepts to various real–life
situations.
Examples 3.3.5, 3.3.6, 3.3.7; Activities 3.3.5, 3.3.6, 3.3.7
 173 MAT0511/001

UNIT 4: Parabolas

OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

4.1: Characteristics of Parabolas defined by y D a.x h/2 C k

I Recognise the role of a with respect to the parabola defined by y D ax 2 .

I Recognise the role of k with respect to the parabola defined by y D ax 2 C k.

I Recognise the role of h with respect to the parabola defined by y D a.x h/2 .

I Determine various characteristics of a parabola defined by

y D a.x h/2 C k.

I Know the characteristics of parabolas defined by y D f .x/ D a.x h/2 C k.

4.2: Sketching Parabolas

I Sketch parabolas defined by y D a.x h/2 C k.

I Sketch parabolas defined by y D ax 2 C bx C c.

I Use the discriminant to determine the number of times a parabola cuts the x–axis.

I Know the characteristics of parabolas defined by y D ax 2 C bx C c.

4.3: Finding the Equation of Parabola

I Find the equation of a parabola if you are given three unrelated points on the parabola.

I Find the equation of a parabola if you are given the vertex and another point on the parabola.

I Find the equation of a parabola if you are given the x–intercepts and one other point on the parabola.

4.4: Using Parabolas and Quadratic Functions

I Use a rough sketch of an appropriate parabola to solve a quadratic inequality.

px C q
I Solve a rational inequality of the form r x C s > 0 (where > can be replaced by <, or ) by using
a rough sketch of the parabola defined by y D . px C q/.r x C s/.

I Find maximum and minimum values of quadratic functions in certain applied problems.
 174

4.1 Characteristics of Parabolas

In the last unit we dealt with lines. Many lines are graphs of linear functions. Remember that a linear
function is defined by a polynomial expression of degree 1. We now consider functions which are defined by
certain polynomial expressions of degree 2. These are called quadratic functions and their graphs are called
parabolas. Polynomials are dealt with in Unit 1 of Module 2.

Definition 4.1.1
A function f defined by

f .x/ D ax 2 C bx C cI a; b; c; 2 R and a 6D 0;

is called a quadratic function in x. The graph of a quadratic

function is called a parabola.

Note that in the above definition we require a 6D 0. Why is this necessary? Well, if a D 0 then f will reduce
to a linear function. Can you explain why this is so? From now on, when we deal with quadratic equations
or functions, we assume a 6D 0 without stating this each time.

We have already come across examples of parabolas. See, for example, Figure 2.3.1 of Module 2, as well as
Figures 1.2.17 and 1.3.1 in Unit 1 of this Module.

In Module 2, we showed that we can write ax 2 C bx C c in the form a.x h/2 C k. In this section we now
consider parabolas whose equations are written in the form y D a.x h/2 C k. We do this by means of
completing the square. The constants a; h and k relate to certain characteristics of parabolas. In the next
section we look at parabolas defined by the general equation y D ax 2 C bx C c.

Since quadratic polynomials (i.e. polynomial expressions of degree 2) are defined for all real numbers, the
domain of a quadratic function is R: We can thus sketch the graph of a quadratic function by plotting some
points that lie on the graph and joining them with a smooth curve.

In the next three study units we use tables of values to find separate points, which we then plot and join, to
sketch three different types of parabolas. We consider parabolas defined by

I y D ax 2

I y D ax 2 C k

I y D a.x h/2 C k.

The sketches of these parabolas illustrate the roles of a, h and k in determining the shape and position of the
parabola with respect to the x– and y–axes.
 175 MAT0511/001

PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y D ax 2

In this study unit we consider parabolas defined by y D ax 2 . We look at some of their characteristics and
consider how different values of a affect the shape of the parabolas.

EXAMPLE 4.1.1

Consider the parabolas defined by the following equations.

(a) y D x 2 (b) y D 12 x 2 (c) y D 2x 2

I Set up one table of values for all three cases, using integer values of x from 3 to 3.

I For each case plot the points and join them by means of a smooth curve.

Draw all three graphs on the same system of axes.

SOLUTION

x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

y D x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

y D 12 x 2 9
2
2 1
2
0 1
2
2 9
2

y D 2x 2 18 8 2 0 2 8 18
 176

y 6
r 18 y D 2x 2 r

16
y D x2
14

12

r r
10
r 8 r
y D 12 x 2
6
r r
r 4 r

r r r r
r r
2
r r
r - x
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 4.1.1
The arms of the parabolas open upwards. Note that the value of a influences how close together the arms of
the parabola are.

Before we discuss the properties of the parabolas shown in Figure 4.1.1, try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 4.1.1

On the same system of axes sketch the parabolas defined by the following equations.

1 2
(a) y D x2 (b) y D 2
x (c) y D 2x 2

I Set up one table of values for all three cases, using integer values of x from 3 to 3.

I For each case plot the points and join them by means of a smooth curve.
 177 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

yD x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

1 2 9 1 1 9
yD 2
x 2
2 2
0 2
2 2

yD 2x 2 18 8 2 0 2 8 18

y 6
r
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
r r
- x
r r
r r 2 r r

r r
r 4 r

6
r r
1 2
yD 2
x
r r
8

10

12

14
yD x2
16
r r
yD 2x 2
18

Figure 4.1.2

The arms of the parabolas open downwards. Once again note that the value of a influences the extent to
which the arms of the parabola are close together or far apart from each other.

STANDARD PARABOLA

We first consider the parabola defined by y D f .x/ D x 2 which is sketched in Figure 4.1.1. This is known as
the standard parabola. It has the following characteristics.

I It is symmetric with respect to the y–axis, i.e. the line defined by x D 0. We call this line the axis of
symmetry of the parabola. This means that if we fold the sketch of the parabola along the y–axis, then
 178

the left arm of the parabola lies directly on top of the right arm. Symmetry with respect to the y–axis
also means that each point on the left arm of the parabola has a corresponding point (with respect to the
y–axis) lying on the right arm. Furthermore, if f denotes a function then the graph of f is symmetric
with respect to the y–axis if f . x/ D f .x/. In this case f . x/ D . x/2 D x 2 D f .x/. For example,
. 2; 4/ lies on the left arm of the standard parabola. The corresponding point (with respect to the
y–axis) is .2; 4/, which lies on the right arm. See Figure 4.1.3.

y6

y D x2

. 2; 4/ r r .2; 4/

- x
.0; 0/

Figure 4.1.3

I The arms of the parabola open upwards; we say the parabola is concave up.

I If we look at the graph of y D x 2 from left to right we see that the curve “falls" to the origin and then
“rises". Mathematically we say that the function f decreases on the interval . 1; 0/ and increases on
the interval .0; 1/.

I The parabola has a turning point, called the vertex. This is the point of intersection of the parabola and
its axis of symmetry. In this case the vertex is the point .0; 0/.

I As x increases the function value f .x/ decreases to 0 and then increases, and thus 0 is the minimum
value of the function. We know this even without looking at the graph. Algebraically we have x 2 0
for all x 2 R and thus f .x/ has a minimum value of 0.

I D f D R and R f D [0; 1/.

PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y D ax 2 ; a > 0

From Figure 4.1.1 we see that the parabolas defined by y D 12 x 2 and y D 2x 2 have the same characteristics
as the standard parabola. We also note the following.

I The parabola defined by y D 2x 2 is narrower than the standard parabola, i.e. its arms are closer
together than the arms of the standard parabola.

I The parabola defined by y D 21 x 2 is wider than the standard parabola.

 179 MAT0511/001

PARABOLA DEFINED BY y D x2

From Figure 4.1.2 we see that the parabola defined by y D x 2 is a reflection of the standard parabola in the
x–axis. In other words we can obtain the new parabola by “turning" the standard parabola “upside–down".
We use the phrase “reflection in the x–axis” to suggest that the x–axis behaves as a mirror, and “reflects" one
graph to give another.

ACTIVITY 4.1.2

Write down characteristics, similar to those given for the standard parabola, for the parabola defined by

y D f .x/ D x 2:

SOLUTION

I The parabola is symmetric with respect to the y–axis.

I The arms of the parabola open downwards, i.e. the parabola is concave down.

I As we move from left to right the curve rises to .0; 0/ and then falls, i.e. the function f increases on
. 1; 0] and decreases on [0; 1/.

I The vertex is the point .0; 0/.

I As x increases the function value f .x/ increases to 0 and then decreases, and thus 0 is the maximum
value of f .x/. Algebraically, since x 2 0 for all x 2 R, we have x 2 0 for all x 2 R and thus
f .x/ has a maximum value of 0.

I D f D R and R f D . 1; 0].

PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y D ax 2 ; a < 0

In Figure 4.1.2 we note that the parabolas defined by y D 12 x 2 and y D 2x 2 have the same characteristics
as the parabola defined by y D x 2 . We also note the following.

I The parabola defined by y D 2x 2 is narrower than the parabola defined by y D x 2.

I The parabola defined by y D 1 2

2
x is wider than the parabola defined by y D x 2.

We can now state the general role of a.

 180

THE ROLE OF a WITH RESPECT TO THE PARABOLA DEFINED BY y D ax 2

I The sign of a determines whether the parabola opens upwards or downwards.

If a > 0, it opens upwards.
If a < 0, it opens downwards.

I The numerical value of a determines how close together or how far apart the arms of a parabola
are.
The bigger the numerical value of a, the narrower the parabola becomes.
The smaller the numerical value of a, the wider the parabola becomes.
In Unit 1 of Module 1 we use the term “magnitude”for “numerical value”.

Table 4.1.1

PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y D ax 2 C k

We investigate the relationship between parabolas defined by y D ax 2 C k and the parabola defined by
y D ax 2 for a fixed value of a. In other words we consider a specific value of a and different values of k.

PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y D x 2 C k

We first consider an example in which a D 1.

EXAMPLE 4.1.2

(a) On the same system of axes sketch the parabolas defined as follows.

(i) y D f .x/ D x 2
(ii) y D g.x/ D x 2 C 2
(iii) y D h.x/ D x 2 3

Set up one table of values for all three cases, using integer values of x from 3 to 3, plot the points and
join them by means of smooth curves.

(b) (i) What is the relationship between the graphs of g and f ?

(ii) What is the relationship between the graphs of h and f ?
 181 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

(a)

x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

y D x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

y D x2 C 2 11 6 3 2 3 6 11

y D x2 3 6 1 2 3 2 1 6

y 6

r r
12

r r
10
y D g.x/ D x 2 C 2
8

r r r r
y D f .x/ D x 2
6

r r
r r
4 y D h.x/ D x 2 3

r2
r r r r
r - x

r r
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

r
2

Figure 4.1.4

(b) (i) The graph of g is the same as that of f except that it has been shifted 2 units upwards. The graphs
of f and g have the same characteristics, except that the vertex of the graph of g is no longer
.0; 0/.
Dg D R and the graph of g
– has the y–axis as its axis of symmetry
– is concave up, and
– has vertex .0; 2/.
Thus g.x/ has a minimum value of 2 and hence Rg D [2; 1/.
Algebraically, x 2 0 and hence x 2 C 2 2, i.e. we have g.x/ 2.
 182

(ii) The graph of h is the same as that of f except that it has been shifted 3 units downwards. Thus
Dh D R and the graph of h has the y–axis as its axis of symmetry, is concave up and has vertex
.0; 3/. The graph of h has its lowest point when x D 0, and thus the minimum value of h.x/ is
3 and hence Rh D [ 3; 1/. We know that x 2 0 and thus x 2 3 3. Hence h.x/ 3.

PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y D ax 2 C k; a 6D 1

Now try the following activity in which a 6D 1.

ACTIVITY 4.1.3

(a) On the same system of axes sketch the parabolas defined as follows.

3 2
(i) y D p.x/ D 2
x
3 2
(ii) y D q.x/ D 2
x C1
3 2
(iii) y D r .x/ D 2
x 2

Set up one table of values for all three cases, using integer values of x from 3 to 3.

(b) State the characteristics of the graphs of q and r in relation to those of the graph of p.

SOLUTION

(a)

x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 2 27 3 3 27
yD 2
x 2
6 2
0 2
6 2

3 2 25 1 1 25
yD 2
x C1 2
5 2
1 2
5 2

3 2 31 7 7 31
yD 2
x 2 2
8 2
2 2
8 2
 183 MAT0511/001

y 6
4

r
2
r
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
r r
- x
r r
r
0
2
r r
3 2
y D q.x/ D 2
x C1
r r
4
r r
3 2
y D p.x/ D 2
x
6
r 8 r y D r .x/ D 3 2
x 2
2

10

r 12 r
r r
14
r r
16

Figure 4.1.5

(b) The graph of q is the same as that of p except that it has been shifted 1 unit upwards. Thus Dq D R; the
axis of symmetry of the graph is the y–axis, it is concave down and the vertex is .0; 1/. Thus q.x/ has
a maximum value of 1, and hence Rq D . 1; 1]. q.x/ 1 since 32 x 2 0 and thus 32 x 2 C 1 1.
The graph of r is the same as that of p except that it has been shifted 2 units downwards. Thus Dr D R;
the axis of symmetry of the graph is the y–axis, it is concave down and .0; 2/ is its turning point.
Hence r .x/ has a maximum value of 2, and hence Rr D . 1; 2]. r .x/ 2 since 32 x 2 0 and
hence 32 x 2 2 2.
 184

In the following table we summarise the effect of k on parabolas defined by y D ax 2 C k for a fixed value of
a.

THE ROLE OF k WITH RESPECT TO THE PARABOLA DEFINED BY y D ax 2 C k

For a fixed value of a the parabola defined by y D ax 2 C k has the same shape as the parabola defined
by y D ax 2 . It is obtained by shifting the parabola defined by y D ax 2

I k units upwards if k > 0

I k (i.e. the numerical value of k) units downwards if k < 0.

Note: k > 0 when k < 0. For example, if k D 3, then k D . 3/ D 3.

The vertex of the parabola defined by y D ax 2 C k is (0, k).
The vertex (0, k) is

I above the x–axis if k > 0

I at the origin if k D 0

I below the x–axis if k < 0.

Table 4.1.2

We have often mentioned the importance of using mathematical terminology and notation correctly. Note the
difference between the expressions lowest (or highest) point and the smallest (or biggest) value. Consider
this terminology in relation to parabolas defined by y D ax 2 or y D ax 2 C k. Consider the parabola defined
by y D f .x/ D ax 2 C k, where a > 0 and k < 0. (See Figure 4.1.6.)

6y

- x

r
A.0; k/

Figure 4.1.6
In Figure 4.1.6 we note that
 185 MAT0511/001

I all points .x; y) on the graph satisfy the equation y D f .x/

I the lowest point on the graph of the function f is the vertex, A

I the smallest value of f .x/ is k, the y–coordinate of the vertex

I the smallest value of f .x/ occurs when x D 0, which is the x–coordinate of the vertex.

We have just discussed the case where a > 0 and k < 0. You may find it helpful to formulate similar
statements for the case a < 0.

PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y D a.x h/2 C k

In the previous two study units we looked at parabolas defined by y D ax 2 and y D ax 2 Ck. We now consider
parabolas defined by y D a.x h/2 C k.

We determine the effect of h by keeping the values of a and k fixed, and then considering different values of
h.

PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y D .x h/2

In the next example and activity we assume a D 1 and k D 0, i.e. we consider parabolas defined by
y D .x h/2 .

EXAMPLE 4.1.3

(a) On the same system of axes sketch the parabolas defined by

(i) y D f .x/ D x 2 (ii) y D g.x/ D .x 1/

by setting up one table of values for both functions, using integer values of x from 3 to 4.

(b) What is the relationship between the graphs of g and f ?

SOLUTION

(a)
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

x 1 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

y D x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16

y D .x 1/2 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
 186

y 6
r 16 r

14

12

r r r r
10

y D f .x/ D x 2 6

r r 4 r r y D g.x/ D .x 1/2

r r r r
2

r r - x
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 4.1.7

(b) Both functions have the same domain and range, and both graphs have the same shape. However,
relative to the graph of f , the axis of symmetry of the graph of g, and hence also its vertex, have shifted
1 unit to the right. Thus the axis of symmetry of the graph of g is the line defined by x D 1 and the
vertex is the point .1; 0/.

In Example 4.1.3 we have h > 0, and the axis of symmetry of the parabola defined by y D .x h/2 lies to
the right of the y–axis and is the line defined by x D h. The vertex is the point .h; 0/. In the next activity we
consider the axis of symmetry when h < 0.

ACTIVITY 4.1.4

(a) On the same system of axes sketch the parabolas defined by

(i) y D f .x/ D x 2 (ii) y D l.x/ D .x C 2/2

by setting up one table of values for both functions, using integer values of x from 5 to 3.

(b) Give the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the vertex of the graph of l.

(c) From the graphs in (a) describe the relationship between the graphs of l and f .
 187 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

(a)
x 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

x C2 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

y D x2 25 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

y D .x C 2/2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16 25

y 6

14

12

r r r r
10 y D f .x/ D x 2

r r r4 r
2
y D l.x/ D .x C 2/

r r r
2

r r - x
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 4.1.8

(b) The axis of symmetry of the graph of l is the line defined by x D 2 and the vertex is . 2; 0/.

(c) The graph of l, i.e. the parabola defined by y D .x C 2/2 , has the same shape as the graph of f , i.e. the
parabola defined by y D x 2 , but it is 2 units further to the left than the graph of f .

In Activity 4.1.4 we may write the equation y D .x C 2/2 as y D .x . 2//2 , and the axis of symmetry is
the line defined by x D 2. Thus, when h < 0, the axis of symmetry of the parabola defined by y D .x h/2
is the line defined by x D h and it lies to the left of the y–axis. The vertex is the point (h, 0).
 188

PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y D a.x h/2 ; a 6D 1

We have considered the effect of the sign of h for parabolas defined by

y D a.x h/2 , where a D 1. Now, in the next activity, we consider the effect of different values of h, when
a 6D 1.

