Guidance and Control of Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles: Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Guidance and Control of Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles
Shashi Ranjan Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai- 400076
https://www.aero.iitb.ac.in/˜shashi
srk@aero.iitb.ac.in
Quadrotor: Control Effectiveness Model
• How to obtain propulsor model for multirotors?

• Propulsor model: BLDC motor, ESC and propellers
• Throttle command σ ∈ [0, 1] with no control on battery output voltage Ub

• Average voltage from ESC: Um = σUb
• With steady-state motor speed (ω̄ss )
ω̄ss = Cb Um + ω̄b = CR σ + ω̄b ; , CR = Cb Ub
• Steady-state cannot be achieved instantaneously.

• First order LPF approximation of BLDC motor dynamics
1 1
ω̄ = ω̄ss =⇒ ω̄ = (CR σ + ω̄b )
Tm s + 1 Tm s + 1
Shashi Ranjan Kumar (IITB) Guidance and Control of Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles Quadrotor Lecture 13 1 / 26
Quadrotor: Control Effectiveness Model
• Hovering mode: propeller angular speed, throttle, and reaction torque are
in equilibrium.
• Deviations from equilibrium conditions
ω̄i = ω̄i⋆ + ∆ω̄i , σi = σi⋆ + ∆σi , Mi = Mi⋆ + ∆Mi
• Models for moment and angular speeds

1
Mi = cM ω̄i2 + JRP ω̄˙ i , ω̄i = (CR σi + ω̄b )
Tm s + 1
• Linearized models at equilibrium point

1
∆Mi = 2cM ω̄i⋆ i ∆ω̄i + JRP ∆ω̄˙ i , ∆ω̄i = CR ∆σi
Tm s + 1
• Transfer function from throttle to moments
CR (2cM ω̄i⋆ + JRP s)

∆Mi = ∆σi
Tm s + 1
Quadrotor: Propulsor Model Parameters
Quadrotor: Blade Flapping
• Assumption of rigidity of quadrotor is not valid.

• Blade flapping: Upward-and-downward movement of a rotating blade.
• Advancing blade: A higher relative speed, and thus larger thrust and
upward flapping velocity
• Any issues with upward flapping velocity?
• Upward flapping velocity reduces angle of attack and thus the thrust.
Quadrotor: Blade Flapping Effect
Quadrotor: Blade Flapping Effect
• Flapping effect: Has ability to change rotating blade direction and

thereby thrust direction.
• No longer vertical thrust direction
• Existence of associated induced drag in the negative direction of the x-axis.
• Induced drag ∝ thrust generated by propeller
Quadrotor: Hub force
• Thrust of rotor: Force ∥ to the rotor shaft

• Hub forces: Forces ⊥ to the rotor shaft
• Hub force: Resultant force on all blade elements in horizontal plane
1 1 Θtw
h i
Hi =CH ρA(ω̄i rp )2 , CH = σa µCd + λr µ Θ0 −
4a 4 2
where Cd is the drag coefficient.
Quadrotor: Hub Forces
• Hub force Hi : Acts in rotor disc plane in negative direction of horizontal

speed Vh ( projection of forward speed V in plane ⊥ to rotor shaft).
• Component-wise hub forces
P4 P4
Hx = i=1
Hxi Hy = i=1
Hyi
• Total hub force is zero if quadrotor velocity is zero.

• Aerodynamic forces: Net friction force produced along body axes
 
Kdx 0 0
Fd =  0 Kdy 0  Ṗ
0 0 Kdz
where Kdx , Kdy , and Kdz represent translational drag coefficients.
Quadrotor: Gravitational Forces and Hub Moments
• Gravitational force: Net gravitational force acting on the CG
F g = mg
• Its direction is in z-axis of inertial frame.

