CONSERVATION OF

ENERGY (3rd Part)

Asst. Prof. Betül Gürünlü
 4.6 Open, Steady-State Systems—No Potential or
Kinetic Energy Changes
EXAMPLE 4.10 Heat Requirement in Warming Blood
• Problem: Since blood is refrigerated for storage, it
is warmed before contact with a patient to prevent
hypothermia. Calculate the rate of heat required to
continuously warm 10.0 L/min of blood from
30°C to 37°C using an electric heater, as shown in
Figure 4.14. A stirrer adds work to the system at a
rate of 0.50 kW. Assume that the heat capacity of
blood is constant at 1.0 cal/(g . °C) and the density
of blood is 1.0 g/mL. The working volume of the
tank is 1.0 L.
 Solution

1. Assemble:
(a) Find: rate of heat required to warm 10.0 L/min of blood from 30°C to 37°C.
(b) Diagram: Figure 4.14 shows the blood heating device. Blood enters and leaves the heater at a rate of 10.0 L/min.
Heat and work are both added to the system.
2. Analyze
(a) Assume:
• Tank is well mixed, so conditions inside the tank are the same as the outlet stream
(e.g., temperature in the tank and in outlet stream 2 is 37°C).
• Heat capacity (Cp) of blood does not depend on temperature.
• Density of blood (𝜌) is constant.
 Solution
• No evaporation.
• Heat lost to the surroundings is negligible.
• System is at steady-state.
• Potential and kinetic energy changes are negligible.
• No reactions.
(b) Extra data: No extra data are needed.
(c) Variables, notations, units:
• T1 = temperature of inlet stream.
• T2 = temperature of outlet stream and inside the tank.
• Units: °C, cal, g, min.
(d) Basis: Since we assume that the density of blood is 1.0 g/mL, we can use the inlet flow rate of 10.0 L/min of blood in
stream 1 to obtain a basis of 10.0 kg/min.
 Solution
3. Calculate:
(a) Equations: Since rates of material flow and work are given, the differential
conservation of mass and conservation of total energy equations are most
appropriate:
 Solution
(b) Calculate:
• Because we assume that the process has no reactions and the system is at steady-
state, the mass flow rates of blood into and out of the system are equal to the basis:

• Since the system is at steady-state and no kinetic or potential energy changes are
occurring, the steady-state energy balance equation is applied here. (Note: While
the inlet and outlet flows do contribute kinetic energy, the change in kinetic
energy is zero, since the inlet and outlet flows are the same.) Only one source
each of heat and work is identified:

• For the inlet and outlet streams, respectively:

 Solution
෡ is dropped
where Tref is an arbitrary reference temperature. Note that 𝐻ref
from the above equation since we assume its value is zero. Substituting this into
the reduced governing energy equation yields:

• Because 𝑚ሶ 1= 𝑚ሶ 2, we can simplify the above equation to:

 Solution
• Nonflow work (0.5 kW = 500 J/s) is positive because it is added to the
system. Substituting numerical values into the above equation gives:
 Solution
4. Finalize:
(a) Answer: The rate of heat supplied to system to warm 10.0
L/min of blood from 30°C to 37°C is 63 kcal/min.
(b) Check: Most of the energy needed to warm the blood comes
from the electric heater rather than the stirrer. It is difficult to get an
independent check on this answer.
• A special case of the algebraic form of the conservation of energy equation
applies for an open, steady-state, nonreacting system that does not have
contributions from heat or work. Since no heat is exchanged, the system is
considered adiabatic.
• Suppose that you have a mass m1 at temperature T1. To this is added a mass
m2 of the identical material that is at temperature T2. The heat capacity of
both masses is identical and constant and is given as Cp. To calculate the
temperature of the combined masses (m1 + m2), imagine that m1 and m2 are
placed into the system and that the combined mass leaves the system.
• The algebraic equation:

is reduced for a steady-state system with no heat or work and no change in

potential or kinetic energy:
• For the mass m1, the change in enthalpy is written:

where Tref is an arbitrarily selected reference temperature. For the mass m2,
the change in enthalpy is written:

• The change in enthalpy for the combined mass, m1 + m2, is:

• where ΔH3 and T3 denote the enthalpy change and temperature of the
combined mass, respectively. It is assumed that the heat capacity of the
combined mass is equal to that of the original masses. The overall change in
enthalpy is found by expanding equation [4.6-6]:

• which is reduced to:

• So the temperature T3 is:

• It makes sense that T3 is a linear combination of the temperatures of the masses entering
the system in proportion to their respective masses.
• As an example, consider the addition of 100 g of room temperature water (25°C) and 10 g
of ice-cold water (4°C) to a beaker. The resulting system is 110 g of water at a temperature
of 23°C. It makes sense that the temperature of the mixture is between that of the two
initial substances and is closer to the substance that was a larger contributor to the system’s
mass.
EXAMPLE 4.11 Heating a Steady Stream of
PBS
• Problem: A researcher wants to raise the
temperature of a steady stream of a phosphate
buffered saline (PBS) flowing at 20 g/min. PBS
is a water-based salt solution that is being used
by the researcher to bathe a tissue sample. Her
system has a mixer that inputs 50 J/min and an
electric heater with a coil immersed in the PBS
(Figure 4.15). Calculate the rate of heat required
to continuously warm the stream of PBS from
room temperature (25°C) to 37°C. Assume that
the heat capacity of PBS is identical to that of
water.
PBS-filled container.
 Solution
• Assume a steady-state system with no potential or kinetic energy changes.
Furthermore, there are no known reactions in this system. Because rates of
fluid flow and energy are given, the differential equation for the conservation
of total energy is used and reduced to:

• The energy needed to raise the temperature of the PBS comes from both the
෡ ) is based on the
heater and the mixer. The overall change in enthalpy (Δ𝐻
change in temperature of the PBS:
 Solution
• Substituting known values, the rate of heat is calculated:

• In this case, the heater adds about 19 times more energy than the mixer.
 4.7 Open, Steady-State Systems with
Potential or Kinetic Energy Changes
• In some engineering scenarios, changes in potential or kinetic energy or both
are significant, such as when material has high velocity or the changes in
height or position of material in a conservative field are large. At steady-
state, no total energy accumulates in the system. Consider the steady-state
situation with changes in potential and kinetic energy. The differential
(equation [4.3-10]) and algebraic (equation [4.3-17]) forms of the
conservation of total energy equation can be reduced:
4.7 Open, Steady-State Systems with
Potential or Kinetic Energy Changes
 4.7 Open, Steady-State Systems with
Potential or Kinetic Energy Changes
where

where g is the gravitational acceleration constant, h is height relative to a reference

plane, and v is velocity. When changes in enthalpy do not occur due to changes in
temperature, pressure, or phase across a system and no chemical reactions occur,
equations [4.7-1] and [4.7-2] can reduce to:
 4.7 Open, Steady-State Systems with
Potential or Kinetic Energy Changes

• These equations also assume no flow work. If flow work is significant or if

changes in the pressure or density between the inlet and outlet conditions are
significant, the equations below can be derived starting from equations [4.7-
1] and [4.7-2]. Here, it is assumed that no changes in internal energy occur:
4.7 Open, Steady-State Systems with
Potential or Kinetic Energy Changes
 EXAMPLE 4.12 Hydroelectric Power
Problem: Hydroelectric power plants convert the energy of moving water into electricity. An
advantage of such plants over conventional power plants powered by coal is that emissions
linked to acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) are substantially lower. Hydroelectric
plants may use a dam, a quickly moving river, or a waterfall to produce electricity. A
disadvantage of hydroelectric power plants is that they may disrupt aquatic wildlife in the river
across which the power plant is built. Suppose that a river flowing into an hydroelectric power
plant usually has a velocity of about 1.0 m/s. After flowing through the plant, the river opens
up into a large lake, and its velocity drops to nearly 0 m/s. If water flows through the power
plant at 2.8 m3/s and has a head of 9 m, how much energy can theoretically be produced?
(The term head is used to describe the vertical distance or elevation of a liquid above a
reference plane.) In this situation, only 190 kW of power is produced. The efficiency of the
power plant is estimated as the ratio of the actual energy that is relayed from the plant relative
to the ideal or maximum energy generation. What is the efficiency of this hydroelectric power
plant? Brainstorm a few reasons why the plant is not 100% efficient.
 Solution
• Water enters the power plant system traveling at 1.0 m/s with a volumetric
flow rate of 2.8 m3/s. Water leaves the plant and enters the lake. The system
is diagrammed in Figure 4.16. We assume that the system is at steady-state
and has no friction, no internal energy change, and no heat transfer across
the system boundary. Our goal is to find the energy (work) that can
theoretically be generated by the changes in the potential and kinetic energy
of the water, as well as the efficiency of the power plant. The inlet mass flow
rate is:
Flow of water through a power plant.
 Solution