ACTIVITY 4.1.5

(a) On the same system of axes sketch the graphs of

(i) y D f .x/ D 2x 2
(ii) y D g.x/ D 2.x 2/2
(iii) y D h.x/ D 2.x C 1/2

by setting up one table of values for all the functions, using integer values of x from 3 to 4.

(b) Describe the relationship between the graphs of

(i) g and f
(ii) h and f .

SOLUTION

(a)
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

.x 2/ 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2

.x C 1/ 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

yD 2x 2 18 8 2 0 2 8 18 32

yD 2.x 2/2 50 32 18 8 2 0 2 8

yD 2.x C 1/2 8 2 0 2 8 18 32 50
 189 MAT0511/001

y 6
r r r
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
- x

r r 2 r r r

y D h.x/ D 2.x C 1/2

4 y D g.x/ D 2.x 2/2

r r 8 r r r r

10 y D f .x/ D 2x 2

12

14

16

Figure 4.1.9
(b)
(i) The graph of g is obtained by shifting the graph of f 2 units to the right.
(ii) The graph of h is obtained by shifting the graph of f 1 unit to the left.

In the following table we summarise the effect of h on parabolas defined by y D a.x h/2 .

THE ROLE OF h WITH RESPECT TO THE PARABOLA DEFINED BY y D a.x h/2

For a fixed value of a the parabola defined by y D a.x h/2 has the same shape as the parabola
defined by y D ax 2 . It is obtained by shifting the parabola defined by y D ax 2

I h units to the right if h > 0

I h (i.e. the numerical value of h) units to the left if h < 0.

The axis of symmetry of the parabola is the line defined by x D h. The vertex is the point (h, 0)
and it is

I to the right of the y–axis if h > 0

I at the origin if h D 0

I to the left of the y–axis if h < 0.

Note: h > 0 when h < 0

Table 4.1.3
 190

In the examples and activities that we have considered so far we have looked in turn at the effects of a, h and
k on parabolas defined by y D a.x h/2 C k. We have the following.

I The value of a determines the shape of the parabola.

I The value of k determines the vertical shift with respect to the parabola defined by y D ax 2 . The value
of k is the y–coordinate of the vertex of the parabola and is the maximum or minimum value of the
function.

I The value of h determines the horizontal shift with respect to the parabola defined by y D ax 2 . The
equation of the line which is the axis of symmetry of the parabola is x D h, and h is the x–coordinate
of the vertex.

When we speak of the value of a (or h or k) we mean both the sign and numerical value of a (or h or k).

In the next example we use these properties to predict the characteristics of two specific parabolas defined by
y D a.x h/2 C k, where a 6D 0, h 6D 0 and k 6D 0. In Activity 4.1.6 you can sketch the parabolas using
tables of values, and see whether the predictions are correct.

EXAMPLE 4.1.4

For each of the functions f and g defined by

1
(a) f .x/ D 2.x 1/2 C 3 (b) g.x/ D 2
.x C 2/2 1

(i) state whether the graph is concave up or down

(ii) if the graph is concave up state whether it is narrower or wider than the standard parabola; if it is
concave down state if it is narrower or wider than the parabola defined by y D x 2
(iii) give the axis of symmetry of the graph
(iv) give the vertex of the graph
(v) give the maximum or minimum value of the function
(vi) give the domain and range of the function.

SOLUTION

(a) When we compare f .x/ D 2.x 1/2 C 3 with y D a.x h/2 C k we see that a D 2, h D 1 and k D 3.

(i) Since a D 2, i.e. a > 0, it follows that the parabola is concave up.
(ii) The parabola is narrower than the standard parabola since a D 2, i.e. a > 1.
(iii) The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x D h, i.e. x D 1.
 191 MAT0511/001

(iv) The vertex is the point .h; k/, i.e. .1; 3/.
(v) Since the graph is concave up it has a lowest point. Hence the minimum value of f .x/ is k, i.e. 3.
(vi) D f D R and R f D [3; 1/.

(b) When we compare g.x/ D 12 .x C 2/2 1 with y D a.x h/2 C k we have a D 1

2
, hD 2 (since
.x C 2/ D .x . 2//) and k D 1.

1
(i) Since a D 2
, i.e. a < 0, it follows that the parabola is concave down.
(ii) The parabola is wider than the parabola defined by y D x 2 since the magnitude of a is 12 , which
is less than 1.
(iii) The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x D h, i.e. x D 2.
(iv) The vertex is the point .h; k/, i.e. . 2; 1/.
(v) Since the graph is concave down the graph has a highest point. Hence the maximum value of
g.x/ is k, i.e. 1.
(vi) Dg D R and Rg D . 1; 1].

ACTIVITY 4.1.6

Sketch the parabolas defined by

1
(a) y D f .x/ D 2.x 1/2 C 3 (b) y D g.x/ D 2
.x C 2/ 1

by setting up tables of values using integer values of x from 2 to 4 for (a); and from 5 to 1 for (b).

Confirm that the graphs have the properties that have been deduced in Example 4.1.4.

SOLUTION

(a)
x 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

.x 1/ 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

y D 2.x 1/2 C 3 21 11 5 3 5 11 21
 192

y 6

r r
12

10

y D f .x/ D 2.x 1/2 C 3

r r
6

r
4
.1; 3/
2

- x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 4.1.10

(b)
x 5 4 3 2 1 0 1

.x C 2/ 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

1 11 3 3 11
yD 2
.x C 2/2 1 2
3 2
1 2
3 2

6y

- x
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2
r
r r
1

r 3 r
1
y D g.x/ D 2
.x C 2/2 1
4

r r
5

Figure 4.1.11
 193 MAT0511/001

Figures 4.1.10 and 4.1.11 show us that the parabolas have the properties deduced in Example 4.1.4.

We now know the effects of a, h and k on the characteristics of parabolas defined by y D a.x h/2 C k.
Thus we can now sketch parabolas using these characteristics, and we no longer need to use tables of values.
In addition to these characteristics, we use the y–intercept and x–intercept(s) (if any exist) to help us sketch
the graphs.

Study Figure 4.1.4 in Study Unit 4.1B. Each of the parabolas has a y–intercept, but the parabola defined by

I y D h.x/ D x 2 3 has two x–intercepts

I y D f .x/ D x 2 has only one x–intercept

I y D g.x/ D x 2 C 2 has no x–intercepts.

We now consider this in more detail. Remember that the y–intercept is obtained by substituting x D 0 and
the x–intercept(s) is (are) found by substituting y D 0 into the equation that defines the parabola.

Thus by substituting x D 0 into each of the equations above we see that the y–intercepts of the graphs of h,
f and g are 3, 0 and 2, respectively.

For the x–intercept(s) we substitute y D 0 into each of the equations.

For h we obtain

0 D x2 3
i.e. we have
x2 D 3
and thus
p
xD 3:

p p
Hence the x–intercepts of the graph of h are 3 and 3.

For f we obtain

x2 D 0
i.e. we have
x D 0:

Thus the graph of f has only one x–intercept, namely 0.

 194

For g we get

0 D x2 C 2
i.e. we have
x2 D 2

which has no real solution. Thus the graph of g has no x–intercept.

We now look at the general case, i.e. the parabola defined by y D a.x h/2 C k.

When we substitute x D 0 into the equation we obtain

y D a. h/2 C k
D ah 2 C k:

Thus the y–intercept is ah 2 C k.

When we substitute y D 0 into the equation we obtain 0 D a.x h/2 C k.

Now
0 D a.x h/2 C k

, a.x h/2 D k

k
, .x h/2 D since a 6D 0
a

r
k k
, .x h/ D if 0
a a

r
k k
, xDh if 0:
a a

Thus we have the following.

I There are two x–intercepts if ak > 0, i.e. if ak < 0.

I There is only one x–intercept if ak D 0, i.e. if k D 0.

I There is no x–intercept if ak < 0, i.e if ak > 0.

In the following table we summarise the characteristics of parabolas defined by y D a.x h/2 C k.
 195 MAT0511/001

CHARACTERISTICS OF PARABOLAS DEFINED BY

y D f .x/ D a.x h/2 C k

I The domain and range of f are

Df D R
(
[k; 1/ if a > 0
Rf D
. 1; k] if a < 0:

(
concave up if a > 0
I The parabola is
concave down if a < 0:

I The bigger the numerical value of a, the narrower the parabola

becomes.
The smaller the numerical value of a, the wider the parabola be-
comes.

I The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x D h.

I The vertex is (h, k).

I When a > 0, f .x/ has a minimum value, namely k.

When a < 0, f .x/ has a maximum value, namely k.

I The y–intercept is ah 2 C k, or substitute x D 0 in

y D a.x h/2 C k.
q q
I The x–intercepts (if any) are h k k
a and hC a , or substitute
y D 0 in y D a.x h/2 C k.

Table 4.1.4

Note: It is very important that students know and will be able to apply these cha-racteristics in problems or
exercises.

Try one more activity before going on to the next section.

ACTIVITY 4.1.7

Suppose f is the function defined by y D f .x/ D 2.x C 1/2 C 8. Determine

(a) D f and R f

(b) the y–intercept and x–intercept(s) of the graph

 196

(c) the axis of symmetry of the graph

(d) the turning point (vertex) of the graph (state whether it is the lowest or the highest point of the graph).

SOLUTION

(a) Since f is defined for all x 2 R we have D f D R. Also

.x C 1/2 0
and hence
2.x C 1/2 0
so that
2.x C 1/2 C 8 8:

Thus R f D . 1; 8]:

(b) When we substitute x D 0 into the equation we obtain

yD 2.1/2 C 8 D 2 C 8 D 6:

Thus the y–intercept is 6.

When we substitute y D 0 into the equation we obtain 0 D 2.x C 1/2 C 8.

Now
0D 2.x C 1/2 C 8

, 2.x C 1/2 D 8

, .x C 1/2 D 4

p
, x C1D 4

, xD 1 2

, xD 3 or x D 1:

Thus the x–intercepts are 3 and 1.

(c) When we compare y D 2.x C 1/2 C 8 with y D a.x h/2 C k we have a D 2, h D 1 and k D 8.
The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x D h, i.e. the line defined by

xD 1:

(d) The turning point (vertex) of the parabola is (h, k), i.e. . 1; 8/. It is the highest point of the graph
since the parabola is concave down. This follows from the fact that a D 2, i.e. a < 0.
 197 MAT0511/001

We have seen that the axis of symmetry of a parabola defined by y D ax 2 C k is the line defined by x D 0.
We can also show algebraically that, for example, the axis of symmetry of the parabola defined by y D
3.x 2/2 C 1 is the line defined by x D 2. We proceed as follows.

We write y D 3.x 2/2 C 1 as y D 3z 2 C 1, where z D x 2. The axis of symmetry of the parabola defined
by y D 3z 2 C 1 is the line defined by z D 0.

Now z D 0 is the same as x 2 D 0, i.e. x D 2. Hence the axis of symmetry of the parabola defined by
y D 3z 2 C 1, i.e. by y D 3.x 2/2 C 1, is the line defined by x D 2.

EXERCISE 4.1

1. Use the method described just after Activity 4.1.7 to show that the equation of the axis of symmetry of
the parabola defined by y D a.x h/2 C k is x D h.

2. State how you would shift the graph of y D 3x 2 in order to obtain the graphs defined by the following
equations.

(a) y D 3.x 1/2 2

(b) y D 3.x C 1/2 C 2
(c) y D 3.x 1/2 C 2
(d) y D 3.x C 1/2 2
(e) y D 3.x h/2 C k for h < 0 and k > 0

3. For each of the functions f and g defined by

(a) f .x/ D .x C 3/2

(b) g.x/ D 3.x 2/2 C 4

determine.

(i) the domain and range of the function

(ii) the y–intercept and x–intercept(s) (if any) of the graph
(iii) the equation of the axis of symmetry of the graph
(iv) the vertex of the graph (state whether it is the lowest or the highest point of the graph).

4.2 Sketching Parabolas

SKETCHING PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y D a.x h/2 C k

In the previous section we noted several properties of parabolas defined by

y D a.x h/2 C k. In this section we use these properties to sketch such parabolas.
 198

EXAMPLE 4.2.1

Sketch the parabola defined by

y D f .x/ D 2.x C 1/2 C 8

without using a table of values.

SOLUTION

In Activity 4.1.7 we found that

I D f D R, R f D . 1; 8]

I the y–intercept is 6

I the x–intercepts are 3 and 1

I the parabola is concave down

I the axis of symmetry is the line defined by x D 1

I the vertex is ( 1, 8), which is the highest point of the graph.

We use this information to sketch the parabola in Figure 4.2.1.

In order to sketch the parabola in Figure 4.2.1 below, we

I mark off the x–intercepts

I mark off the y–intercept

I draw the axis of symmetry

I plot the vertex

I join the points so that the parabola looks symmetrical with respect to the axis of symmetry.

Note that the axis of symmetry lies half–way between the x–intercepts. This is true for any parabola which
cuts the x–axis twice, as we will prove later, just after Table 4.2.2.
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y 6
. 1; 8/ r

yD 2.x C 1/2 C 8

- x
3 1 1

Figure 4.2.1

Now try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 4.2.1

Without using a table of values sketch the parabola defined by

y D f .x/ D 13 .x 3/2 C 1:

Show all the relevant calculations.

SOLUTION

Domain and range

f is defined for all x 2 R and hence D f D R :.
Since .x 3/2 0 we have 31 .x 3/2 0, i.e. 13 .x 3/2 C 1 1 and hence f .x/ 1. Thus R f D [1; 1/.

y– and x–intercepts
Substitution of x D 0 into the equation gives

y D 31 . 3/2 C 1 D 3 C 1 D 4:

Hence the y–intercept is 4.

 200

If y D 0 then the equation becomes

0 D 31 .x 3/2 C 1
which gives
1
3
.x 3/2 D 1:
We thus have
.x 3/2 D 3

which has no solutions since .x 3/2 0. Thus there are no x–intercepts.

Axis of symmetry
Comparing y D 31 .x 3/2 C 1 with y D a.x h/2 C k we have a D 31 , h D 3 and k D 1. Thus the axis of
symmetry is the line with equation x D 3.

Vertex (turning point)

The vertex is .h; k/, i.e. (3, 1), and it is the lowest point of the graph since the parabola is concave up
(because a D 13 , i.e. a > 0).

The parabola is sketched in Figure 4.2.2.

6y

4 r .6; 4/

y D 13 .x 3/2 C 1

r
.3; 1/
- x
3 6

Figure 4.2.2

You will notice that in this case we can obtain only two of the points on the parabola directly from the
equation, since there are no x–intercepts. In order to sketch the curve better we use symmetry to obtain
 201 MAT0511/001

another point on the parabola. We know that .0; 4/ is a point on the left arm of the parabola since 4 is the
y–intercept. This point lies 3 units to the left of the axis of symmetry. Thus the point on the right arm of
the parabola that corresponds to .0; 4/ lies 3 units to the right of the axis of symmetry and is hence the point
.6; 4/. We plot this point and use it when we sketch the parabola.

We now move on to parabolas defined by y D ax 2 C bx C c. We sketch them by applying the techniques we

have used so far.

SKETCHING PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y D ax 2 C bx C c

At the beginning of Section 4.1 we defined a quadratic function in x as a function f that is defined by

f .x/ D ax 2 C bx C cI where a 6D 0:

Quadratic functions are normally expressed in this form. We now consider the different techniques that we
can use to sketch parabolas defined in this way.

EXAMPLE 4.2.2

We consider the function f defined by

y D f .x/ D 3x 2 12x C 9: .1/

We can obtain the information we require to sketch the graph of f by

I rewriting the equation as y D a.x h/2 C k by completing the square,

I and then proceeding as we did in the previous example and activity.

We do this now.

y D f .x/ D 3x 2 12x C 9
D 3.x 2 4x/ C 9
D 3.x 2 4x C 22 22 / C 9
D 3.x 2/2 C 3. 4/ C 9
D 3.x 2/2 12 C 9
2
D 3.x 2/ 3 .2/

Domain and range

Df D R
Since (x 2/2 0 we have f .x/ D 3.x 2/2 3 3 and hence R f D [ 3; 1/.
y– and x–intercepts
By substituting x D 0 into (2) we obtain

y D 3. 2/2 3 D 12 3 D 9:

Thus the y–intercept is 9.

 202

By substituting y D 0 into (2) we obtain 0 D 3.x 2/2 3.

Now
0 D 3.x 2/2 3
, 3.x 2/2 D 3
, .x 2/2 D 1
, x D2 1
, x D 1 or x D 3:

Thus the x–intercepts are 1 and 3.

f .x/ D a.x h/2 C k where a D 3, h D 2 and k D 3.

The axis of symmetry

The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x D 2.

The vertex
The vertex is .2; 3/ and it is the lowest point of the parabola since the graph is concave up (because a D 3,
i.e. a > 0).

The graph is sketched in Figure 4.2.3.

6y

y D 3x 2 12x C 9

- x
1 2 3

r
.2; 3/

Figure 4.2.3
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In Example 4.2.2 we used equation (2) to find the y– and x–intercepts, the axis of symmetry, the vertex and
Rf.

We can also find the y– and x–intercepts by using equation (1).

By substituting x D 0 into (1) we obtain

y D 3.0/2 12.0/ C 9 D 9;

i.e. the y–intercept is 9.

By substituting y D 0 into (1) we obtain 0 D 3x 2 12x C 9.

Now
0 D 3x 2 12x C 9

, x2 4x C 3 D 0 Divide by 3.

, .x 1/.x 3/ D 0
, x 1 D 0 or x 3D0

, x D 1 or x D 3:

Thus the x–intercepts are 1 and 3.

USEFUL HINT

Take care not to make the following common mistake.

Do not write, for example,

y D 3x 2 12x C 9 .1/
as
y D x2 4x C 3: .2/

Equation (2) has been obtained by dividing only the RHS of (1) by 3. This is not valid.

Remember that we produce an equivalent equation (i.e. an equation having the same solution set as the
original equation) by dividing both sides of the original equation by the same number. See point 4 of Table
2.1.2, in Module 2.