• Requirement to obtain its component in body frame.
• Net force acting on quadrotor, expressed in body-fixed frame of reference
 P4     
− i=1 Hxi 0 Kdx 0 0
P4
Fb = − i=1 Hyi  + Rbi  0  +  0 Kdy 0  Ṗ
P4
− i=1
Ti Fg 0 0 Kdz
• Hub moment: Moments due to hub forces on vehicle around shaft axis
4
X 4
X
H = Hmx + Hmy = l sin αi Hx + l cos αi Hy
i=1 i=1
Quadrotor: Flapping and Aerodynamic Friction Moments
• Flapping moment of the blade: Moments due to difference in the lifts

between advancing and retreating blades
Bi = CB ρArp (ω̄i rp )2
• Component-wise, flapping moments

4 4
X X
Bx = (−1)i+1 Bxi , By = (−1)i+1 Byi
i=1 i=1
• Aerodynamic friction moments: Resultant moments due to aerodynamic

friction torque
ϕ̇2
  
Kdϕ 0 0
Md =  0 Kdθ 0   θ̇2 
0 0 Kdψ ψ̇ 2
Quadrotor: Overall Dynamics
   
u̇ rv − qw
 v̇  =  pw − ru 
ẇ qu − pv
 P4      
− i=1 Hxi 0 Kdx 0 0
1  P4 b
+ − i=1 Hyi  + Ri  0  +  0 Kdy 0  Ṗ
m P4
i=1
Ti −Fg 0 0 Kdz
      
ṗ Γ1 pq − Γ2 qr Γ3 0 Γ4 l
 q̇  =  Γ5 pr − Γ6 (p2 − r2 )  +  0 1/Jy 0  m 
ṙ Γ7 pq − Γ1 qr Γ4 0 Γ8 n
Total moments:
• Moments (corresponding to roll, pitch, and yaw) due to rotor thrusts

• Gyroscopic moments
• Hub moments
• Blade flapping moments
• Aerodynamics friction moments
Quadrotor: Stability and Controllability
• Dynamical system: Stability and controllability
• Multicopters: Unstable without control feedback

• Autopilot required to guarantee its stability and make it hovering
• Controllability requirements
• If a multicopter is uncontrollable at equilibrium state, then no controller
exists to stabilize it at the equilibrium states
• Will the conventional notion of controllability work for multirotors?
• Unfortunately, no, requirement of positive controllability
• Degree of controllability: Degree to which a system can be controlled
• Attitude model (simplified model)
Θ̇ = ω, ω̇ = J −1 τ
• With no active control moment, dynamics becomes

0 I
Θ̇ = ω, ω̇ = 0 =⇒ ż = Az, z = (Θ, ω)⊤ , A =
0 0
• Multicopter is unstable at the hovering state, irrespective of arrangement

of propellers.
• No change in total thrust and the gravity due to attitude change
• External disturbance cannot be compensated for without feedback.
• Lift of fixed-wing aircraft and thus control forces are changed with the
attitude, and thus FW aircraft attitude can be controlled.
• Multicopters rely on autopilots to hover, whereas some fixed-wing aircraft
do not need autopilots to keep forward flight.
• Null Controllability: A linear system is controllable if for any x(t0 ), ∃ a

bounded admissible control u[t0 , t1 ] defined on the finite time interval
[t0 , t1 ], which steers x(t0 ) to zero.
• Check for controllability
C(A, B) = [B AB . . . An1 B]; rankC(A, B) = n
• A linear system constrained by u ∈ Ω is completely controllable if for each

pair of points x0 , x1 ∈ Rn , ∃ a bounded admissible control u[t0 , t1 ] ∈ Ω
defined on the finite time interval [t0 , t1 ], which steers x0 to x1 .
• A linear system constrained by u ∈ Ω is null-controllable if ∃ an open set
V ⊂ Rn which contains the origin and any x0 ∈ V can be controlled to
x1 = 0 in finite time by a bounded admissible controller.
Positive Controllability
If there exists u ∈ Ω satisfying Bu = 0, and the set CH(Ω2 ) has

nonempty interior in Rm , then following conditons are necessary and
sufficient for the controllability of a linear system:
• rank C(A, B) = n,
• There is no real eigenvector v of A⊤ satisfying v ⊤ Bu ≤ 0 for all
u ∈ Ω,
where CH(Ω) is convex hull of Ω, defined as intersection of all convex
sets that includes Ω in Rm .
Quadrotor: Low Level Control
• Unstable multicopters: Stabilize using feedback control

• Is it enough to make it stable?
• No, What else is required then?
• A good control performance (such as fast response, no overshoot and
robustness against uncertainties) required.
• How to control multirotors?
• Position control: Compute ϕd , θd , fd according to the desired position pd
• Attitude control: Compute desired moments according to the desired
attitude angles ϕd , θd , ψd .
• Control allocation: Allocate desired propeller angular speeds to motors to
obtain desired thrust and moments
• Motor control: Compute desired throttle command of each motor as per
angular speed
• Multicopters: Underactuated, Why?