• Given the assumptions above, equation [4.7-5] is reduced:

• The change in gravitational potential energy is:

 Solution
• Note that the reference height is set to 0. The change in kinetic energy is:

• Note that the change in potential energy is a much larger contribution than
the change in kinetic energy. Because the system is at steady-state, 𝑚ሶ 1 = 𝑚ሶ 2.
Solving for nonflow work gives:
 Solution
Since the value of the non-flow work is negative, work is being done by the system on the
surroundings. This makes sense, since a hydroelectric plant is designed to generate power. If
the plant produces 190 kW of energy, then the efficiency η is:

Some reasons for the power plant’s lower efficiency could be losses of energy as friction or
heat. In addition, some energy may be consumed by electrical equipment, further reducing the
amount available to be relayed from the plant. In comparison, power plants that rely on steam
power, such as plants that burn coal, have a lower efficiency and lose a significant amount of
energy when heating water and converting it to steam.
 Solution
• In summary, the power plant is 76% efficient, producing 190 kW of
electricity out of an available 248 kW. Most of the energy comes from the
potential energy difference, which is the main driving force for most
hydroelectric power plants.
• Let us compare the differential conservation of energy equation given in
[4.7-7] to the extended Bernoulli equation presented in Chapter 6 (equation
[6.11-4]), which is used to describe a system with fluid flow in which shaft
(pump) work and frictional losses occur:
• Both this equation and equation [4.7-7] describe changes in potential and
kinetic energy. Both equations describe flow work and shaft work. While
these equations are very similar, it is important to be careful to pick the right
one for the problem at hand. The extended Bernoulli equation is restricted to
steady-state systems with one fluid inlet and one fluid outlet, a uniform
velocity profile, and an incompressible fluid. In addition, only
interconversions between mechanical energy and thermal energy are
considered.
• Although friction does change the thermal energy of a system, friction and heat are
not equivalent or interchangeable terms. While the extended Bernoulli equation
accounts only for frictional losses, the conservation of energy equation for a steady-
state system with no changes in internal energy (equation [4.7-7]) captures all forms
of heat production and consumption. Use the conservation of energy equation
when mechanical and thermal energy changes occur in the system; use the extended
Bernoulli equation when only mechanical energy changes are present. Note that
since the above example contained only mechanical energy terms, the extended
Bernoulli equation could have been used to solve this problem to yield the same
answer.
 EXAMPLE 4.13 A Water Tank
• Problem: Water is pumped to the top of a 2-story clinic in a constant
diameter pipe. The inlet of water pipe is 0.5 m underground. The outlet pipe
is located 10 m above the ground. A pump is used to move the water at rate
of 1 kg/min through the system (Figure 4.17). Calculate the amount of work
that must be added by the pump.
Water tank on top of a clinic.
 Solution
• Rates of fluid flow are given; therefore, the differential equation for the
conservation of total energy is used:

• Assuming a steady-state system, the accumulation term is zero. Because the water is
flowing at a steady-state in a constant diameter pipe, the inlet and outlet streams
travel at the same velocity; thus, there is no change in kinetic energy. No heat is
added to the system. Finally, there is no change in the enthalpy of the system since
there are no temperature, pressure, phase, or other changes to the water. The
equation for the conservation of total energy reduces to:
 Solution

• The potential energy change is dominated by gravity:

• The rate of nonflow work is calculated as:

 Solution
• Since the term for nonflow work is positive, the pump must expend 103
J/min in order to pump water to the top of the clinic. Conceptually, this
makes sense because the water does not flow up the sides of buildings;
instead, it naturally flows down.
 4.8 Calculation of Enthalpy in Reactive
Processes
• During chemical reactions, rearranging the bonds between the atoms of reactants
and products causes changes in the internal energy of a system. In reactions, energy
is required to break the existing bonds of the reactants, and energy is released
during bond formation to create the products.
• The difference between the final and initial energy states of the products and
reactants is known as the heat of reaction. We provide a brief overview of heat of
reaction and then discuss methods for calculating heat of reaction. The tools
developed in this section allow us to calculate the specific enthalpy change
for a reacting system, which can then be used in the total energy
conservation equation.
4.8.1 Heat of Reaction
4.8.1 Heat of Reaction
4.8.1 Heat of Reaction
4.8.1 Heat of Reaction

Energy of (a) endothermic and (b) exothermic reactions.

4.8.1 Heat of Reaction
4.8.1 Heat of Reaction
4.8.1 Heat of Reaction
4.8.1 Heat of Reaction
4.8.2 Heats of Formation and Combustion
4.8.2 Heats of Formation and Combustion
4.8.2 Heats of Formation and Combustion
4.8.2 Heats of Formation and Combustion
 EXAMPLE 4.14 Photosynthesis Reaction

• Problem: The abundance of renewable bioenergy resources is a result of

the rapid growth of green plants. Photosynthesis is important to sustaining
life on Earth. Photosynthetic organisms convert carbon dioxide and water
into glucose and oxygen. Find the standard heat of reaction for
photosynthesis:
 Solution
• The standard heat of reaction is calculated using the standard heats of
formation of the reactants and products:

• The heats of formation for the different species are shown in Table 4.4 and
in Appendices E.7 and E.8.
 Solution

• Thus, the process of photosynthesis is endothermic, which makes sense, since

energy from light is required to drive this process.
4.8.2 Heats of Formation and Combustion
4.8.2 Heats of Formation and Combustion
4.8.2 Heats of Formation and Combustion
EXAMPLE 4.15 Biosynthesis of Glycine
Problem: Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Biosynthetic
pathways in humans have evolved to generate some, but not all, of the amino
acids. The conversion of the amino acid serine to the amino acid glycine is
catalyzed by the enzyme serine hydroxymethyltransferase. Serine (C3H7O3N) is
converted to glycine (C2H5O2N) and formaldehyde (CH2O) as follows:

Serine and glycine are both in the crystal (c) form for this reaction. Calculate
the standard heat of reaction for this catalyzed reaction.
 Solution
• The heat of reaction is calculated using
the standard heats of combustion:

• Given the data in the Table 4.5, the

standard heat of reaction is calculated:
Solution
4.8.2 Heats of Formation and Combustion
4.8.2 Heats of Formation and Combustion
4.8.3 Heat of Reaction Calculations at
Nonstandard Conditions
4.8.3 Heat of Reaction Calculations at
Nonstandard Conditions
4.8.3 Heat of Reaction Calculations at
Nonstandard Conditions

Hypothetical reaction pathway for reaction at nonstandard conditions.

4.8.3 Heat of Reaction Calculations at
Nonstandard Conditions
4.8.3 Heat of Reaction Calculations at Nonstandard Conditions
EXAMPLE 4.16 Respiration in the Human
Body
EXAMPLE 4.16 Respiration in the Human
Body
Solution
 Solution