It is clear that (1) and (2) represent different parabolas. The coefficient of x 2 in both equations is positive
and thus both parabolas are concave up. However, in (1) the coefficient of x 2 is 3, and in (2) it is 1. The
 204

parabola defined by (1) is thus narrower than the parabola defined by (2). Another point to note is that the
y–intercepts of the two parabolas are different. If we substitute x D 0 into (1) and into (2) then we see that
the y–intercepts of the parabolas defined by (1) and (2) are respectively 9 and 3.

However, when we replace y by 0 we can write equation (2) as

3x 2 12x C 9 D 0 .3/
and
x2 4x C 3 D 0 .4/

because both sides have been divided by 3. Hence equations (3) and (4) are equivalent. We can thus obtain
the x–intercepts of the parabola defined by (1) by solving either (3) or (4). Similarly we can obtain the x–
intercepts of the parabola defined by (2) by solving either (4) or (3). Hence the two parabolas have the same
x–intercepts.

Please take note of the difference between

y D 3x 2 12x C 9

and
3x 2 12x C 9 D 0

and, in general, between

y D ax 2 C bx C c

and
ax 2 C bx C c D 0:

In the previous example the x–intercepts of the graph of y D 3x 2 12x C 9 are 1 and 3. We note that

y D 3x 2 12x C 9
2
D 3.x 4x C 3/
D 3.x 1/.x 3/

and that both x D 1 and x D 3 are the solutions of

0 D 3.x 1/.x 3/:

In general, if
y D f .x/ D a.x r1 /.x r2 /

then the x–intercepts of the graph of f are r1 and r2 . Conversely, if r1 and r2 are the x–intercepts of the graph
of a quadratic function f , then the function f can be defined by

f .x/ D a.x r1 /.x r2 /: .4:2:1/

Equation (4.2.1) is thus a third possible form of the equation which defines a quadratic function.
 205 MAT0511/001

We now return to a parabola defined by the general equation

y D ax 2 C bx C c .4:2:2/

and consider its y– and x–intercepts.

If we substitute x D 0 into (4.2.2) we obtain

y D a.0/ C b.0/ C c D c:

Hence the y–intercept is c.

If we substitute y D 0 into (4.2.2) we obtain the equation

ax 2 C bx C c D 0: .4:2:3/

You may need to revise “nature of roots" just before Example 2.3.6 in Module 2.

Do you remember that in Module 2 we use the discriminant 1 to determine whether equation (4.2.3) has
two solutions, only one solution or no solutions? What does this mean in terms of the parabola defined by
(4.2.2)? Well, the solutions of (4.2.3) give us the x–intercepts of the parabola and hence the discriminant
tells us whether, and how often, the parabola cuts the x–axis. The following table summarises the role of the
discriminant with respect to the x–intercept(s) of the parabola.

THE ROLE OF 1 D b2 4ac

I If 1 > 0, the parabola cuts the x–axis twice,

i.e. the parabola has two x–intercepts.
(Equation (4.2.3) has two different roots.)

I If 1 D 0, the parabola touches the x–axis once,

i.e. the parabola has one x–intercept.
(Equation (4.2.3) has only one root.)

I If 1 < 0, the parabola does not cut or touch the axis,

i.e. the parabola has no x–intercept.
(Equation (4.2.3) has no real roots.)

Table 4.2.1
 206

Diagrammatically we have the following cases.

I If 1 > 0 then there are two x–intercepts, i.e. the parabola cuts the x–axis twice.

y y
6 6

- x - x
0 0

I If 1 D 0 then there is one x–intercept, i.e. the parabola touches the x–axis once.

y y
6 6

- x 0 - x
0

I If 1 < 0 then there are no x–intercepts, i.e. the parabola does not cut or touch the x–axis.

6y 6y

- x 0 - x
0

Look again at Example 4.1.2 in Study Unit 4.1B. Figure 4.1.4 shows three parabolas: one cuts the x–axis
twice, one touches the x–axis and one does not cut or touch the x–axis. In the next example we determine
the discriminant for each of the three functions whose graphs are sketched in Figure 4.1.4.
 207 MAT0511/001

EXAMPLE 4.2.3

For f .x/ D x 2 , a D 1; b D 0 and c D 0, and hence

1 D b2 4ac D 0 4.1/.0/ D 0:

For g.x/ D x 2 C 2, a D 1; b D 0 and c D 2, and hence

1 D b2 4ac D 0 4.1/.2/ D 8 < 0:

For h.x/ D x 2 3, a D 1; b D 0 and c D 3, and hence

1 D b2 4ac D 0 4.1/. 3/ D 12 > 0:

From Figure 4.1.4 we see that

I the graph of f touches the x–axis and we have 1 D 0

I the graph of g does not cut or touch the x–axis and we have 1 < 0

I the graph of h cuts the x–axis twice and we have 1 > 0.

If y D ax 2 C bx C c, then the quadratic formula

p
b b2 4ac
xD
2a

gives us the x–intercepts.

If you have forgotten the quadratic formula, see the paragraphs just after Activity 2.3.4 in Module 2.

Consider the general quadratic equation that defines a function f , namely

y D f .x/ D ax 2 C bx C c:

We now use completion of the square to rewrite this equation in the form

y D a.x h/2 C k;

where h and k can be expressed in terms of a, b and c. This will enable us to obtain general formulas for the
axis of symmetry and the vertex of the parabola, and for the minimum or maximum value of f .x/. Having
formulas to use means that we do not have to complete the square every time we want to draw a parabola.
However, understanding the method of completing the square means you do not need to panic if you forget
the formulas!
 208

We have

y D ax 2 C bx C c
b
D a x2 C x C c
a
!
2 2
b
2 b b
D a x C xC Cc
a 2a 2a
!
2 2
b b b
D a x2 C x C a Cc
a 2a 2a
2
b ab2
D a xC Cc
2a 4a 2
2
b b2
D a xC Cc
2a 4a
2
b 4ac b2
D a xC C :
2a 4a

If we write this in the form y D a.x h/2 C k we have

2
b 4ac b2
yDa x C
2a 4a
2
where h D 2ab and k D 4ac4a b .

From this, if f is defined by

f .x/ D ax 2 C bx C c

then we conclude the following.

0 1
2
b 4ac b B b b C
I .h; k/ D ; ; or D @ ; f A is the vertex of the parabola.
2a 4a 2a 2a

b
I The equation of the axis of symmetry of the parabola is x D .
2a
4ac b2 b
I If a > 0 then the minimum value of f .x/ is , or f .
4a 2a
4ac b2 b
I If a < 0 then the maximum value of f .x/ is , or f .
4a 2a

We summarise the characteristics of a parabola defined by y D ax 2 C bx C c in the table on the next page.
 209 MAT0511/001

CHARACTERISTICS OF A PARABOLA DEFINED BY y D f .x/ D ax 2 C bx C c

0 12
B b C 4ac b2 .
We rewrite y D ax 2 C bx C c as y D a @ x 2a A C 4a

I The domain and range of f are

Df D R
8 h
< 4ac b2 ; 1 if a > 0
4a i
Rf D 2
: 1; 4ac4a b if a < 0:

Note: 8
R f may also be written as
2 1
>
>
>
> 6 b C
>
> 4f I 1A if a > 0
>
> 2a
>
>
>
<
Rf D
>
> 2 1
>
>
>
> b C
>
> 6
>
> 4 1I f A if a < 0
>
: 2a

(
concave up if a > 0
I The parabola is
concave down if a < 0:

I The bigger the numerical value of a, the narrower the parabola becomes.
The smaller the numerical value of a, the wider the parabola becomes.

I The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x D 2ab .

0 1
b 4ac b2 B b b C
I The vertex is 2a ; 4a or D @ ; f A.
2a 2a

2 b
I When a > 0, f .x/ has a minimum value, namely 4ac4a b or f .
2a
2 b
When a < 0, f .x/ has a maximum value, namely 4ac4a b or f .
2a

I The y–intercept is c.

I The x–intercepts (if any) are

p p
b b2 4ac bC b2 4ac
and :
2a 2a

Table 4.2.2
 210

We mentioned earlier (see the margin note next to Figure 4.2.1) that when a parabola has two x–intercepts,
the axis of symmetry lies half–way between these intercepts. For interest we now show that this is true in
general.

If the parabola
p defined by y D ax 2pC bx C c cuts the x–axis twice then it passes through the points
b b2 4ac ; 0 and b C b2 4ac ; 0 .
2a 2a

The point which lies half–way between these points is

0 p p 1
b b2 4ac bC b2 4ac
C
B 2a 2a C
B ; 0C
@ 2 A:

See the midpoint formula, equation (1.3.3).

If we simplify the expression we have

2b b
; 0 ; or ; 0 :
4a 2a

Now the axis of symmetry is the vertical line which is defined by x D 2ab . It is thus parallel to the y–axis
and passes through the point 2ab ; 0 .

We have thus shown that the axis of symmetry lies half–way between the
x–intercepts.

Now use the properties given in Table 4.2.2 to do the following activity.

ACTIVITY 4.2.2

Without using a table of values sketch the graph of g, where g is defined by

y D g.x/ D x2 3x C 1:

Show all the appropriate calculations.

SOLUTION

Note: (Alternatively)
0 3
B b7
Rg D @1 I f 5
2a

But
b 3
D :
2a 2
 211 MAT0511/001

Hence,
b
f
2a
2
3
D
2
3
D 3 C1
2
9 9
D C C1
4 2
9 C 18 C 4
D
4
13 1
D D3 :
4 4

Hence, Rg D 1; 3 14 :

When we compare y D x2 3x C 1 with y D ax 2 C bx C c we have a D 1, b D 3 and c D 1.

Domain and range

Dg D R
4ac b2
Rg D 1;
4a
4 9
D 1;
4
1
D . 1; 3 4 ]

y– and x–intercepts
The y–intercept is 1.
To find the x–intercept we substitute y D 0 into the equation. We obtain

x2 3x C 1 D 0

which we cannot factorise. Thus we need to use the quadratic formula. We have
p
b b2 4ac
x D
p 2a
3 9C4
D
2
p
3 13
D :
2
p p
3 13 3 C 13
Thus the x–intercepts are and .
2 2

Axis of symmetry
The axis of symmetry is the line defined by
b . 3/ 3
yD D D :
2a 2 2
 212

Vertex
The vertex is
b 4ac b2 3 4. 1/.1/ . 3/2
; D ;
2a 4a 2 4. 1/
3 4 9
D ;
2 4
3 1
D ; 3 :
2 4

Do not try to learn the formula for the y–coordinate of the vertex. You can find it by substituting x D 2ab
into the equation that defines the function. If we do this we have
3 2 3
y D 3 C1
2 2
9 9
D C C1
4 2
13
D
4
1
D 3 :
4
Note: (Alternative)
Vertex is 2ab I f 2ab

The vertex is the highest point since the parabola is concave down (because
a D 1, i.e. a < 0/.

The graph is sketched in Figure 4.2.4.

6y

r
3
. 2
; 3 14 /

p 1 p
3 13 3C 13
2 2 - x
3
2

yD x2 3x C 1

Figure 4.2.4
 213 MAT0511/001

Note that the x–intercepts are irrational numbers. However, we can find their approximate values and thus
know roughly where to plot them.
p
Using a calculator we find 13 3; 61. We thus have
3 3; 61
x
2
so that
6; 61 0; 61
x or x
2 2
i.e.
x 3; 31 or x 0; 31:

It is not always necessary to use all the information given in Table 4.2.2. For example, if ax 2 C bx C c
factorises, we use the factorised form instead of the quadratic formula to solve ax 2 C bx C c D 0 and find the
x–intercepts.

Now practise sketching a few parabolas by doing some questions from Exercise 4.2.

EXERCISE 4.2

1. On separate systems of axes, without using tables of values, sketch the parabolas defined by

(a) y D 4.x C 1/2 C 1

(b) y D 4.x C 1/2
(c) y D 4.x C 1/2 1
1 2
(d) y D 2
x C x C 12
(e) y D 3x 2 5x 2.

2. Use the discriminant to determine whether the parabola with equation y D 2x 2 3x C 2 cuts the x–
axis.

3. Consider the graph of f , where

y D f .x/ D 6 C 5x x2

and complete the following statements (select the appropriate word where applicable).

(a) The graph of f is concave up/down.

(b) The axis of symmetry is the line defined by .................. .
1
(c) The maximum/minimum value of y is 4
.
(d) The graph of f cuts the x–axis in ............ place(s).
(e) The graph of y D p C 5x x 2 touches the x–axis at only one point if p D ::::::::: .
 214

4.3 Finding the Equation of a Parabolas

So far in this unit we have considered characteristics of parabolas, and the way in which these characteristics
enable us to sketch the parabolas. In this section we now find the equations of parabolas, given sufficient
information about them.

THREE FORMS OF THE EQUATION OF A PARABOLA

We have considered three different forms of quadratic equations that define parabolas. They are

I y D ax 2 C bx C c; a; b; c 2 R and a 6D 0 (4.3.1)
(general form)

I y D a.x h/2 C k; a; h; k 2 R and a 6D 0 (4.3.2)

((h, k) is the vertex of the parabola)

I y D a.x r1 /.x r2 /; a; r1 ; r2 2 R and a 6D 0 (4.3.3)

(r1 and r2 are the x–intercepts of the parabola).

If the graph touches the x–axis at only one point, then r1 D r2 .

If we want to find the equation that defines a particular parabola, the information we have determines which
equation is more convenient to use.

We may use

I equation (4.3.1) if we are given 3 unrelated points that lie on the parabola

I equation (4.3.2) if we know the vertex and one other point on the parabola

I equation (4.3.3) if we are given the x–intercept(s) and another point on the parabola.

The information may be specified or supplied on a graph. Study the following example.

EXAMPLE 4.3.1

(a) A parabola passes through the points .1; 2/, . 1; 4/ and .3; 8/. Find the equation of the parabola.
 215 MAT0511/001

(b) Consider the parabola in the sketch below. Determine its equation.

y 6
6
5
y D f .x/ 4
3
2
1
- x
1 1 2 3 4 5
1
2
3 r
.2; 3/

Figure 4.3.1

(c) Consider the parabola in the sketch below. What is its equation?

y 6
8

6
y D f .x/
5

1
- x
1 0 1 2 3

Figure 4.3.2
 216

SOLUTION

(a) We are given three points on the parabola but we are not given any special information about them.
Thus we make use of equation (4.3.1), namely

y Dax2 Cbx Cc:

We know that the points lie on the parabola and hence the coordinates of the points must satisfy the
parabola’s equation. When we substitute the coordinates of the different points into the equation we
obtain

2DaCbCc .1/
4Da bCc .2/
8 D 9a C 3b C c: .3/

We subtract (2) from (1) and obtain

2 D 2b
i.e. we have
bD 1: .4/

When we substitute b D 1 into (1) we obtain

2Da 1Cc
and hence
cD3 a: .5/

We substitute (4) and (5) into (3) and obtain

8 D 9a 3C3 a
i.e. we have
8 D 8a
and thus
a D 1:
It follows that
cD3 1 D 2:

Thus the equation for the parabola is

y D x2 x C 2:

(b) We are given the vertex and one other point on the parabola (since the y–intercept is 1 we know
that .0; 1/ lies on the graph) and thus we use equation (4.3.2), namely

y D a.x h/2 Ck:

 217 MAT0511/001

We have
y D a.x 2/2 3:
The coordinates of the point .0; 1/ satisfy the equation of the parabola and we thus have

1 D a. 2/2 3:
Now
1 D a. 2/2 3

, 1 D 4a 3

, 4a D 4

, a D 1:

The parabola thus has the equation

y D .x 2/2 3
which can be rewritten as
y D x2 4x C 1:

(c) When we look at the parabola we can identify 3 points on the parabola. We may use equation (4.3.1).
However, notice that we have been given the two x–intercepts and thus we can also use equation
(4.3.3), namely
y D a.x r1 /.x r2 /:
The x–intercepts are 1 and 3 and thus the equation becomes

y D a.x . 1//.x 3/
i.e. we have
y D a.x C 1/.x 3/:

We substitute the coordinates .0; 6/ into the last equation and obtain

6 D a.1/. 3/
i.e. we have
6D 3a
and thus
aD 2:

Thus the parabola has the equation

yD 2.x C 1/.x 3/

which can be rewritten as

yD 2x 2 C 4x C 6:
 218

In the following activity you need to find the equations of two parabolas which have been sketched on
the same system of axes.

ACTIVITY 4.3.1

Write down the equations of the functions f and g whose graphs are the parabolas sketched in Figure 4.3.3.

y 6
r
.1; 5/
5

3
y D g.x/
2

1
- x
1 0 1 2 3
1

2
y D f .x/
3

Figure 4.3.3

SOLUTION

The sketch shows that the vertex of the graph of f is .1; 5/. Knowing the vertex suggests that we should use
the form

y D a.x h/2 C k

to find the equation for f .

We therefore have

y D a.x 1/2 C 5:

Now the graph of f cuts the y–axis at 3, so the point .0; 3/ lies on the graph of f , and hence the coordinates
.0; 3/ satisfy the equation that defines the graph.
 219 MAT0511/001

Hence

3 D a. 1/2 C 5
i.e. we have
aD 2:

The equation that defines f is thus

y D 2.x 1/2 C 5
D 2.x 2 2x C 1/ C 5
D 2x 2 C 4x 2C5
D 2x 2 C 4x C 3:

At first glance it would appear that all we know about the graph of g is that it cuts the y–axis at 2, and that
the value of a should be positive. However, we notice that the graph of g cuts the x–axis at the same points
as the graph of f , whose equation we now know. If we find these x–intercepts then we can use

y D a.x r1 /.x r2 /

to find the equation for g.

To find the x–intercepts of the graph of f we substitute y D 0 into the equation y D 2x 2 C 4x C 3. We

obtain
2x 2 C 4x C 3 D 0:
Since this does not factorise we substitute y D 0 into y D 2.x 1/2 C 5 instead.

You can also make use of the quadratic formula.