• Six outputs (position and attitude) but only four independent inputs
(thrust and moments)
• Multicopter can only track four desired commands (pd ∈ R3 , ψd ∈ R)
• Remaining variables (ϕd , θd ∈ R) determined by desired commands pd , ψd .
• Model for quadrotor
e e f e e
ṗ = v, Rb e3 v̇ = ge3 −
m
Θ̇ = W ω, J ω̇ = − ω × J b ω + Ga + τ ;
b b b
(Ṙ = R[ v ω]× )
• Simplified model for quadrotor
e e e f e
ṗ = v, v̇ = ge3 − Rb e3 , Θ̇ = W b ω, J b ω̇ = τ
m
• Component-wise equations governing quadrotor’s position
f
p̈xe = − (sin ψ sin ϕ + cos ψ sin θ cos ϕ)
m
f
p̈ye = − (− cos ψ sin ϕ + sin ψ sin θ cos ϕ)
m
f
p̈ze =g− cos θ cos ϕ
m
Quadrotor: Linear Model Simplification
• Quadrotor is underactuated, strongly coupled and high dimensional.

• Simplification based on flight characteristics
• Small pitch and roll angles along with thrust equal to weight
sin ϕ ≈ ϕ, cos ϕ ≈ 1, sin θ ≈ θ, cos θ ≈ 1, f ≈ mg
• Matrix W as identity matrix and

 
θ cos ψ + ϕ sin ψ
Reb e3 ≈  θ sin ψ − ϕ cos ψ 
1
• Decoupled channels
⇒ Horizontal position channel model
⇒ Altitude channel model
⇒ Attitude model
Quadrotor: Horizontal Position Channel
• Under small angle assumptions, quadrotor horizontal position model
ṗh = vh
v̇h = −gAψ Θh
where
px ϕ
ph = , Θh =
py θ

cos ψ − sin ψ 0 1
Rψ = , Aψ = Rψ
sin ψ cos ψ −1 0
• Input: −gAψ Θh
• Output: ph
• Linear model
• Second order integrator model
Quadrotor: Horizontal Position Channel
• Under small angle assumption, quadrotor altitude model
ṗz = vz
f
v̇z = g −
m
f

• g− is not a higher order infinite small term.
m
f

• g− cannot be ignored.
m
• Again a linear model, (second order integrator model)
• Attitude linear model
Θ̇ = ω, Jω = τ
• States may not be always available and thus need to be estimated.
• Design of controller using separation principle
Quadrotor: Position Control
• Position control: set-point control, trajectory tracking and path following
• Set-point control: Desired position pd ∈ R3 is a constant point.
∥p − pd ∥ → 0, or ∥p − pd ∥ → B (03×1 , δ) as t → ∞
with
B (o3×1 , δ) ≜ {ζ ∈ R3 |∥ζ − o∥ ≤ δ}, δ ∈ R+ ∪ {0}
• Multicopter can fly to the given position, regardless of the trajectory.

• Trajectory tracking: Desired position pd : [0, ∞) ∈ R3 is a time-dependent

trajectory.
∥p(t) − pd (t)∥ → 0, or ∥p(t) − pd (t)∥ → B (03×1 , δ) as t → ∞
• Multicopter is required to track a given trajectory over, for example, a car.

• Path following: Desired position pd (γ(t)) ∈ R3 is path directly determined
by the parameter γ, rather than the time t.
∥p(t) − pd (γ(t))∥ → 0, or ∥p(t) − pd (γ(t))∥ → B (03×1 , δ) as t → ∞
• Multicopter is required to fly along a profile over a hill.