Hypothetical reaction pathway for complete combustion of glucose in the human body.
Solution
 4.8.3 H eat of Reaction Calculations at
Nonstandard Conditions
• In the previous example, the reactants are in stoichiometric proportions, and
the reaction goes to completion. When these two constraints are not met, the
calculation for ∆Hr(T) changes. Recall equation [4.8-12], used to calculate the
heat of reaction when the fractional conversion for all reactants is one. To
account for situations when the fractional conversion is less than one, the
heat of reaction is:
 4.8.3 H eat of Reaction Calculations at
Nonstandard Conditions
• where fs is the fractional conversion of species s (i.e., the proportion of
species s that is consumed in the reaction), 𝜎 s is the stoichiometric
coefficient of species s, ns is the number of moles of species s initially placed
in the system, and ∆𝐻 ෢𝑟 ° is the standard heat of reaction. Similarly, for a
system with flow rates into and out of the system, the change in the rate of
enthalpy is:
 4.8.3 Heat of Reaction Calculations at
Nonstandard Conditions
• where 𝑛sሶ is the molar flow rate of species s into the system. Equations [4.8-
20] and [4.8-21] are valid only when the species s is a reactant. Recall that the
fractional conversion of a reactant is:
4.8.3 Heat of Reaction Calculations at
Nonstandard Conditions
4.8.3 Heat of Reaction Calculations at
Nonstandard Conditions
4.8.3 Heat of Reaction Calculations at
Nonstandard Conditions
4.8.3 Heat of Reaction Calculations at
Nonstandard Conditions
4.8.3 Heat of Reaction Calculations at
Nonstandard Conditions
EXAMPLE 4.17 Incomplete Respiration in
the Human Body
 4.9 Open Systems with Reactions
• In Section 4.8, we learn how to calculate the heat of reaction, Hr, for a
system containing reacting components. With the ability to calculate the total
change in enthalpy across a reacting system, the total energy conservation
equation can be applied to reacting systems. For a steady-state system with
no change in kinetic or potential energy, the algebraic equation [4.3-17] and
the differential equation [4.3-10] reduce to:
4.9 Open Systems with Reactions
EXAMPLE 4.18 The Combustion of
Ethanol
4.9 Open Systems with Reactions
4.10 Dynamic Systems
EXAMPLE 4.21 Start-Up of a Blood
Heating Device
 Solution
1. Assemble:
(a) Find: time required for the temperature of the blood to reach 37°C.
(b) Diagram: Figure 4.24 shows the blood heating device. Blood enters and leaves the heater at a rate of 10.0
L/min. Heat is added to the system.
2. Analyze:
(a) Assume:
• Tank is well mixed.
• Cp and Cv are equal, constant, and have a numerical value of 1.0 cal/(g . C).
• No nonflow work.
• Density of blood is constant at 1.0 g/cm3.
• No evaporation, phase change, or reaction occurs.
• Heat lost to the surroundings is negligible.
• No potential or kinetic energy changes.
 Solution
(b) Extra data: No extra data are needed.
(c) Variables, notations, units:
• T1 = a constant indicating the temperature of the inlet stream.
• T= a variable indicating the temperature of the outlet stream, as well as inside the
tank.
• Units: L, min, cal, kg, °C.
(d) Basis: Since we assume that the density of blood is 1.0 g/mL, we can use the inlet
flow rate of 10.0 L/min of blood to obtain a basis of 10.0 kg/min.
 Solution
3. Calculate:
(a) Equations: Since rates of material flow and heat are given, differential
conservation equations for mass and energy are appropriate:
 Solution
(b) Calculate:
• We assume that the process has no reactions and the system with respect to total
mass is at steady-state. The mass flow rates of blood into and out of the system are
equal to the basis:

Because the system mass is at steady-state, and the volume inside the tank remains
constant, the mass of the blood inside the tank remains constant at 1.0 kg.
• Because potential and kinetic energies do not change, the system does not
have reactions, and the system is well mixed, the unsteady-state energy
balance equation [4.10-10] is applied. After further reductions, such as
nonflow work is reduced to zero, the temperature change as a function of
time is given as:
4.10 Dynamic Systems
 4.10 Dynamic Systems
• Figure 4.25 shows the dependence of BMR on age and gender in kilocalories
per square meter of body surface area (this normalizes for size). A typical 30-
year-old man (5 ft 8 in, 150 lbm) has a surface area of about 1.8 m2 (see
Appendix D.2). This implies that he has a BMR of about 67 kcal/hr or 1600
kcal/day. Rarely do people spend a day at absolute rest. Performing any type
of activity other than cellular activity, respiration, and circulation requires
energy. The actual metabolic rate depends on the type of activity performed.
Some energy expenditure values for some activities are given in Table 4.9.
END OF THE LECTURE