We have

2.x 1/2 C 5 D 0:
Now
2.x 1/2 C 5 D 0

, 2.x 1/2 D 5

5
, .x 1/2 D
2

q
5
, x 1D 2

q
5
, x D1 2
:
 220

q q
5 5
Thus the x–intercepts of the graph of g are 1 C 2
and 1 2
and hence the equation that defines g is
q q
5 5
y D a x 1C 2
x 1 2
q q q q
2 5 5 5 5
D a x 1C 2
x 1 2
x C 1C 2
1 2

5
D a x2 2x C 1
2
3
D a x2 2x :
2

The y–intercept is 2 and hence .0; 2/ lies on the graph. When we substitute x D 0 and y D 2 into the
previous equation we obtain
3
2D a
2
i.e. we have
4
aD :
3
Thus the equation that defines g is

4 3
yD x2 2x
3 2
which we rewrite as
4 2 8
yD x x 2:
3 3

If a parabola touches the x–axis at only one point then it does not matter whether we use equation (4.3.3) or
(4.3.2).

Suppose a parabola touches the x–axis at . p; 0/. If we substitute r1 D p and r2 D p into equation (4.3.3) we
obtain
y D a.x p/.x p/

and thus
y D a.x p/2 :

This equation is now in the form of (4.3.2).

Since the parabola touches the x–axis at p, i.e. at the point . p; 0/, this point must be the vertex of the parabola.
If we substitute h D p and k D 0 into equation (4.3.2) we get

y D a.x p/2

which can be rewritten as

y D a.x p/.x p/:

This equation is now in the form of (4.3.3).

 221 MAT0511/001

Hence we have shown that if a parabola touches the x–axis in only one point then equation (4.3.3) reduces to
equation (4.3.2) and vice versa.

Now try some of the questions from the next exercise.

EXERCISE 4.3

1. In each of the following cases, find the equation of the parabola which has the given properties.

(a) The vertex is . 2; 6/ and the parabola passes through .1; 3/.

(b) The x–intercepts are 2 and 5 and the y–intercept is 5.

(c) It passes through the points .0; 0/, .1; 2/ and . 2; 22/.

(d) The x–intercepts are 4 and 2 and the maximum y–value is 6. (Hint: the axis of symmetry lies
half–way between the two x–intercepts.)

(e) The x–intercepts are 0 and 4 and the graph passes through . 1; 1/.

2. Each of the following figures shows a parabola. Find the equation of each parabola.

(a) (b)
y
. 1;r 4/ 6
y6

3
-x

- x . 3; 4/ r
2

(c) (d)

y6 y6

- x
1

r .1;
4
5
2
/

-x
1 5
 222

(e)

y6

9 r

r .6; 3/
r
.3; 1 21 / -x

4.4 Using Parabolas and Quadratic Functions

SOLVING QUADRATIC AND SIMPLE RATIONAL
INEQUALITIES

In Study Unit 2.3C of Module 2 we solve quadratic inequalities by using the following inequality properties,
namely

if AB > 0 then A > 0 and B > 0 or A < 0 and B < 0

or
if AB < 0 then A > 0 and B < 0 or A < 0 and B > 0;

or by using the split–point method. We can also use parabolas to solve such inequalities. Remember that A
and B represent algebraic expressions.

Quadratic inequalities

Note:
The three alternative methods to solve quadratic inequalities are by using:

I. Inequality properties
II. Split-point method
III. Rough sketch of
parabola

EXAMPLE 4.4.1

Solve the inequality

2x 2 5x 3 > 0;
using a rough sketch of the parabola defined by y D 2x 2 5x 3.
 223 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

We consider the parabola defined by

y D 2x 2 5x 3:
We obtain the x–intercepts of the parabola by solving 2x 2 5x 3 D 0.

We have

.2x C 1/.x 3/ D 0
and thus
2x C 1 D 0 or x 3 D 0:
Therefore
1
xD or x D 3:
2
1
Thus the parabola cuts the x–axis at 2
and 3, and it is concave up since
a D 2, i.e. a > 0.

A rough sketch of the parabola is shown in Figure 4.4.1. Note that we need not find the y–intercept or vertex
as these are not relevant to the problem.

y 6
y D 2x 2 5x 3

- x
1
2 0 3

Figure 4.4.1

Now we want to find values of x such that

2x 2 5x 3>0

i.e. such that the graph of y D 2x 2 5x 3 lies above the x–axis.

From the sketch we see that the parabola lies above the x–axis when x < 12 or x > 3. Thus the solution of
2x 2 5x 3 > 0 is x < 12 or x > 3. You can check this answer by using any of the methods mentioned at
the beginning of the study unit.

You can practise the technique used in Example 4.4.1 in the next activity.
 224

ACTIVITY 4.4.1

Solve the inequality

2Cx x2 0
by using a rough sketch of the parabola defined by y D 2 C x x 2.

SOLUTION

We rewrite the equation of the parabola as

yD x 2 C x C 2:

We solve x 2 C x C 2 D 0 to find the x–intercepts.

Now

x2 C x C 2 D 0

, x2 x 2D0

, .x 2/.x C 1/ D 0

, xD 1 or x D 2:

Thus the x–intercepts are 1 and 2 and the parabola is concave down since
a D 1, i.e. a < 0.

We sketch the parabola defined by y D x 2 C x C 2 in Figure 4.4.2.

y 6

- x
1 0 2

yD x2 C x C 2

Figure 4.4.2

The values of x for which

2Cx x2 0
 225 MAT0511/001

are the values of x for which the graph of y D x 2 C x C 2 lies above or on the x–axis, i.e. values of x such
that
1 x 2:
Thus the solution of 2 C x x2 0 is 1 x 2.

In Activity 4.4.1 we can also reason as follows.

The solution of the inequality

2Cx x2 0
is the same as that of
2 x C x2 0:
Remember the inequality sign reverses direction when we multiply both sides by a negative number.

We now consider the parabola defined by y D x 2 x 2. It also has x–intercepts of 1 and 2 but it is
concave up since in this case a D 1, i.e. a > 0. Figure 4.4.3 shows a rough sketch of the parabola defined by
y D x 2 x 2.
y 6
y D x2 x 2

- x
1 0 2

Figure 4.4.3

Now the values of x that satisfy

2 x C x2 0
are the values of x for which the parabola in Figure 4.4.3 lies below or on the x–axis, i.e. 1 x 2.

Thus the solution of 2 x C x 2 0, i.e. of 2 C x x2 0, is 1 x 2 which is the same as the solution

we obtained in Activity 4.4.1.

Rational inequalities

Can we use a parabola to solve a simple rational inequality of the form

px C q
< 0I p; q; r; s 2 R and p 6D 0; r 6D 0
rx C s
where < can be replaced by , > or ? STOP and THINK for a while and then look at the following
example.
 226

EXAMPLE 4.4.2

Solve the inequality

x 3
0 .1/
2x C 1
by using a rough sketch of an appropriate parabola.

SOLUTION

x 3 is undefined if 2x C 1 D 0, i.e. if x D
We first notice that 2x 1
and hence x D 1
cannot form part of
C1 2 2
the answer. Do you remember why 2x C 1 6D 0?

Secondly we note that for x 6D 12 , 2x C 1 can be either positive or negative, depending on the values of x,
but that .2x C 1/2 is always positive. (Can you explain why?) Thus, for x 6D 12 we can multiply both sides
of (1) by .2x C 1/2 and obtain
.2x C 1/2 .x 3/
0:
2x C 1

Multiplying both sides of an inequality by a positive number does not change the direction of the inequality
sign.

After cancelling we obtain

.2x C 1/.x 3/ 0:
x 3
Thus instead of solving 2x 0 we solve .2x C 1/.x 3/ 0 for x 6D 1
.
C1 2

Consider the parabola defined by y D .2x C 1/.x 3/, i.e. by y D 2x 2 5x 3.

1
The x–intercepts are 2
and 3 and the parabola is concave up. Figure 4.4.4 shows a rough sketch of this
parabola.

y6

- x
1
2 0 3

y D .2x C 1/.x 3/

Figure 4.4.4
 227 MAT0511/001

From Figure 4.4.4 we see that the parabola lies below or on the x–axis if
1
x 3. Thus the solution of .2x C 1/.x 3/ 0 is 12 x x 3
3, but the solution of 2x 0 is
2 C1
1 1
2
< x 3 since we must exclude x D 2
.

We can use a technique similar to the one illustrated in Example 4.4.2 to solve some other more complicated
rational inequalities, but this involves drawing graphs of polynomials of degree 3 or more. These graphs are
beyond the scope of this module.

FINDING MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES

In certain applied problems we need to find the maximum or minimum value of a quadratic function, and the
value of the function variable at which the maximum or minimum occurs. We remind you that if a quadratic
function f is written in the form
y D f .x/ D ax 2 C bx C c
then the vertex of the corresponding
0 parabola
1 is

b ; 4ac b2 B b C
2a 4a or @2ab ; f 2a A and thus

I the minimum function value (when a > 0)

or
I the maximum function value (when a < 0)

b 2
occurs when x D , and y D 4ac4a b , or y D f b
2a .
2a

If a quadratic function is written in the form

y D f .x/ D a.x h/2 C k
then the vertex of the corresponding parabola is .h; k/ and thus

I the minimum function value (when a > 0)

or
I the maximum function value (when a < 0)

occurs when x D h, and this value is y D k.

We apply these comments in the next few problems.

EXAMPLE 4.4.3

Have a look again at Activity 2.3.7 in Study Unit 2.3B of Module 2. Here we are given

“When Simon kicks a rugby ball into the air the height h (in metres) above the ground after t seconds is given
by
h D 15t 5t 2 :"
 228

Since we now know how to find the maximum value of a quadratic function and the value of the function
variable at which the maximum occurs we can determine algebraically the maximum height that the ball
reaches and the time it takes to reach this height. We have

h D 15t 5t 2
D 5.t 2 3t/
!
2 2
2 3 3
D 5 t 3t C
2 2
2
3 9
D 5 t 5
2 4
2
3 1
D 5 t C 11 :
2 4

Thus the ball reaches its maximum height, i.e. 11 14 metres, after 1 12 seconds.

In Activity 2.3.7 of Module 2 we were given the height of 11 14 metres, and found that the ball reached this
height after 23 seconds. Since we found no other time at which the ball reached this height we deduced that
this was the maximum height that the ball reached. We have now shown this to be the case. Look again at
Figure 2.3.1 in Study Unit 2.3B of Module 2, which shows the path of the ball.

EXAMPLE 4.4.4

A farmer wants to enclose a rectangular section of land bordered by a river, to prevent cattle getting into his
maize fields. He has 4 000 m of fencing. If he does not fence the land along the river, what is the biggest area
of land that he can enclose?

SOLUTION

We first represent the problem by means of a diagram.

River

xm xm

(4 000 _ 2 x ) m

Figure 4.4.5

We let the length of fencing on the two equal sides be x m. Since there is a length of 4 000 m available, the
third side will be .4 000 2x/ m long.
 229 MAT0511/001

We know that in a rectangle,

area D length breadth (See Module 4.)

and hence we let

A D x.4 000 2x/

D 4 000x 2x 2

where A represents area in square metres.

This equation for the area represents a function whose graph is a parabola. We sketch this in Figure 4.4.6.

Area 6A
of
land
.m2 /
A D 4 000x 2x 2

- x
0 1 000 2 000
Length of side .m/
Figure 4.4.6

The maximum value of A is given by

4ac b2
AD
4a
where a D 2, b D 4 000 and c D 0. The function has a maximum value since a < 0, and the value is given
by the second coordinate of the vertex.

Thus
16 000 000
A D
8

D 2 000 000:

The maximum area that can be enclosed is thus 2 000 000 m2 .

Note that the axis of symmetry is defined by x D 1 000; if we substitute x D 1 000 into A D 4 000x 2x 2
we will also find the maximum value of A.

Try the following activity, which involves a minimum value.

 230

ACTIVITY 4.4.2

Suppose the difference between two integers is 20. Find these two integers so that their product is as small as
possible.

SOLUTION

Let the smaller number be x. Then the larger number is x C 20. Their product P is given by

P D x.x C 20/
D x 2 C 20x
D x 2 C 20x C .10/2 .10/2
D .x C 10/2 100

which is of the form P D a.x h/2 C k where a D 1, h D 10 and k D 100.

Since a > 0 the function P has a minimum value. Thus the minimum product is 100 and this occurs when
x D 10. The one number is 10 and hence the other number is x C 20, i.e. 10 C 20, i.e. 10. Thus the two
numbers are 10 and 10. Note that we can also denote the two numbers by a, a 20; or by b 10, b C 10,
etc. We will always find the same answer.

EXERCISE 4.4

1. Use a rough sketch of an appropriate parabola to solve each of the following inequalities.

(a) x 2 C 5x C 6 0
2
(b) 3 C x 2x > 0
(c) xx C 23 0

(c) 3x C1 0
1 x
2. The sum of two integers is 20. Find these two integers such that their product is a maximum. What is
their product?

3. A house owner has 44 m of fencing, and wants to enclose a rectangular vegetable garden so that one
side is formed by a neighbour’s fence. What is the largest area he can enclose with the length of fencing
available?

4. A ball is thrown into the air and its height h (in metres) above the ground after t seconds is given by

h D 20t 5t 2 :

What is the maximum height reached by the ball and how long does it take to reach this height?

5. It is estimated that 20 000 people will attend a soccer match when the tickets cost R20 each. It is
predicted that for each R1 increase in the price of a ticket the attendance will drop by 500 people.
 231 MAT0511/001

(a) What should the tickets cost for the organisers to make the most money?
(b) How many people should attend for the organisers to make the most money and how much will
they make?

(Hint: If the ticket price increases by x rands, then the attendance will be 20 000 500x.)

UNIT SUMMARY

A function f defined by

f .x/ D ax 2 C bx C cI a; b; c 2 R and a 6D 0

is called a quadratic function in x.

The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola.

The equation y D ax 2 C bx C c can be rewritten in the form y D a.x h/2 C k by completing the
square.

The parabola defined by y D x 2 is called the standard parabola.

Characteristics of parabolas defined by y D f .x/ D a.x h/2 C k

B Domain and range

Df D R
(
[k; 1/ if a > 0
Rf D
. 1; k] if a < 0
(
concave up if a > 0
B The parabola is
concave down if a < 0:
B The bigger the numerical value of a, the narrower the parabola becomes.
The smaller the numerical value of a, the wider the parabola becomes.
B The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x D h.
B The vertex is (h, k).
B The y–intercept is ah 2 C k.
q q
B The x–intercepts are h k and h C k
a a .
B When a > 0 the function f has a minimum value; the minimum value of f .x/ is k.
When a < 0 the function f has a maximum value; the maximum value of f .x/ is k.

Number of times a parabola defined by y D ax 2 C bx C c cuts the x–axis

B If 1 > 0, the parabola cuts the x–axis twice.

B If 1 D 0, the parabola touches the x–axis once.
B If 1 < 0, the parabola does not cut or touch the x–axis.
 232

Note: (Alternatively)

y D ax 2 C bx C c
0 12
B bC b
D a@
x A C f
2a 2a
82 1
>
>
>
>6 b C
>
>4f I 1A if a > 0
>
> 2a
>
>
>
<
Rf D
>
>2 1
>
>
>
> bC
>
>6
>
>4 1I f A if a < 0
>
: 2a

Characteristics of a parabola defined by y D f .x/ D ax 2 C bx C c

0 12
B bC 4ac b2
y D ax 2 C bx C c D a @
x A C
2a 4a

B Domain and range

Df D R
( 2
[ 4ac4a b ; 1/ if a > 0
Rf D 4ac b2
. 1; 4a ] if a < 0
(
concave up if a > 0
B The parabola is
concave down if a < 0:
B The bigger the numerical value of a, the narrower the parabola becomes.
The smaller the numerical value of a, the wider the parabola becomes.
B The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x D 2ab .
0 1

B The vertex is b 4ac b2 , or B b ; f bC

2a ; 4a @2a 2a A.

B The y–intercept is c.
p p
B The x–intercepts are b b2 4ac and bC b2 4ac .
2a 2a
2
B When a > 0 the function f has a minimum value; the minimum value of f .x/ is 4ac4a b or
f 2ab
2
When a < 0 the function f has a maximum value; the maximum value of f .x/ is 4ac4a b or
f 2ab .
 233 MAT0511/001

Three ways of finding the equation of a parabola

B Given three unrelated points on a parabola: use the equation

y D ax 2 C bx C c:

B Given the turning point (h, k) and another point on the parabola:
use the equation
y D a.x h/2 C k:

B Given the x–intercepts r1 and r2 and another point on the parabola: use the equation

y D a.x r1 /.x r2 /:

Quadratic inequalities can be solved by using sketches of parabolas.

px C q
Rational inequalities of the form r x C s > 0; p 6D 0; r 6D 0 (where > can be replaced by <, or
) can be solved by sketching the parabola defined by y D . px C q/.r x C s/.

CHECKLIST

Now check that you can do the following.