• Difference in trajectory tracking and path following: Dependence of
trajectories or paths on time.
• Trajectory tracking problem: time-dependent desired trajectory
• Path following problem: Curve independent of time
• Path following: three-dimensional (3D) tracking.

• Trajectory tracking: four-dimensional (4D) tracking with the time as a
new dimension.
• When γ(t) = t, the path following problem → a trajectory tracking
problem.
• If pd (t) = constant, then trajectory tracking problem → a set-point
control problem.
• A set-point control problem is a special case of trajectory tracking
problems.
• A trajectory tracking problem is a special case of path following
problems.
• Transformation of path following problems to trajectory tracking problems.
• Desired attitude control problems
⇒ Euler angles
⇒ Rotation matrix
References
References
• Quan Quan, “Introduction to Multicopter Design and Control”,

Springer, 2017.
• Moussa Labbadi,“Advanced Robust Nonlinear Control Approaches
for Quadrotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle”, 2021.
Thank you for your attention !!!

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Guidance and Control of Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles

Shashi Ranjan Kumar

• How to obtain propulsor model for multirotors?

• Throttle command σ ∈ [0, 1] with no control on battery output voltage Ub

ω̄ss = Cb Um + ω̄b = CR σ + ω̄b ; , CR = Cb Ub

• Steady-state cannot be achieved instantaneously.

ω̄i = ω̄i⋆ + ∆ω̄i , σi = σi⋆ + ∆σi , Mi = Mi⋆ + ∆Mi

• Models for moment and angular speeds

• Linearized models at equilibrium point

CR (2cM ω̄i⋆ + JRP s)

• Assumption of rigidity of quadrotor is not valid.

• Flapping effect: Has ability to change rotating blade direction and

• Thrust of rotor: Force ∥ to the rotor shaft

• Hub force Hi : Acts in rotor disc plane in negative direction of horizontal

• Total hub force is zero if quadrotor velocity is zero.

where Kdx , Kdy , and Kdz represent translational drag coefficients.

• Gravitational force: Net gravitational force acting on the CG

• Its direction is in z-axis of inertial frame.

• Flapping moment of the blade: Moments due to difference in the lifts

• Component-wise, flapping moments

• Aerodynamic friction moments: Resultant moments due to aerodynamic

• Moments (corresponding to roll, pitch, and yaw) due to rotor thrusts

• Dynamical system: Stability and controllability

• Multicopters: Unstable without control feedback

• Attitude model (simplified model)

• With no active control moment, dynamics becomes

• Multicopter is unstable at the hovering state, irrespective of arrangement

• Null Controllability: A linear system is controllable if for any x(t0 ), ∃ a

C(A, B) = [B AB . . . An1 B]; rankC(A, B) = n

• A linear system constrained by u ∈ Ω is completely controllable if for each

If there exists u ∈ Ω satisfying Bu = 0, and the set CH(Ω2 ) has

• Unstable multicopters: Stabilize using feedback control

• Multicopters: Underactuated, Why?

• Model for quadrotor

• Simplified model for quadrotor

• Quadrotor is underactuated, strongly coupled and high dimensional.

sin ϕ ≈ ϕ, cos ϕ ≈ 1, sin θ ≈ θ, cos θ ≈ 1, f ≈ mg

• Matrix W as identity matrix and

• Under small angle assumptions, quadrotor horizontal position model

• Under small angle assumption, quadrotor altitude model

• Position control: set-point control, trajectory tracking and path following

• Set-point control: Desired position pd ∈ R3 is a constant point.

• Multicopter can fly to the given position, regardless of the trajectory.

• Trajectory tracking: Desired position pd : [0, ∞) ∈ R3 is a time-dependent

∥p(t) − pd (t)∥ → 0, or ∥p(t) − pd (t)∥ → B (03×1 , δ) as t → ∞

• Multicopter is required to track a given trajectory over, for example, a car.

∥p(t) − pd (γ(t))∥ → 0, or ∥p(t) − pd (γ(t))∥ → B (03×1 , δ) as t → ∞

• Multicopter is required to fly along a profile over a hill.

• Path following: three-dimensional (3D) tracking.

• Quan Quan, “Introduction to Multicopter Design and Control”,

Thank you for your attention !!!

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