4.1: Characteristics of Parabolas defined by y D a.x h/2 C k

1. Recognise the role of a with respect to the parabola defined by y D ax 2 .

Table 4.1.1

2. Recognise the role of k with respect to the parabola defined by y D ax 2 C k.

Table 4.1.2

3. Recognise the role of h with respect to the parabola defined by y D a.x h/2 .
Table 4.1.3

4. Determine various characteristics of a parabola defined by

y D a.x h/2 C k.
Example 4.1.4; Activity 4.1.7

5. Know the characteristics of parabolas defined by y D f .x/ D a.x h/2 C k.

Table 4.1.4

4.2: Sketching Parabolas

1. Sketch parabolas defined by y D a.x h/2 C k.

Example 4.2.1; Activity 4.2.1
 234

2. Sketch parabolas defined by y D ax 2 C bx C c.

Example 4.2.2; Activity 4.2.2

3. Use the discriminant to determine the number of times a parabola cuts the x–axis.
Example 4.2.3

4. Know the characteristics of parabolas defined by y D ax 2 C bx C c.

Table 4.2.2

4.3: Finding the Equation of Parabola

1. Find the equation of a parabola if you are given three unrelated points on the parabola.
Example 4.3.1(a)

2. Find the equation of a parabola if you are given the vertex and another point on the parabola.
Example 4.3.1(b); Activity 4.3.1

3. Find the equation of a parabola if you are given the x–intercepts and one other point on the parabola.
Example 4.3.1(c); Activity 4.3.1

4.4: Using Parabolas and Quadratic Functions

1. Use a rough sketch of an appropriate parabola to solve a quadratic inequality.

Example 4.4.1; Activity 4.4.1
px C q
2. Solve a rational inequality of the form r x C s > 0 (where > can be replaced by <, or ) by using
a rough sketch of the parabola defined by y D . px C q/.r x C s/.
Example 4.4.2

3. Find maximum and minimum values of quadratic functions in certain applied problems.
Examples 4.4.3, 4.4.4; Activity 4.4.2
 235 MAT0511/001

UNIT 5: Hyperbolas

OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

5.1: Characteristics of Hyperbolas

I Sketch hyperbolas defined by y D k

x
using a table of values.

I Know the properties of hyperbolas defined by y D xk for k > 0 and k < 0. This includes being able to
find the coordinates of the two points on the hyperbola closest to the origin and the distance of these
points from the origin.

I Sketch hyperbolas without using a table of values.

I Find the equation of a hyperbola given one point on the hyperbola.

I Find the equation of a hyperbola given the distance from the origin to either of the two points on the
hyperbola closest to the origin, and some fact that will determine the sign of k in the equation y D xk :

5.2: Inverse Proportion

I Know and apply the definitions of inverse proportion, direct and inverse proportion, and joint and
inverse proportion.

5.1 Characteristics of Hyperbolas

k
HYPERBOLAS DEFINED BY yD ; k>0
x
In Example 1.1.2 of Study Unit 1.1A we represented graphically the time it would take Moses and a varying
number of his friends to fold notices and seal them in envelopes. We assumed that Moses and each of his
friends worked at the same rate and that he could complete the task in 8 hours if he worked alone. In tabular
form we had the following information.
Number of people Time taken in hours
.n/ .t/
1 8
2 4
3 2 23
4 2

Table 5.1.1
 236

The time taken was found by dividing 8 hours by the number of people carrying out the task, i.e.
8
tD ; where n 2 N and 1 n 4:
n
The graph defined by this equation is given in Figure 5.1.1 on the next page. This graph represents a function
in n.
t 6
10

8 r

4 r
r
2 r

- n
1 2 3 4

Figure 5.1.1

8
Do you know why t D n
defines a function? If not, revise functions in Unit 2.

The graph in Figure 5.1.1 consists of points which we cannot join as it makes no sense to have, for example,
3 13 people.

We now look at graphs similar to the one in Figure 5.1.1, in which we can join the dots. We consider functions
defined by
k
yD or x y D k
x
where k is a non–zero constant and x is any non–zero real number. A function of this form is called a rational
function since xk is a rational expression. Since x can be any non–zero real number we can obtain the graph
of such a function by plotting a few points and joining them by means of a smooth curve that follows the
pattern formed by the dots. The graph of the function y D xk is called a rectangular hyperbola, but we shall
just refer to it as a hyperbola. Rational expressions are dealt with in Unit 1 of Module 2.

k
Since k 6D 0 we may have k > 0 or k < 0. We first draw the graph of y D x
for k > 0, and investigate
characteristics of this hyperbola.

8
THE HYPERBOLA DEFINED BYy D
x

EXAMPLE 5.1.1

We draw the graph of the function f , defined by

8
y D f .x/ D :
x
 237 MAT0511/001

We set up the following table of values.

1 1 1 1
x 16 8 4 2 1 2 4
0 4 2
1 2 4 8 16

1 1
y 2
1 2 4 8 16 32 unde- 32 16 8 4 2 1 2
fined

Table 5.1.2

Note that when x D 0, y is undefined since we cannot divide by zero. Once we have drawn the graph we
shall investigate what happens to y as x approaches 0.

We plot the points and join them as shown in Figure 5.1.2.

y6

20

16 r y D x8

12

8 r

r
r
4
r r
r
20 16 12 8 4
r
- x
r
r
4 8 12 16 20
4
r 8

12

y D x8 r 16

20

Figure 5.1.2

Note the following characteristics of the graph of y D x8 .

I The graph consists of two separate parts, called branches, one in the first quadrant and the other in the
third quadrant.
 238

I D f and R f consist of all real numbers except 0, i.e. D f D R f D R f0g.

R f0g D fx 2 R : x 6D 0g

I There is no x–intercept since 8

x
D 0 has no solution.

I There is no y–intercept since 8

x
is undefined for x D 0:

I From the branch in the first quadrant we see that as x approaches zero from the right (i.e. x gets
closer and closer to zero but remains bigger than zero) the values of y, which are all positive, become
larger and larger, i.e. y increases without bound. We say that

y approaches infinity as x approaches 0 from the right

or
y tends to infinity as x tends to zero from the right.

Mathematically we write this phrase as

y ! 1 as x ! 0C :

As x assumes larger and larger positive values, we see that the values of y get closer and closer to zero
but remain positive. We can write this mathematically as

y ! 0C as x ! 1:

I From the branch in the third quadrant we see that as x approaches zero from the left, the values of
y, which are all negative, remain negative but become numerically bigger and bigger. We say that y
decreases without bound and we write

y! 1 as x ! 0 :

When x is negative and decreases without bound, i.e. when the numerical values of x become larger
and larger, we see that y again gets closer and closer to zero, but remains negative. We write

y!0 as x ! 1:

Note
The C or associated with the zero indicates the direction from which we approach zero. The C
indicates that we are approaching zero from the positive side of the horizontal (in the case of x) or
vertical (in the case of y) axes. Similarly, the indicates that we are approaching zero from the
 239 MAT0511/001

negative side of the horizontal or vertical axes. See Figure 5.1.3.

y +
0

+
x 0

0
x 0-

y 0-

Figure 5.1.3

I Consider Figure 5.1.4 which shows the hyperbola defined by y D 8

x
together with the lines defined by
y D x and y D x.
y
6
yD x yDx

Pr
y D x8
O -x

y D x8 r
Q

Figure 5.1.4

The branches of the hyperbola are symmetric with respect to the line defined by y D x, i.e. if we
fold Figure 5.1.4 along the line defined by y D x we find that the branch in the third quadrant lies
directly on top of the branch in the first quadrant.

I Each branch is symmetric with respect to the line defined by y D x, i.e. if we fold Figure 5.1.4 along
this line we see that half of each branch lies directly on top of the other half. We also see from Figure
 240

5.1.4 that if the point .a; b/ lies on the hyperbola, then so does the point .b; a/. This is true for all
graphs that are symmetric with respect to the line y D x. For example we see from Table 5.1.2 that
both .1; 8/ and .8; 1/ lie on the branch in the first quadrant, and 16; 21 and 1
2
; 16 lie on the
branch in the third quadrant. We leave it as an exercise to show algebraically that if .a; b/ lies on a
hyperbola then .b; a/ also lies on the hyperbola.

I The points on the hyperbola which lie closest to the origin O are P and Q, which are the points
of intersection of the hyperbola and the line defined by y D x (see Figure 5.1.4). We find the
coordinates of these points by solving simultaneously the equations

yDx .1/
and
8
yD : .2/
x
When we substitute (1) into (2) we obtain
8
xD :
x

Thus
x2 D 8
and hence
p
xD 8:

p p p p
If x D 8 then y D 8 and if x D 8 then y D 8:
p p
Since P is in the first quadrant we have P D 8; 8 , and since Q is in the third quadrant we have
p p
QD 8; 8 .

I From the distance formula we find that the distance d.O; P/, from P to the origin O is
r
p 2 p 2
d.O; P/ D 8 0 C 8 0 units See equation 1.3.1 in Unit 1.

p
D 8 C 8 units

D 4 units.

Similarly, d.O; Q/ D 4 units. It is also obvious from the symmetry of the graph that P and Q are the
same distance from O.
 241 MAT0511/001

k
HYPERBOLAS DEFINED BY y D ; k>0
x

Hyperbolas defined by y D xk for k > 0 all have the same characteristics as the hyperbola defined by y D x8 .
Consider Figure 5.1.5 which shows a hyperbola defined by y D xk for some k > 0 together with the line
defined by y D x.

y
6
yDx

Pr
y D xk
-x
O
y D xk r
Q

Figure 5.1.5

To find the coordinates of P and Q, when we do not have a specific value of k, we solve simultaneously

yDx .3/
and
k
yD : .4/
x
We substitute (3) into (4) and obtain
k
xD
x
i.e. we have
x2 D k
and hence
p
xD k:
p p p p
If x D k then y D k, and if x D k then y D k:
p p
k is a real number since k > 0. By definition k > 0.
 242

p p
Since P is in the first quadrant we must have x > 0 and y > 0. Thus P D k; k . Since Q is in the third
p p
quadrant we must have x < 0 and y < 0 and consequently Q D k; k . The distance from P to the
origin O is
r
p 2 p 2
d.O; P/ D k 0 C k 0 units

p
D k C k units

p
D 2k units

which is also the distance from Q to the origin. Remember that P and Q are the points on the hyperbola that
p
are closest to the origin. Since the distance of P and Q from the origin is given by 2k units it follows that
as k increases so the points on the hyperbola that are closest to the origin move farther away from the origin.

When k D 8 we found that the distance was 4 units. Note that

p p
4D 16 D 2 8;

p
i.e. we have the distance in terms of the formula d.O; P/ D d.O; Q/ D 2k; where k D 8.

ACTIVITY 5.1.1

(a) On the same system of axes give a rough sketch of the hyperbolas defined by y D x1 and y D x2 : Also
include the line defined by y D x. Let R denote the point of intersection of the hyperbola defined by
y D x1 and the line defined by y D x in the first quadrant. Let S denote the point of intersection of the
hyperbola defined by y D x2 and the line defined by y D x in the third quadrant.

(b) Determine the coordinates of R and the distance from R to the origin.

(c) Determine the coordinates of S and the distance from S to the origin.
1
(d) Suppose T .x; 3
/ lies on the hyperbola defined by y D x2 . Determine the x–coordinate of T .
 243 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

(a)

y 6
y D x1 yDx

R r y D x2

- x
O

y D x1 S r

y D x2

Figure 5.1.6
1
(b) We substitute y D x into y D x
and obtain

1
xD
x
i.e. we have
x2 D 1
and thus
xD 1:

Since R is in the first quadrant we have x D 1 and hence y D 1. Thus R D .1; 1/ :

p p
The distance from R to the origin is 12 C 12 units, i.e. 2 units.
2
(c) We substitute y D x into y D x
and obtain

2
xD
x
i.e. we have
x2 D 2
and thus
p
xD 2:

p p p p
Since S is in the third quadrant we have x D 2 and hence y D 2. Thus S D 2; 2 :
 244

r
p 2 p 2
The distance from S to the origin is 2 C 2 units,
p
i.e. 4 units, i.e. 2 units.
1
(d) In order to find the x–coordinate of T we substitute y D 3
into the equation y D x2 . We obtain

1 2
D
3 x
i.e. we have
2
xD 1
3

and hence
xD 2 3
D 6:

1
Thus T D 6; 3
:

k
HYPERBOLAS DEFINED BY yD ; k>0
x
k
In this study unit we investigate characteristics of hyperbolas defined by y D x
where k < 0.

ACTIVITY 5.1.2

4
THE HYPERBOLA DEFINED BY y D
x

Consider the function f defined by

4
y D f .x/ D :
x

4 4
Note that x
D x
, so that k D 4, i.e. k < 0.

(a) Complete the following table of values.

1 1
x 8 4 2 1 2
0 2
1 2 4 8

(b) Plot the points obtained from the table in (a) and join them in a suitable way to obtain the graph of f .
 245 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

(a)

1 1
x 8 4 2 1 2
0 2
1 2 4 8

1 1
y 2
1 2 4 8 unde- 8 4 2 1 2
fined

(b)

6y

yD 4 r 8
x

r 4

r
r
2
r 2 4 6 8
r
- x
r
r
8 6 4 2
2

4 r

6 yD 4
x

8 r

Figure 5.1.7

Study Figure 5.1.7 carefully and then try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 5.1.3

Copy Figure 5.1.7 without the dots shown on the branches of the hyperbola. Draw the lines defined by y D x
and y D x. Let P denote the point in the second quadrant where the line defined by y D x cuts the
 246

hyperbola; let Q denote the corresponding point in the fourth quadrant.

4
For the hyperbola defined by y D f .x/ D x
write down characteristics similar to those given for the
hyperbola defined by y D x8 .

SOLUTION

y
4 6
yD x
yDx

rP

O -x

r yD 4
x
Q

yD x

Figure 5.1.8

I The hyperbola has two branches, one in the second quadrant and the other in the fourth quadrant.

I D f D R f D R f0g.

I There is no x–intercept since 4

x
D 0 has no solution.

I There is no y–intercept since 4

x
is undefined for x D 0.

I In the second quadrant

y ! 1 as x ! 0 ;

i.e. y tends to infinity as x tends to zero from the left; and

y ! 0C as x ! 1;

i.e. y tends to zero but remains positive, as x tends to 1.

I In the fourth quadrant

y! 1 as x ! 0C ;
 247 MAT0511/001

i.e. y tends to 1 as x approaches zero from the right; and

y!0 as x ! 1;

i.e. y tends to zero but remains negative, as x tends to 1.

I The branches are symmetric with respect to the line defined by y D x .

I Each branch is symmetric with respect to the line defined by y D x.

I The points on the hyperbola closest to the origin are P and Q (see Figure 5.1.8), which are the points
of intersection of the hyperbola and the line defined by y D x. We find the coordinates of these
points by solving simultaneously the equations

yD x
and
4
yD :
x
4
If we substitute y D x into y D x
we obtain

4
xD
x
i.e. we obtain
x2 D 4
and hence
xD 2:

If x D 2 then y D 2, and if x D 2 then y D 2.

Thus P D . 2; 2/ (P is in the second quadrant) and Q D .2; 2/ (Q is in the fourth quadrant).

I The distance from P to the origin Q is

q
d.O; P/ D . 2/2 C .2/2 units

p
D 8 units

p
D 2 2 units.

p
Similarly, either by symmetry or by the distance formula, the distance of Q from the origin is 2 2
units.
 248

HYPERBOLAS DEFINED
k
yD ; k<0
x
k
Hyperbolas defined by y D x
for any k < 0 have the same characteristics as the hyperbola defined by
y D x4 .

Consider Figure 5.1.9 which shows the hyperbola defined by y D xk ; for some k < 0, and the line defined by
y D x.
y
6
y D xk

k<0

rP

O -x

r y D xk
Q

yD x

Figure 5.1.9

We find the coordinates of P and Q for any negative k 2 R by solving simultaneously the equations

yD x
and
k
yD :
x

k
When we substitute y D x into y D x
we obtain
k
xD
x
i.e. we obtain
x2 D k
and hence
p
xD k:

p p p p
If x D k then y D k and if x D k then y D k.
 249 MAT0511/001

p p
Remember that k < 0, hence k > 0 and k is defined. By definition k > 0 for all k < 0. Note that
p p
k 6D k.
p p p p
Hence P D k; k and Q D k; k .

Since P is in the second quadrant we must have x < 0 and y > 0. Since Q is in the fourth quadrant we have
x > 0 and y < 0.

The distance from P (and from Q) to the origin O is

r
p 2 p 2
d.O; P/ D k C k units

p
D . k/ C . k/ units

p
D 2k units.

Hence it follows that as the magnitude of k increases, so the two points on the hyperbola that are closest to
the origin move farther away from the origin.

ACTIVITY 5.1.4

Suppose V and W are points in the second quadrant. V is the point closest to the origin on the hyperbola
defined by y D x1 ; W is the corresponding point on the hyperbola defined by y D x2 . Calculate the
distances from V and W to the origin.

SOLUTION

k
The distance from the origin to either of the two closest points on the hyperbola defined by y D x
, where
p
k < 0, is 2k units.

Thus
p p
the distance from V to the origin is . 2/ . 1/ units, i.e. 2 units;
p p
the distance from W to the origin is . 2/ . 2/ units, i.e. 4 units,
i.e. 2 units.

In Activity 5.1.4 we found that

p
d.O; W / D 2 units > 2 units D d.O; V /

and hence W lies farther away from the origin than V . We expect this since the magnitude of 2 (i.e. 2) is
greater than the magnitude of 1 (i.e. 1).
 250

FINDING EQUATIONS OF HYPERBOLAS

We can find the equation of a hyperbola if we know

I one point that lies on the hyperbola

or

I the distance OP, where O is the origin and P is one of the points on the hyperbola closest to O
and
k
some other fact from which we can deduce whether the constant k in the equation y D x
is positive or
negative.

EXAMPLE 5.1.2

(a) Suppose .2; 3/ lies on a hyperbola. Find the equation of the hyperbola.

(b) Suppose a hyperbola is defined by 2x y p D 0 where p < 0. If the shortest distance from the origin to
a point on the hyperbola is 3 units, find the value of p and write the equation that defines the hyperbola
in the form y D xk .

SOLUTION

(a) Suppose the equation of the hyperbola is y D xk : Since .2; 3/ lies on the hyperbola, x D 2 and
y D 3 must satisfy the equation y D xk : After substitution we obtain
k
3D
2
and thus
kD 6:
6
Hence the equation of the hyperbola is y D x
:

(b) We rewrite the equation in the form y D xk . Since

2x y pD0
we have
2x y D p
i.e. we have
p
yD :
2x
This equation is in the form
k p
yD ; where k D :
x 2
Since p < 0, it follows that k < 0. When k < 0, we know that the shortest distance from the origin to
p
a point on the hyperbola defined by y D xk is 2k units. This distance is 3 units.
 251 MAT0511/001

Now
p
2k D 3

r
p
, 2 D3
2

p
, pD3

, pD9

, pD 9:
9
Thus p D 9 and the equation of the hyperbola is y D 2x
.
9
2 9
Note that x
is the same as 2x
.

Now try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 5.1.5

2
Suppose the shortest distance from the origin to a point on a hyperbola is 3
unit.

If the branches of the hyperbola lie in the first and third quadrants, find the equation of the hyperbola.

SOLUTION

The equation of the hyperbola is y D xk . Since the branches lie in the first and third quadrants, we have k > 0.
p
Thus the shortest distance from the origin to a point on the hyperbola is 2k units.

Thus
p 2
2k D
3
i.e. we have
4
2k D
9
and hence
2
kD :
9

2
Thus the equation is y D 9x
(or 9y D x2 ).

2
9 2
Note that x
is the same as 9x
.
 252

EXERCISE 5.1

1. Write each of the following equations in the form y D xk .

(a) x y D 3
(b) 4x y D 7
(c) x y C 1 D 0
(d) 5x y C 3 D 0
(e) mx y C n D 0, m 6D 0; n 6D 0

k
2. Show algebraically that if the point .a; b/ lies on the hyperbola defined by y D x
then the point .b; a/
also lies on the hyperbola.

3. On separate systems of axes give rough sketches of the hyperbolas defined by

(a) x y D 10 (b) 4x y C 9 D 0.
In each case indicate one of the points on the hyperbola closest to the origin and give the distance from
this point to the origin.

4. On the same system of axes give rough sketches of the hyperbolas defined by
3 10
yD and y D :
x x

5. The point .a; b/ lies on a hyperbola. Find the equation of the hyperbola in terms of a and b.

6. The shortest distance from the origin to a point on a hyperbola is 34 units. If the two branches of the
hyperbola lie in the second and fourth quadrants find the equation of the hyperbola.

7. Suppose a hyperbola is defined by mx y C 2 D 0, m 6D 0, and the shortest distance from the origin to a
point on the hyperbola is 12 unit. If the two branches of the hyperbola lie in the first and third quadrants,
find the value of m.
 253 MAT0511/001

5.2 Inverse Proportion

INVERSE PROPORTION

Just as direct proportion occurs frequently in the natural sciences, so does inverse proportion. We first
mentioned inverse proportion in Study Unit 3.2A of Module 1, and we remind you of its definition.

Definition 5.2.1
If the variables x and y are related by an equation

c
yD ; where c 2 R and c 6D 0; .5:2:1/
x

then y is inversely proportional to x. The constant c is called the

constant of proportionality.

Note

I Equation (5.2.1) is the same as

x y D c: (5.2.2)

I Some authors use the phrase “y varies inversely as x” instead of “y is inversely proportional to x”. The
constant c may also be referred to as “the constant of variation”.

I We know that y D xc defines a function and that the graph of this function is a hyperbola. In a real–life
situation c and x are usually both positive and in such a case the graph then consists only of the branch
of the hyperbola that lies in the first quadrant.

EXAMPLE 5.2.1

Suppose z is inversely proportional to t, and that z D 7 when t D 4.

(a) Find the constant of proportionality and write down the equation that describes this relationship.

(b) Find z if t D 10.

SOLUTION

(a) Since z is inversely proportional to t we have

c
zD : (1)
t
 254

When we substitute t D 4 and z D 7 into (1) we obtain

c
7D
4
and hence
c D 28:

28
Thus the constant of proportionality is 28 and the equation is z D t
.
28
(b) When t D 10 we have z D 10
D 2; 8.

Now try the following activity in which we consider the relationship between the pressure and the volume of
a gas.

ACTIVITY 5.2.1

Boyle’s Law states that the pressure P exerted by a gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to
the volume V in which it is enclosed. You are not expected to be familiar with such laws. We use them as
examples.

(a) Write Boyle’s Law as an equation, where c is the constant of proportionality.

(b) Suppose a sample of air occupies 0; 08 m3 and its pressure is 1; 01 105 Pa. What will the pressure be
if this sample is compressed to 0; 048 m3 and the temperature remains constant?

Pressure is measured in Pascals, which is abbreviated by Pa, and 1Pa D 1 N :m 2 ; i.e. 1 Pascal is 1 Newton
per square metre.

SOLUTION

c
(a) P D or P V D c.
V
(b) Suppose the new pressure is x Pa.
Then
1; 01 105 0; 08 D c

and
x 0; 048 D c:

Hence
x 0; 048 D 1; 01 105 0; 08

i.e. we have
1; 01 105 0; 08
x D
0; 048
1; 68 105 :
 255 MAT0511/001

Thus the new pressure is approximately 1; 68 105 Pa.

We mentioned in Study Unit 3.3C that one variable need not just depend on one other variable. For example,
if the variables x; y and z are related by the equation
c
zD I c 2 R and c 6D 0
xy

then we say that z is inversely proportional to x and y.

If
cy
I c 2 R and c 6D 0
zD
x
then we say that z is directly proportional to y and inversely proportional to x. Sometimes the word
“directly” is omitted.

EXAMPLE 5.2.2

Write down the equation that expresses the following statements. Use c as the constant of proportionality.

(a) p is inversely proportional to the square root of s.

(b) z is jointly proportional to x and the cube of y, and inversely proportional to t.

(c) The resistance R of a wire is directly proportional to its length l and inversely proportional to the square
of its diameter d.

SOLUTION

c cx y 3 cl
(a) p D p (b) zD (c) RD
s t d2

Now see whether you have understood this example by trying to do the following activity.

ACTIVITY 5.2.2

(a) Write down the equation that expresses the fact that “the pressure P of a sample of gas is directly
proportional to the temperature T and inversely proportional to the volume V ”.

(b) Suppose
m1m2
FDG ;
r2
where G is the constant of proportionality. Write down, in words, the relationship which is expressed
by this equation.
 256

SOLUTION

cT
(a) P D
V
(b) F is jointly proportional to m 1 and m 2 and inversely proportional to the square of r .

EXERCISE 5.2

1. Suppose r is inversely proportional to t, and that r D 11 when t D 2.

(a) Find the constant of proportionality c and write down the equation that describes this relationship.
(b) Find t when r D 2.

2. Write an equation for each of the following statements, using k as the constant of proportionality.

(a) p is inversely proportional to q and r .

(b) z is directly proportional to the square of x and inversely proportional to the cube of y.
(c) l is jointly proportional to m and the square root of n, and inversely proportional to p and q.

3. If p is jointly proportional to q and r , state the relationship between q and the other two variables.

4. Write down the relationship expressed by the following equations, where k is the constant of propor-
tionality.

kx 2
(a) z D
y
kR
(b) Q D
ST
kx z 2
(c) y D
r
5. This question is adapted from Stewart, Redlin and Watson (see the References).
The resistance R of a wire varies directly as its length l and inversely as the square of its diameter d.

(a) A wire 1; 2 m long and 0,005 m in diameter has a resistance of 140 • (ohms). Write an equation
for this relationship and find the constant of proportionality.
(b) Find the resistance of a wire made of the same material that is 2; 8 m long and has a diameter of
0; 007 m.
 257 MAT0511/001

UNIT SUMMARY

The graph of the function f defined by

k
y D f .x/ D
x
where k is a non–zero constant and x is a non–zero real number is called a rectangular hyperbola or
a hyperbola for short.

Hyperbolas defined by y D xk have two branches, in either the first and third quadrants, or in the second
and fourth quadrants, depending on whether k > 0 or k < 0.

y6 k>0 k<0
6y

y D xk y D xk
- x - x

For k > 0:

B The branches lie in the first and third quadrants.

B The branches are symmetric with respect to the line defined by y D x:
B Each branch is symmetric with respect to the line defined by y D x.
B The two points on the hyperbola which lie closest to the origin are the points of intersection of
p p
the hyperbola and the line defined by y D x. The coordinates of these points are k; k and
p p p
k; k . The distance from either of these points to the origin is 2k units.
B As k increases so the two points on the hyperbola closest to the origin move farther away from
the origin.

For k < 0:

B The branches lie in the second and fourth quadrants.

B The branches are symmetric with respect to the line defined by y D x.
B Each branch is symmetric with respect to the line defined by y D x.
B The two points on the hyperbola which lie closest to the origin are the points of intersection of the
p p
hyperbola and the line defined by y D x. The coordinates of these points are k; k
p p p
and k; k . The distance from either of these points to the origin is 2k units.
B As the magnitude of k increases so the two points on the hyperbola closest to the origin move
farther away from the origin.
 258

The equation of a hyperbola can be found if we know

B one point on the hyperbola

B the distance from the origin to either of the two points closest to the origin, and some fact which
will determine the sign of k in the equation y D xk : By “sign of k” we mean whether k is positive
or negative.

Inverse Proportion

Term Examples

c
inversely proportional yD
x
y is inversely proportional to x
c is the constant of proportionality

c
zD
xy
z is inversely proportional to x and y
c is the constant of proportionality

cx
directly and inversely zD
y
proportional
z is directly proportional to x and in-
versely proportional to y
c is the constant of proportionality

jointly and inversely
proportional
cx y
zD
t
z is jointly proportional to x and y and
inversely proportional to t
c is the constant of proportionality

CHECKLIST

Now check that you can do the following.

5.1: Characteristics of Hyperbolas

k
1. Sketch hyperbolas defined by y D x
using a table of values.
Example 5.1.1, Activity 5.1.2
 259 MAT0511/001

2. Know the properties of hyperbolas defined by y D xk for k > 0 and k < 0. This includes being able to
find the coordinates of the two points on the hyperbola closest to the origin and the distance of these
points from the origin.
Discussion after Example 5.1.1; Activity 5.1.3 and discussion after Activity 5.1.3

3. Sketch hyperbolas without using a table of values.

Activity 5.1.1; Exercise 5.1(3 and 4)

4. Find the equation of a hyperbola given one point on the hyperbola.

Example 5.1.2(a)

5. Find the equation of a hyperbola given the distance from the origin to either of the two points on the
hyperbola closest to the origin, and some fact that will determine the sign of k in the equation y D xk :
Example 5.1.2(b); Activity 5.1.5

5.2: Inverse Proportion

1. Know and apply the definitions of inverse proportion, direct and inverse proportion, and joint and
inverse proportion.
Examples 5.2.1, 5.2.2; Activities 5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.2.3
 260

UNIT 6: Combinations of Graphs

OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

I Interpret various combinations of graphs, including lines, parabolas, circles and hyperbolas.

6.1 Graphs, Graphs and More Graphs

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF SYSTEMS OF
LINEAR AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

In Study Unit 3.3A we looked at the graphical representation of a system of two linear equations in two
unknowns. From these graphs we were able to see why such systems can have

I only one solution

I no solution, or

I infinitely many solutions.

We now look at the graphical representation of a system consisting of a linear and a quadratic equation. We
first remind you that a quadratic equation in two unknowns is an equation of the form

ax 2 C bx y C cy 2 C d x C ey C f D 0 (6.1.1)

where a; b; c; d; e; f 2 R and where the constants a; b and c are not simultaneously zero. In this study
unit we consider quadratic equations of the form

I y D ax 2 C bx C c; the graph of which is a parabola

I .x h/2 C .y k/2 D r 2 , the graph of which is a circle

I x y D k, the graph of which is a hyperbola.

All these equations can be rearranged so that the equations have the same form as equation (6.1.1).

In Module 2 we solved algebraically systems consisting of one linear and one quadratic equation. We also
stated that such systems usually have two solutions. Graphically we shall now see that these systems can have
 261 MAT0511/001

I two solutions

I only one solution, or

I no solution.

EXAMPLE 6.1.1

(a) On the same system of axes, sketch the graph of the quadratic function f defined by

y D f .x/ D x 2 4x C 3

as well as the lines

l1 : y D x 1
l2 : y D x 3 14
l3 : y D x 5:

(b) What can you deduce from (a) about the number of solutions of each of the following systems of
equations?
)
yDx 1
(i)
y D x 2 4x C 3
)
y D x 3 14
(ii)
y D x 2 4x C 3
)
yDx 5
(iii)
y D x 2 4x C 3

SOLUTION

(a) For the graph of f we have

– the x–intercepts are 1 and 3
– the y–intercept is 3
– the vertex is .2; 1/
– the graph is concave up.
For l1 , the x– and y–intercepts are respectively 1 and 1.
For l2 , the x– and y–intercepts are respectively 3 14 and 3 14 .
For l3 ; the x– and y–intercepts are respectively 5 and 5.
 262

We sketch the graphs below.

6y
l1
f

3 l2

l3

2 3
- x
1 3 41 5
1

3 41

Figure 6.1.1

(b) From Figure 6.1.1 we see the following.

(i) The line l1 cuts the graph of f twice, i.e. the system
)
yDx 1
y D x 2 4x C 3

has two solutions.

(ii) The line l2 touches the graph of f at one point, i.e. the system
)
y D x 3 14
y D x 2 4x C 3

has only one solution.

(iii) The line l3 does not cut the graph of f at all, i.e. the system
)
yDx 5
y D x 2 4x C 3

has no solution.
 263 MAT0511/001

We do not usually solve systems of linear equations graphically; neither do we usually solve systems con-
sisting of one linear and one quadratic equation graphically. We leave it as an exercise for you to solve
algebraically each of the systems given in Example 6.1.1(b) in order to confirm the visual representation. See
Exercise 6.1.

Now try the following activity which involves circles and straight lines.

ACTIVITY 6.1.1

(a) On the same system of axes sketch the circle defined by

x2 2x C y 2 3D0

as well as the lines

l1 : y D x
l2 : y D x 3
l3 : y D 2:

(b) What can you deduce from (a) about the number of solutions of each of the following systems of
equations?
)
yD x
(i)
x2 2x C y 2 3 D 0
)
yD x 3
(ii)
x2 2x C y 2 3D0
)
yD2
(iii)
x2 2x C y 2 3D0

SOLUTION

(a) By completing the square we can rewrite the equation of the circle as

.x 1/2 C y 2 D 4:

Thus the circle has centre .1; 0/ and radius 2.

For the line l1 , the x– and y–intercepts are 0, i.e. the line passes through the origin. The line has slope
1.
For the line l2 , the x– and y–intercepts are both 3.
The line l3 is parallel to the x–axis and its y–intercept is 2.
 264

The graphs are sketched below.

y 6

2 l3

.x 1/2 C y 2 D 4
.1; 0/
- x
3 1 3

l1
3

l2

Figure 6.1.2

(b) From Figure 6.1.2 we see the following.

(i) Line l1 intersects the circle twice, i.e. the system

)
yD x
x2 2x C y 2
3D0
has two solutions.
(ii) Line l2 does not cut the circle, i.e. the system
)
yD x 3
x2 2x C y 2 3D0
has no solution.
(iii) Line l3 touches the circle once, i.e. the system
)
yD2
x2 2x C y 2 3D0
has only one solution.

Again we leave it as an exercise for you to solve each of the systems of equations given in Activity 6.1.1
algebraically. We also leave it as an exercise for you to show graphically that a system of the form.
 265 MAT0511/001

See Exercise 6.1. )

y D mx C c
xy D k
can have no solution, only one solution or two solutions.
INTERPRETING COMBINATIONS OF GRAPHS
This study unit contains a number of examples and activities in which we deduce various facts from different
combinations of graphs.

EXAMPLE 6.1.2

In the sketch on the next page, the circle (with centre the origin) and the parabola cut each other at points A
and B, and B is the vertex of the parabola. The line joining P (a point on the upper semi–circle) and Q (a
point on the parabola) is parallel to the y–axis.

(a) Write down

(i) the coordinates of B

(ii) the equation of the circle
(iii) the equation of the upper semi–circle, i.e. the semi–circle that lies on or above the x–axis.

(b) Determine the equation of the parabola.

(c) Determine the length of P Q if the x–coordinate of P and Q is 1 21 .

y6

.0; 3/ r A
r
P

r
r
Q
- x
B

Figure 6.1.3
 266

SOLUTION

(a) (i) Since .0; 3/ lies on the circle, the radius of the circle is 3. Hence B is the point .3; 0/ :
(ii) The equation of the circle is

x 2 C y 2 D .3/2
i.e.
x 2 C y 2 D 9:

(iii) If

x 2 C y2 D 9
then
p
yD 9 x 2:

For the upper semi–circle we have y 0 and thus the equation of this semi–circle is
p
y D 9 x 2:

(b) The parabola has .3; 0/ as its vertex. If we write the equation of the parabola in the form

y D a .x h/2 C k;
then we have
y D a .x 3/2 C 0:

The point .0; 3/ also lies on the parabola, and thus

3 D a .0 3/2
i.e. we obtain
3 D 9a
and hence
1
aD :
3
Hence the equation of the parabola is
1
yD .x 3/2
3
i.e. we have
1 2
yD x 2x C 3:
3
(c) For 0 x 3 the upper semi–circle lies on or above the parabola and the vertical distance d .x/
between any two corresponding points on these graphs is given by
p 1 2
d .x/ D 9 x2 x 2x C 3
3
p 1 2
D 9 x2 x C 2x 3:
3
 267 MAT0511/001

Now the length of P Q is the distance between P and Q when x D 1 12 , i.e. d 1 12 , and
s
2 2
1 3 1 3 3
d 1 D 9 C2 3
2 2 3 2 2
r
9 3
D 9 C3 3
4 4
r
36 9 3
D
4 4
r
27 3
D
4 4
p
3 3 3
D
2
p 4
6 3 3
D
4
p
3 2 3 1
D :
4
p
3 2 3 1
Thus the length of P Q is units.
4

EXAMPLE 6.1.3

Figure 6.1.4 shows the graphs of f and g. The graph of f is the parabola which cuts the x–axis at 1 and 3,
and the y–axis at 6. The graph of g is a line which passes through .0; 2/ and .3; 0/. The graphs of f and
g intersect at .3; 0/ and at . p; q/. M and N are points that lie on the parabola and line respectively, and the
line joining them is parallel to the y–axis.
 268

y 6
8

6 rM

4
y D f .x/

- x
2 1 1 2r 3 4 5
N
2
r . p; q/
y D g.x/

Figure 6.1.4

(a) Find the equation that defines f .

(b) Find the equation that defines g.

(c) Find p and q.

(d) Calculate the length of M N if M N passes through .2; 0/.

(e) If p < x < 3 determine the maximum length of M N and the value of x at which this occurs.

(f) Find the values of x for which

(i) f .x/ < g .x/

(ii) f .x/ g .x/ 0:

SOLUTION

(a) Since the graph of f cuts the x–axis at x D 1 and x D 3 the equation of f has the form

y D a .x C 1/ .x 3/ :
 269 MAT0511/001

If we substitute x D 0 and y D 6 into the equation we obtain

6 D a .0 C 1/ .0 3/
i.e. we obtain
6D 3a
and hence
aD 2:

Thus the equation that defines f is

yD 2 .x C 1/ .x 3/
which can be rewritten as
yD 2x 2 C 4x C 6:

0 . 2/
(b) The graph of g passes through the points .3; 0/ and .0; 2/. Hence the slope of the line is 3 0
, i.e.
2
3
.
Since the y–intercept is 2, the equation that defines g is
2
yD x 2:
3
(c) . p; q/ is one of the points of intersection of the graphs of f and g and hence the coordinates p and q
must satisfy the system 9
2 =
yD x 2
3 :
y D 2x 2 C 4x C 6 ;

We now solve this system. By substituting the first equation into the second equation we obtain 23 x
2 D 2x 2 C 4x C 6.

Now
2
x 2D 2x 2 C 4x C 6
3

, 2x 6D 6x 2 C 12x C 18

, 6x 2 10x 24 D 0

, 3x 2 5x 12 D 0

, .3x C 4/ .x 3/ D 0

4
, xD or x D 3:
3
 270

Since p < 0 we have p D 34 . We find q by substituting x D 4

3
into y D 2
3
x 2. Thus q D
2 4
3 3
2 D 89 2 D 2 98 .

(d) For 43 < x < 3 the graph of f lies above the graph of g. Thus the vertical distance between
corresponding points on these graphs is given by

d .x/ D f .x/ g .x/

2
D 2x 2 C 4x C 6 x 2
3
2
D 2x 2 C 4x C 6 x C2
3
10
D 2x 2 C x C 8:
3
Since M N passes through .2; 0/ the length of M N is given by d .2/. Now
10
d .2/ D 2 .2/2 C .2/ C 8
3
20
D 8C C8
3
20
D
3
2
D 6 :
3
Thus the length of M N is 6 23 units.
4
(e) From (d) we see that for 3
< x < 3 the length of M N is given by the function d, where
10
d .x/ D 2x 2 C
x C 8:
3
Thus we see that the length of M N is given by a quadratic function in x. (Do not confuse the quadratic
function d with the quadratic function f .)
As x varies from 34 to 3 so the length of M N changes from very short to longer. At some stage it
becomes shorter again. Thus the length varies and at some point it will be a maximum. We know that
the maximum (or minimum) value of any quadratic function is the y–coordinate of the vertex of its
graph. Thus we determine the vertex of the graph of d. We have

10
d .x/ D 2x 2 C x C8
3
5
D 2 x2 x C8
3
!
2 2
5 5 5
D 2 x2 xC C8
3 6 6
2
5 25
D 2 x C2 C8
6 36
2
5 7
D 2 x C1 C8
6 18
2
5 7
D 2 x C9 :
6 18
 271 MAT0511/001

5 7 7
Hence the vertex of the graph of d is 6
; 9 18 . Thus the maximum length of M N is 9 18 units and this
occurs when x D 56 .

(f) (i) f .x/ < g .x/ when the graph of f lies below the graph of g, i.e. when the parabola lies below
the straight line.
4
Thus f .x/ < g .x/ for x < 3
or x > 3.

(ii)

f .x/ g .x/ 0

when

f .x/ g .x/ < 0 or f .x/ g .x/ D 0

i.e. when

. f .x/ < 0 and g .x/ > 0/ or . f .x/ > 0 and g .x/ < 0/

or when

f .x/ D 0 or g .x/ D 0

Thus f .x/g.x/ 0 when

I the graph of f lies below and the graph of g lies above the x–axis, or

I the graph of f lies above and the graph of g lies below the x–axis, or

I the graph of f cuts the x–axis, or

I the graph of g cuts the x–axis.

Hence f .x/ g .x/ 0 when x > 3 or 1 < x < 3 or x D 1 or x D 3, i.e. when x 1.

Now see whether you can do the following activity.

ACTIVITY 6.1.2

Figure 6.1.5 shows a circle (centred at the origin O), a line (the graph of the function f ) and a parabola (the
 272

graph of the function g).

y6

r D

r
A

Pr
E r r r rB -x
C R O 5
f

r
Q

Figure 6.1.5

The line and circle intersect at A and B. The parabola and circle intersect at D and E, and C is the turning
point of the parabola. The line P Q which joins the point P on the parabola and the point Q on the lower
semi–circle is parallel to the y–axis and lies to the left of the y–axis. AC is also parallel to the y–axis.

(a) Find the equation of the circle.

(b) If A D .v; 3/ find the value of v.

(c) Find the equation that defines f .

(d) Find the equation that defines g.

(e) Determine the length of P Q if the length of O R is 2 units.

k
(f) If a hyperbola defined by y D passes through A find the value of k.
x
p
(g) Use the graphs to find the values of x for which 25 x 2 C 13 x 53 > 0.
 273 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

(a) The circle has centre at the origin and radius 5 units (the distance from B to O is 5 units). Thus the
equation is

x 2 C y 2 D 52
i.e.
x 2 C y 2 D 25:

(b) A is a point on the circle and thus the coordinates of A must satisfy the equation of the circle. We
substitute x D v and y D 3 into the equation of the circle.

v 2 C 32 D 25

, v 2 D 16

, vD 4:

Now since A lies in the second quadrant it follows that v < 0 and hence v D 4.

(c) The line passes through A . 4; 3/ and B .5; 0/ and thus by the two–point formula the equation that
defines f is
.0 3/
.y 3/ D .x . 4// :
.5 . 4//
Now
.0 3/
.y 3/ D .x . 4//
.5 . 4//

3
, y 3D .x C 4/
9

x 4
, y 3D
3 3

x 5
, yD C :
3 3
1
Thus f is defined by y D 3
x C 53 .

(d) Since the line AC is parallel to the y–axis the points A and C have the same x–coordinate, namely 4.
C lies on the x–axis, hence the y–coordinate of C is 0. The vertex of the parabola is thus C . 4; 0/,
and the equation that defines g has the form

y D a .x . 4//2 C 0
which simplifies to
y D a .x C 4/2 :
 274

Since the parabola passes through D .0; 5/ we substitute x D 0 and y D 5 into y D a.x C 4/2 . We
obtain

5 D a .4/2
i.e. we obtain
5 D 16a
and hence
5
aD :
16

Thus the equation that defines g is

5
yD .x C 4/2
16
which can be written as
5 2 5
yD x C x C 5:
16 2

(e) The equation of the circle is

x 2 C y 2 D 25:

which we can write as

p
yD 25 x 2:

Thus the equation of the lower semi–circle, i.e. the semi–circle that lies below or on the x–axis, is
p
yD 25 x 2:

Now, for 5 x 0 the graph of g lies above the lower semi–circle and thus the vertical distance
between corresponding points on these graphs is given by

5 2 5 p
d .x/ D x C x C5 25 x2
16 2
i.e. we have
5 2 5 p
d .x/ D x C x C 5 C 25 x 2:
16 2

Since the distance from R to O is 2 units, and R lies on the negative x–axis, the x–coordinate of R is
2. Thus the length of P Q is d . 2/. Now
q
5 5
d . 2/ D 2
. 2/ C . 2/ C 5 C 25 . 2/2
16 2
5 p
D 5 C 5 C 21
4
5 p
D C 21:
4

5 p
Thus the length of P Q is C 21 units.
4
 275 MAT0511/001

(f) The equation of a hyperbola is

k
yD :
x
Since A is a point on the hyperbola, the coordinates of A must satisfy the equation. If we substitute
x D 4 and y D 3 into the equation we obtain

k
3D :
4
Thus
kD 12:

(g) We rewrite
p x 5
25 x2 C >0
3 3
as
p x 5
25 x2 > C :
3 3
Thus we must determine the values of x for which the upper semi–circle lies above the line defined by
y D 31 x C 53 . From Figure 6.1.5 we see that this is so for 4 < x < 5. Thus the inequality holds for

4 < x < 5:

We manipulate the given inequality so that it shows more clearly a relationship between the graphs. Note that
p
y D 25 x 2 is the equation of the upper semi–circle.

EXERCISE 6.1

1. Determine algebraically the solutions (if they exist) of each of the systems of equations given in Exam-
ple 6.1.1(b).

2. Determine algebraically the solutions (if they exist) of each of the systems of equations given in Activity
6.1.1(b).

3. (a) On the same system of axes sketch the hyperbola defined by

xy D 4

and the lines

l1 : y D x
l2 : y D x
l3 : y D x C 4:

(b) Use the graphs in (a) to state the number of solutions that each of the following systems of
equations has.
 276

)
yDx
(i)
xy D 4
)
yD x
(ii)
xy D 4
)
y D x C4
(iii)
xy D 4
(c) Solve algebraically each of the systems given in (b).

4. Figure 6.1.6 shows one branch of a hyperbola defined by y D xk , and a straight line. The hyperbola and
line intersect at the points M and L.

y
6
r Nr Rr 9 -x
O r
r
L
Q

r
P

r
M
9

Figure 6.1.6

The point .2; 4/ lies on the hyperbola. R is a point on the x–axis and P is a point on the line so that
R P is parallel to the y–axis and cuts the hyperbola at Q.

(a) Find the equation of the straight line through M and L.

(b) Find the equation of the hyperbola.

(c) Calculate the length of N M if N is a point on the x–axis and N M is parallel to the y–axis.

(d) Calculate the length of Q P if the length of O R is 3 units.

(e) Calculate the length of R Q if the length of R P is 4 units.

5. Figure 6.1.7 shows the graphs of the functions f and g, both parabolas. P and Q are the points of
intersection of the two parabolas. M is a point on the graph of f and N is a point on the graph of g
 277 MAT0511/001

such that M N is perpendicular to the x–axis and lies between P and Q.

y
6

r
6 M

Pr f g

rQ - x
2 1 3

r
3
N

Figure 6.1.7

(a) Find the equations that define f and g.

(b) Find the coordinates of P.

(c) If the length of M N is 4 units find the x–coordinate of M and N .

(d) The length of M N will change as x takes on different values. Calculate the maximum length that
M N can have and the value of x at which this occurs.

(e) Find the values of x for which

(i) f .x/ g .x/ > 0

(ii) 2x 2 3x 9 < 0.

6. Figure 6.1.8 shows the graphs of the relation h, which is a circle, with centre at the origin; the function
f , which is a parabola; and the function g, which is a straight line. The parabola and line intersect at
P and Q. M is a point on the line and N is a point on the lower semi–circle such that M N is parallel
 278

to the y–axis. M N cuts the upper semi–circle at S and the parabola at T when 2 < x < 0.

y 6
r
P

r
M
f

r h
S

r r Q - x
2 R 2

rT
r
N g

Figure 6.1.8

(a) Find the equations that define h, f and g.

(b) Find the coordinates of P.
(c) Calculate the length of S N when R D . 1; 0/.
(d) Calculate the maximum length of M T as x varies between 4 and 2 and the value of x at which
this occurs.
(e) Give the values of x for which
p
4 x2 C x 2:

UNIT SUMMARY

Graphically a system consisting of one linear and one quadratic equation in two unknowns has

B two solutions
B one solution, or
B no solutions.
 279 MAT0511/001

Graphical solution of certain inequalities

How to interpret the table below:
For example, the first row tells us that the solution of the inequality
f .x/ > g .x/ is the set of all values of x for which the graph of f lies above the graph of g.

Inequality Solution
Values of x for which

f .x/ > g .x/ the graph of f lies above the graph of g

f .x/ g .x/ the graph of f lies on or above the graph of g

f .x/ < g .x/ the graph of f lies below the graph of g

f .x/ g .x/ the graph of f lies on or below the graph of g

f .x/ g .x/ > 0 both graphs lie above or both graphs lie below the
the x–axis

f .x/ g .x/ 0 both graphs lie above or both graphs lie below the
x–axis or at least one of the graphs cuts the x–axis

f .x/ g .x/ < 0 one graph lies above the x–axis and the other lies
below the x–axis

f .x/ g .x/ 0 one graph lies above the x–axis and the other lies
below the x–axis, or at least one of the graphs cuts
the x–axis.

Vertical distance d .x/ between corresponding points on the graphs of the functions f and g

B d .x/ D f .x/ g .x/ when f .x/ g .x/.

B d .x/ D g .x/ f .x/ when g .x/ f .x/.
B If the function d is a quadratic function then the maximum vertical distance between correspond-
ing points on the two graphs is given by the y–coordinate of the vertex of the graph of d.

Vertical distance d .x/ between corresponding points on the graph of f and the x–axis

B d .x/ D f .x/ when f .x/ 0.

B d .x/ D f .x/ when f .x/ 0.
 280

CHECKLIST

Check that you can do the following.

1. Interpret various combinations of graphs, including lines, parabolas, circles and hyperbolas.
Examples 6.1.1, 6.1.2, 6.1.3; Activities 6.1.1, 6.1.2, Exercise 6.1
 281 MAT0511/001

ANSWERS
UNIT 1

Exercise 1.1

1. (a)

24
22
20
Temperature
o 18
(in C)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Month

(b) This reflects a place that has its lowest average daily temperatures between April and September,
which are winter months in the southern hemisphere. We can conclude that this place is thus in
the southern hemisphere.

2. (a) The time between 10:00 and 9:00 is one hour. In the first hour they travelled 100 km.
(b) They made no progress between 10:30 and 11:00 (the graph shows that they were stationary after
they had travelled for 1 12 hours, and they only began travelling again 2 hours after their departure).
Thus they spent 21 an hour changing the tyre.
(c) 300 km (since the journey begins at 0 km and ends at 300 km).
(d) They reached the 150 km stage 1 12 hours after leaving Polokwane, i.e. at 10:30.
(e) The second stage during which they made no progress was from 3 hours after departure to 3 34
hours after departure. They spent 43 of an hour filling up with petrol and having something to
drink.
(f) They reached Pretoria 4 hours after leaving Polokwane, i.e. at 13:00.
 282

3. (a) The dot at 0 represents the information that at the beginning (i.e. before the car begins to move)
it has not travelled any distance.
(b) 15 km
(c) 35 km
(d) faster
(e) after 4 seconds the graph begins to look like a straight line; i.e. we can assume that speed is
constant from this stage

Exercise 1.2

1. (a) b
(b) (0, a)
(c) x b
(d) 0 < x < b
k
(e) If P D . p; q/ satisfies the equation y D xCm C l, then it lies on the graph; i.e. if we substitute
x D p into the right hand side of
k
y D xCm C l and obtain q as the answer, then . p; q/ lies on the graph.
k
(f) We need to solve xCm C l > 0.
k
We know y > 0 when x < b, thus xCm
C l > 0 for all x such that x < b.

2. (a) Yes. The equation is defined for all x 1. The x coordinate is 3 and we have 3 > 1. Also,
.3; 7/ satisfies the equation, since we obtain y D 7 when we substitute x D 3 into the equation.
(b) No, since the equation is only defined for x 1, and 2< 1.
(c) 1<x 0
(d) 1

3. (a) (i) D (ii) E (iii) A

(iv) B (v) C
(b) 52 C 02 D 25 6D 16. Since the coordinates (5, 0) do not satisfy the equation of the circle, the point
does not lie on the circle.
(c) If the coordinates of B are (a; b) and if a 2 C b2 D 16, then B lies on the circle.
(d) 4 units (the radius)
(e) 8 units
the diameter of the circle
(f) 4 units
the radius of the circle
 283 MAT0511/001

Exercise 1.3

1. Let the length of the side be x units. Then x 2 C 42 D 102 , i.e. x 2 D 84. Thus the length of the third
p p
side is 84 units. (We may write this as 2 21 units).

2. (a) A sketch shows that 4 ABC is a right triangle, with right angle at C.
(b) Using the distance formula we find that b D AC D 3 units,
p
a D BC D 2 units and c D AB D 13 units.
If
a 2 D b2 C c2

or
b2 D a 2 C c2

or
c2 D a 2 C b2

then 4 ABC is a right triangle.

If 4 ABC is a right triangle we expect that the longest side (in this case AB, i.e. c) will be the
hypotenuse. We thus need to find out whether

c2 D a 2 C b2 :

Now
p 2
LHS D 13 D 13:
RHS D 22 C 32 D 4 C 9 D 13:

Hence L H S D R H S and thus 4 ABC is a right triangle.

3. If we sketch 4 ABC we find that the longest side is AB. We thus need to determine whether

AB 2 D AC 2 C BC 2 :
p p p
By the distance formula we have AB D 20; AC D 10 and BC D 2. If we substitute into the
above equation we have

LHS D AB 2 D 20
RHS D AC 2 C BC 2 D 10 C 2 D 12 6D 20:

Since L H S 6D R H S it follows that 4 ABC is not a right triangle.

 284

p
4. (a) d.P; Q/ D 13, M.x; y/ D .2; 11
2
/
p 3
(b) d.P; Q/ D 5, M.x; y/ D . 2
; 2/
p
(c) d.P; Q/ D 2 13, M.x; y/ D . 1; 1/

5. (a) x 2 C y 2 D 2
(b) .x 1/2 C .y 2/2 D 9
(c) .x C 2/2 C .y 3/2 D 12
(d) x 2 C .y 1/2 D 1
p
6. (a) C D .0; 0/; rD 3
(b) C D .1; 2/; r D6

7. (a) C D .2; 3/
p
(b) d.C; A/ D 10
(c) (x 2/2 C .y 3/2 D 10
p
8. d.A; B/ D 13 q
p
Hence radius = 12 13 D 13 4
:
1
M.x; y/ D . 2 ; 2/ is the centre of the circle. Thus the equation of the circle is

1 2 13
.x / C .y C 2/2 D
2 4
which we may write as
1 2
4.x / C 4 .y C 2/2 D 13:
2

UNIT 2

Exercise 2.1

1. y D h.x/ D 3x; x 2N

2. (a) Each value of x is associated with a unique value of y.

y D f .x/ D 13 . 2x C 2/
(b) Each value of y is associated with a unique value of x.
x D f .y/ D 12 . 3y C 2/

3. (a) D f D N0
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
(b)
y 3 4 7 12 19 28
(c) The dots representing .0; 3/; .1; 4/; .2; 7/; .3; 12/; .4; 19/; .5; 28/ cannot be joined, since D f 6D
R.

4. (a) R
 285 MAT0511/001

(b) R f1g
(c) fx 2 R : x 0g
(d) R
1
(e) fx 2 R : x 2
g
(f) fx 2 R : x > 12 g
(g) R
p p
(h) fx 2 R : x 3 or x 3g
(i) R

5. (a) 4
(b) 1
(c) 3x 2 C 1
(d) 3x C 1
1
6. (a) 3
5
(b) 3
p
x2
2x 2
(c)
x
p
x 3
(d) p
x C1
1 a
(e)
1Ca
p
7. (a) (i) 2 1; 41
1
(ii) 3
1
(b) fx 2 R : x> 2
g

8. (a) f D g, since f .x/ D g.x/ D x 2 1, and D f D Dg D R.

(b) f 6D g: We have f .x/ D g.x/ D x 1, but D f D R f 1g 6D Dg D R.

Exercise 2.2

1. (a) 3
(b) 7
p
(c) 15 2
35
(d) 2

2. (a) 5
(b) 7 23
7
(c) 2
 286

1
(d) 44

3. (a) x 2 C 4x 5
(b) x 2 C 2x 15
(c) .x C 5/2 .x 2/
(d) x 2
(e) x 4 C 6x 3 12x 2 70x C 75
(f) x 4 C 6x 3 10x 2 50x C 125
(g) R
(h) R f 5g
p
4. (a) x C 3x 2
p
(b) x 3x C 2
p
(c) x.3x 2/
p
x
(d)
3x 2
(e) 9x 2 C 13x 4
(f) 9x 2 11x C 4
(g) fx 2 R : x 0g
(h) fx 2 R : x 0g f 32 g
p
5. (a) x C 3x 2
p
(b) x 3x 2
p
(c) x 3x 2
x
(d) p
3x 2
2
(e) x 3x C 2
(f) x 2 C 3x 2
2
(g) fx 2 R : x 3
g
(h) fx 2 R : x > 23 g

x4 2x 2 C 2
6. (a)
x2 1
x 2 .x 2 2/
(b)
x2 1
(c) 1
(d) .x 2 1/2
.x 2 1/4 1
(e) “Simplifying” this does not really produce a
.x 2 1/2
simpler expression.
2 4
.x 1/ C 1
(f) Once again we do not try to simplify this further.
.x 2 1/2
 287 MAT0511/001

(g) R f 1; 1g
(h) R f 1; 1g

UNIT 3

Exercise 3.1

1.
y

_1
x
0 3
-1

2.
y

x
0 1

3.
y

x
0 4
 288

4.
y

x
0 3

_3
- 2

3
5. 2

6. No slope

7. 2

8. 0

9.
y

x
1
-1

10.
y

(2,3)

x
0
 289 MAT0511/001

11.
y

1
x
-7 0

-2 ( 1 , - 2)

12.
y

x
0 (2,0) 5

13.
y

1 y = f ( x) = 1

x
0

y = i ( x) = x

(1,1)
x
0
 290

14.
y
l2 l1 l5 l4

l3
1
x
1

Slope of l3 is zero.

5
15. (a) The slope of l2 , i.e. 2
, is the same as that of l1 .

(b) The slope of l3 , i.e. 25 , is the negative reciprocal of 5

2
which is the slope of l2 .

16. p D 4

17. q D 0

18.
y

l3

(1,2)
l2
x
- 1 - _1
2

(- 1 , - 2 )
l1

19. l2 : 2y C 4x C 1 D 0 ) l2 : y D 2x 12
l2 is obtained by shifting l1 downwards by 3 21 units.

20. The line l1 represents a function since each value of x is associated with only one value of y. The line
l2 does not represent a function since more than one y–value is associated with the x–value of 2. In
fact every value of y is associated with the x–value of 2.
 291 MAT0511/001

21.
y

x
-2 -1 1 2 3
-2

-4

-6

22.
y

x
- 2 - 1 1 2 3
- 2

- 4

- 6

23.
y

x
- 2 - 1 1 2 3
- 2

- 4

- 6
 292

24.
y

x
- 2 - 1 1 2 3
- 2

- 4

- 6

Exercise 3.2

1. 16x 4y 1D0

2. 4x C 14y 21 D 0

3. 2x C 3y C 11 D 0

4. 7x y C 10 D 0

5. x C y 3D0

6. 10x C 9y C 13 D 0

7. y C 3 D 0

8. x 2D0

9. x 7D0

10. y C 10 D 0

11. y D 0

12. x D 0

13. 3x yC1D0

14. 2x C 3y 1D0

15. x C 1 D 0

16. y D 0

17. x C 3y 3D0
 293 MAT0511/001

18. 3x 2y C 5 D 0

19. y 3D0

20. x 2D0

21. x C 8y 1D0

22. 8x y 11 D 0

23. y D 23 x C 43 ; slope is 23 ; y–intercept is 4

3

24. y D 25 x C 25 ; slope is 25 ; y–intercept is 2

5

25. y D 3x 13; slope is 3; y–intercept is 13

26. y D 2x C 1; slope is 2; y–intercept is 1

4 15 5
27. (a) m 2 D 3
(b) y D 4
(c) x D 4

28. y D f .x/ D x C 1; D f D R; R f D R

29. y D f .x/ D 43 x C 2; D f D fx 2 R : x 3g; R f D fy 2 R : y 2g

30. y D f .x/ D 2; D f D fx 2 R : 3<x 8g; R f D f 2g

31. y D f .x/ D x; D f D fx 2 R : 1 x < 2g; R f D fy 2 R : 2<y 1g

32. Suppose l cuts the x–axis at a and the y–axis at b and a 6D 0 and b 6D 0. We then have the two points
P.a; 0/ and Q.0; b/ on the line. Using the two–point form (3.2.3) we obtain
b 0
y 0D .x a/
0 a
i.e. we have
b
yD .x a/
a
which we may rewrite as
b
yD .a x/
a
which becomes
ay C bx D ab:

If we divide both sides by ab (ab 6D 0 since a 6D 0 and b 6D 0) we have

x y
C D 1:
a b
 294

Exercise 3.3

1.

1. .2; 5/
12 13
2. . 11 ; 11
/

3. . 19 ; 2/
9 9

3
4. .1; 2
/

5. y D 2x 3

6. y D 3x C 3

7. y D 1

8.
y

l3 2
Q
1 P

x
1 2 3
l2
l1

(a) P D . 34 ; 34 /; Q D . 3 5
; /
4 4

(b) l1 and l2 are parallel ( i.e. have the same slope) and are not coincident ( i.e. do not lie on top of
each other).
(c) 2
11
(d) 3
9
(e) x D 4

1
9. (a) f .x/ D 3
x C1 g.x/ D x 1
(b) P D . 23 ; 12 /
14
(c) 3

(d) x D 3 or x D 6
3
(e) (i) x 3 (ii) x < 1 (iii) x 2
 295 MAT0511/001

10. (a) h.x/ D 2x 2 k.x/ D 2

(b) y D 2
(c) 6
(d) x D 3
(e) (i) x > 1 (ii) x 2

11. (a) f .x/ D 6x C 24

(b) g.x/ D 12x
(c)
y

72

Cost 48
in
rands f

24 g

x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of cakes

(d) 4
(e) 9

12. (a)
y

4 000
income function:
Cost y = f ( x ) = 18x
3 000
in
rands cost function:
2 000
y = g( x ) = 800 + 10x

1 000

x
50 100 150 200 250
Number of T-shirts

Break–even point D .100; 1 800/

(b) Loss, R160
(c) 250
 296

13. (a) y < x

(b) 2x y 2 (or y 2x C 2)
(c) x < 1
(d) y 2

14. (a) (b)

y y
x= - 2
y = 2x

x x
-2 0 0

(c) (d)
y y

x x
0
x + 2y = 3
x - 2y = 3

15.
y

y=4

_3
y=x- 2

x
0

y=x-1

2x = 3

16. (a) directly proportional; x 3 ; 1

p
3
(b) directly proportional; x 2 ; 4

(c) jointly proportional; h and x 2 ; 1

 297 MAT0511/001

17. (a) p D kq
p
(b) r D k s
(c) p D kq 3r 2
p
3
(d) p 2 D ks r

18. (a) z D 5x
(b) z D 55

19. p D 3qr 2

20. Let c be the cost in rands of printing n copies of a magazine that has p pages. Then c D knp, where k
is the constant of proportionality.

1
(a) c D 240 000 where n D 4 000 and p D 120. Hence k D 2
and we have c D 21 np.
(b) The cost will be R230 000.

UNIT 4

Exercise 4.1

1. Write y D a.x h/2 C k as y D az 2 C k, where z D x h. Then the axis of symmetry of the parabola
defined by y D az 2 C k is the line defined by z D 0. Now z D 0 is the same as x h D 0, i.e. x D h.
Thus the equation of the axis of symmetry of the parabola defined by y D a.x h/2 C k is the line
defined by x D h.

2. (a) 1 unit to the right and 2 units downwards.

(b) 1 unit to the left and 2 units upwards.
(c) 1 unit to the right and 2 units upwards.
(d) 1 unit to the left and 2 units downwards.
(e) h units to the left and k units upwards.

3. (a) (i) D f D R; R f D [0; 1/

(ii) y–intercept D 9; x–intercept D 3
(iii) x D 3
(iv) . 3; 0/, the lowest point
(b) (i) Dg D R; Rg D . 1; 4]
p p
2 3 2 3
(ii) y–intercept D 8; x–intercepts are 2 3
and 2 C 3
(iii) x D 2
(iv) .2; 4/, the highest point
 298

Exercise 4.2

1. (a) (b)
y y 6
6

. 2; 5/ r 5 . 2; 4/ r 4

r
. 1; 1/ - x - x
1 1

(c) (d)

6 r .1; 12 2 /
y 6 y 1
12

. 2; 4/ r 4

- x -x
1 4 1 6

(e)
y
6

1 5
3 6 2 - x

2
r
. 56 ; 4 12
1
/

2. It does not cut the x–axis since 1 D 7 < 0.

3. (a) down
(b) x D 2 12
(c) maximum
(d) two
(e) p D 6 14 ( Hint: 1 D b2 4ac D 52 C 4 p. Now find p such that 1 D 0.)
 299 MAT0511/001

Exercise 4.3

1. (a) y D .x C 2/2 C 6 D x2 4x C 2
(b) y D 12 .x C 2/.x 5/ D 21 x 2 3
2
x 5
(c) y D 3x 2 C 5x
2 2 2 2 4
(d) y D 3
.x C 1/2 C 6 D 3
.x C 4/.x 2/ D 3
x 3
x C 5 31
1 1 2
(e) y D 5
x.x 4/ D 5
x C 45 x

2. (a) y D 43 .x 2/2 D 34 x 2 3x C 3
(b) y D 2.x C 1/2 C 4 D 2x 2 4x C 2
3 2
(c) y D 2
x 1
(d) y D 45 .x 1/.x 5/ D 54 x 2 24
5
x C4
(e) y D 12 x 2 4x C 9

Exercise 4.4

1. (a) x 3 or x 2
3
(b) 1<x < 2

(c) x 3 or x < 2
1
(d) x 3
or x > 1

2. The numbers are 10 and 10 and their product is 100.

3. 242 m2

4. 20 m; 2 seconds

5. Suppose the price of a ticket increases by x rands.

Then the price of a ticket is .20 C x/ rands.
The estimated number of tickets sold will be .20 000 500x/.
The organisers will receive .20 C x/.20 000 500x/ rands.
Now

y D .20 C x/.20 000 500x/

D 400 000 C 10 000x 500x 2 :

(a) In order for the organisers to make the maximum amount of money

b 10 000
xD D D 10:
2a 1 000
Thus a ticket must cost R.20 C 10/, i.e. R30.
 300

(b) The number of spectators should be .20 000 500 10/, i.e. 15 000.
The amount of money that the organisers will make is
R.15 000 30/, i.e. R450 000.

UNIT 5

Exercise 5.1
3 7 1
1. (a) yD x
(b) yD 4x
(c) yD x

3 n
(d) yD 5x
(e) yD mx

2. Suppose f .x/ D y D xk .
The point .a; b/ lies on the graph of f .
Hence b D ak , i.e. ab D k.
Since ab D k, it follows that a D bk : In this form a is the y–value and b is the x–value, and hence .b; a/
lies on the graph of f .

3. (a) (b)
y y
6 x y D 10
4x y C 9 D 0 6

rP Pr
d d
-x - x
0
q
p 9
dD 20 dD 2
x y D 10
4x y C 9 D 0

4.
y
yD 10 6
x 3
yD x

-x

yD 3
x
yD 10
x
 301 MAT0511/001

ab
5. x y D ab (or y D x
)

8
6. y D 9x
(or 9x y D 8)

7. We rewrite mx y C 2 D 0 as y D mx2 , i.e. y D xk where k D 2

. Since k > 0 (why?) we have 2
> 0.
q m m
Thus 2 m2 D 12 ; i.e. m4 D 14 , i.e. m D 16:

Exercise 5.2

22
1. (a) c D 22; r D t
(b) t D 11

p
k kx 2 km n
2. (a) p D (b) z D 3 (c) l D
qr y pq

3. q is directly proportional to p and inversely proportional to r .

4. (a) z is directly proportional to the square of x and inversely proportional to y.

(b) Q is directly proportional R and inversely proportional to S and T .

(c) y is jointly proportional to x and the square of z and inversely proportional to r .

kl 7
5. (a) R D ; kD 2 400
d2
(b) 166 32 •

UNIT 6

Exercise 6.1

1. (i) .1; 0/ I .4; 3/ (two solutions)

5 3
(ii) 2
; 4
(one solution)

(iii) no solution (remember to use the discriminant)

p p p p
1C 7 1 7 1 7 1C 7
2. (i) 2
; 2
I 2
; 2
(two solutions)

(ii) no solution (use the discriminant)

(iii) .1; 2/ (one solution)

 302

3. (a)
y
6
y D x4
l1
4

-x
4
l3

y D x4 l2

(b) (i) 2 solutions (ii) no solution (iii) one solution

(c) (i) .2; 2/ I . 2; 2/
(ii) no solution
(iii) .2; 2/

4. (a) y D x 9
8
(b) y D x
8
(c) M D .1; 8/ (Solve y D x 9 and y D x
simultaneously.)
Thus the length of N M is 8 units.
(d)

Length of Q P D length of R P length of R Q

8
D 6 3
units
D 3 13 units

8
(e) Length of O R D 5 units. Thus the length of R Q is 5
units.

5. (a) f .x/ D x2 C x C 6
g .x/ D x 2 2x 3
3 9
(b) P D ;
2 4

(c) The length of M N is given by f .x/ g .x/, i.e. by 2x 2 C3x C9. Thus we solve 2x 2 C3x C9 D
4. The x–coordinate of M and N is 1 or 25 .
(d)

Length of M N D 2x 2 C 3x C 9
3 2
D 2 x 4
C 10 81 :

Thus the maximum length of M N is 10 18 units and this occurs when x D 34 :

 303 MAT0511/001

(e) (i) 2<x < 1

(ii)

2x 2 3x 9<0
, x2 2x 3 x2 C x C 6 < 0
, x2 2x 3< x2 C x C 6
, g .x/ < f .x/
3
, < x <3
2

6. (a) h : x 2 C y 2 D 4
f : y D 12 x 2 2
g:yD x C2
(b) P D . 4; 6/
p
(c) Length of S N D 2 3 units.
(d) The length of M T is given by g .x/ f .x/, i.e. by 1 2
2
x x C 4, i.e. by 1
2
.x C 1/2 C 4 12 .
Thus the maximum length of M T is 4 12 units and this occurs when x D 1.
(e) The values of x for which p
4 x2 C x 2

are the values of x for which p

4 x2 x C2

i.e. for which the upper semi–circle lies above or on the line. Hence 0 x 2.
 304

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Bohlmann C.A. and Singleton J.E.: Interactive Maths Book 2 : Polynomial and Rational Functions, Univer-
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Freeman, R.: How to Learn Maths, National Extension College, 1994.

Gonin, A.A., Archer, I.J.M. and Slabber G.P.L.: Modern Graded Mathematics for Senior Certificate, (2nd
edition), NASOU Limited.

Jones, E. and Childers, R.: Contemporary College Physics, (3rd edition),

WCB/McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Movshovitz–Hadar N. and Webb J.: One Equals Zero and other Mathematical Surprises: Paradoxes, Fal-
lacies and Mind Bogglers, Key Curriculum Press, 1998.

Page S., Berry J. and Hampson H.: Mathematics: A second start (2nd edition), Prentice Hall, 1995.

Sidiropoulos E., Jefferey A., Mackay S., Forgey H., Chipps C. and Corrigan T.: South Africa Survey 1996/97,
South African Institute of Race Relations, 1997.

Smith S. M.: Agnesi to Zeno, Key Curriculum Press, 1996.

Sobel, M.A. and Lerner, N.: Precalculus Mathematics, (2nd edition), Prentice Hall, 1991.

Stewart J., Redlin L. and Watson S.: Mathematics for Calculus (2nd edition), Brookes/Cole Publishing Com-
pany, 1993.